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An interview with DANIEL C. DENNETT

CELEBRATING REASON AND HUMANITY April/May 2012 Vol. 32 No.3

Humanism’s Roots in the Enlightenment ALAN CHARLES KORS

New Columnists GRETA CHRISTINA | RUSSELL BLACKFORD | OPHELIA BENSON

NAT HENTOFF | KATRINA VOSS | TOM REES | SHADIA DRURY ARTHUR CAPLAN | GEORGE A. WELLS | ROBERT M. PRICE

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The mission of the is to foster a secular society based on science, reason, freedom of inquiry, and humanist values. The Center for Inquiry is a supporting organization of the Council for Secular Humanism, publisher of FREE INQUIRY. FI April May 12 cut2_FI 2/29/12 10:04 AM Page 3

April/May 2012 Vol. 32 No. 3

23 The History of Humanism Introduction Gordon Gamm CELEBRATING REASON AND HUMANITY 24 The Enlightenment, Naturalism, and the Secularization of Values Alan Charles Kors

34 The Basis of Paul’s Ideas of Christ George A. Wells

37 Grog and Zog A Parable for Secular Humanists (and Everyone Else) Dan Carsen

EDITORIAL 17 Ready for Prime-Time 55 It’s Only Natural 4 An Unprecedented Time in Katrina Voss Celebrating Science Human History John Shook Ronald A. Lindsay 18 What’s So Smart About Unbelief? Tom Rees REVIEWS LEADING QUESTIONS 56 Arguably: Essays 19 Is Freedom of Religion a Mistake? 7 The Science of Free Will by Shadia B. Drury and Other Matters Reviewed by Brooke Horvath A Conversation with Daniel C. Dennett 20 Let’s Be Mean to Deen 58 The Good News Club: The Christian Arthur L. Caplan LETTERS Right’s Stealth Assault on America’s Children 13 21 CFI’s Celebration of Daniel Dennett’s by Katherine Stewart Breaking the Spell Reviewed by Edd Doerr OP-EDS Andy Norman 60 John Emerson Roberts: Kansas 22 We Grieve for His Silenced Voice; 11 Why Seculars Don’t Sing City’s “Up-to-date” Freethought We Rejoice in His Memory: Honoring Preacher Christopher Hitchens by Ellen Roberts Young Edward Tabash 12 Why Demands Social Justice Reviewed by Tom Flynn Greta Christina DEPARTMENTS 14 Who’s Afraid of Scientism 48 Church-State Update POETRY Russell Blackford Whose Freedom of Religion 61 Literary Changes at FREE INQUIRY and Conscience? 15 The Trouble with Gods Edd Doerr 61 Rill Ophelia Benson by Austin MacRae 50 God on Trial 16 Schools Show ‘Zero Tolerance’ . . . of The Problem of the Parables the Constitution Robert M. Price Nat Hentoff 52 Faith and Reason Watching Intelligent Design Alexander Nussbaum FI April May 12 cut2_FI 2/29/12 9:36 AM Page 4

Editorial Staff

Editor Thomas W. Flynn Associate Editors John R. Shook, Lauren Becker Ronald A. Lindsay Editorial Managing Editor Andrea Szalanski Columnists Ophelia Benson, Russell Blackford, Arthur Caplan, Greta Christina, , Edd Doerr, Shadia B. Drury, Nat Hentoff, An Unprecedented Time in Tibor R. Machan, P Z Myers, Tom Rees, Katrina Voss Senior Editors Bill Cooke, Richard Dawkins, Human History Edd Doerr, James A. Haught, Jim Herrick, Gerald A. Larue, Ronald A. Lindsay, Taslima Nasrin Contributing Editors Roy P. Fairfield, Charles Faulkner, Levi Fragell, on’t look now, but we’re in the munist nations and by the continuing (if Adolf Grünbaum, Marvin middle of a revolution in human atti- not in creasing) strength of religious/spiritual Kohl, Thelma Lavine, tudes and belief. In Europe and beliefs and practices in China. Lee Nisbet, J.J.C. Smart, D Thomas Szasz North America, large portions of the popu- The contemporary embrace of reli- Ethics Editor Elliot D. Cohen lation are nonreligious; that is, they reject gious skepticism by large numbers of indi- Literary Editor Austin MacRae belief in God and transcendent spiritual viduals in Europe and North America is the Assistant Editors Julia Lavarnway entities of any sort. This is an unprece- result of wholly voluntary decisions. It’s a Julia Burke dented phenomenon in the history of popular movement, and this widespread Permissions Editor Julia Lavarnway Art Director Christopher S. Fix humanity. Wide spread religious skepticism voluntary rejection of God and gods is Production Paul E. Loynes Sr. was largely unknown until modern times; something new in human history. indeed, it’s principally a phenomenon of How widespread is it? Estimates vary, in Council for Secular Humanism just the last few decades. Not that there part because until recently surveys did not were not doubters in the past, but, as far focus on measuring unbelief (the nonreli- Chair Richard K. Schroeder Board of Directors Kendrick Frazier as we can tell, they were few and far gious category was what was left over after Dan Kelleher between. (Of course, given that open athe- the different varieties of religious belief were Barry Kosmin ism often meant either a social or a very catalogued), and different surveys have Angie McAllister Richard K. Schroeder real death, there were, admittedly, signifi- used different criteria for determining Edward Tabash cant disincentives to going public with whether someone is nonreligious (see last Jonathan Tobert issue’s cover feature, “Bridging the Gulf: At Leonard Tramiel one’s doubts.) Lawrence Krauss (Honorary) Granted, there were some freethought Last, Social Science Measures Secularity” Chief Executive Officer Ronald A. Lindsay organizations in the United States and some with articles by Frank L. Pasquale and Tom Executive Director Thomas W. Flynn European countries in the nineteenth cen- Flynn). Let’s begin abroad. Reasonable esti- Director, Campus and Community Programs (CFI) Lauren Becker tury, but outside of these organizations reli- mates indicate that about 61 percent of Director, Secular Organizations gion remained dominant. In other words, Czechs do not believe in God. In other for Sobriety Jim Christopher their influence on the broader culture was words, a majority of Czechs are nonreli- Director, African Americans for Humanism Debbie Goddard minimal. Others may protest that mass gious. The Czech Republic is arguably the Acting Director of Planning atheism has been around at least since the most nonreligious country, but other coun- and Development (CFI) Jason Gross early twentieth century, given that Russia tries do not lag far behind. About 49 per- Director of Libraries (CFI) Timothy Binga Communications Director Paul Fidalgo (formerly the Soviet Union) had a Com - cent of Estonians, 48 percent of Danes, 45 Legal Director (CFI) Steven Fox munist regime as of 1917, and a number of percent of Slovenians, 42 percent of the Database Manager (CFI) Jacalyn Mohr other countries went Com munist about Dutch, 39 percent of the British, and 31 per- Webmaster Matthew Licata thirty years thereafter. With out question, cent of Norwegians do not believe in God. Staff Pat Beauchamp, Ed Beck, Com munist ideology incorporated atheism (These statistics are from two 2004 surveys; Melissa Braun, Shirley Brown, Cheryl Catania, as one of its tenets, but that’s precisely the the percentages have likely increased since Eric Chinchón, Matt problem. This was top-down atheism. then.) The exact percentages matter less Cravatta, Roe Giambrone, Leah Gordon, Jason Gross, Rejection of the supernatural was largely than the unmistakable overall trend: many Adam Isaak, Lisa Nolan, imposed by the Com munist leadership and people are simply no longer accepting belief Paul Paulin, Anthony Santa Lucia, John Sullivan, did not necessarily reflect the views of the in transcendent spirits. Moreover, given their Vance Vigrass populace. This has been corroborated by large numbers, the influence of the nonreli- the religious revival in many formerly Com - gious is not limited to their own groups or a

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few select social issues. Instead, their influ- Predicting Trends in Religious ence has begun to permeate their cultures. Belief Is Difficult Sociologist Phil Zuckerman has character- It appears that the developed world is ized some Scandinavian countries as soci- becoming more secular. Will this trend con- FREE INQUIRY (ISSN 0272-0701) is published bimonthly by eties “without God.” tinue? Will it accelerate? Will it be a short- the Council for Secular Humanism, a nonprofit educational As readers of FREE INQUIRY are well aware, lived phenomenon, with religious belief corporation, P.O. Box 664, Amherst, NY 14226-0664. Phone (716) 636-7571. Fax (716) 636-1733. Copyright ©2012 by the United States is something of an outlier regaining overwhelming predominance? the Council for Secular Humanism. All rights reserved. No in that it remains much more religious than As naturalists and empiricists, the non- part of this periodical may be reproduced without permission of the publisher. Periodicals postage paid at Buffalo, N.Y., and most other developed countries. None - religious should candidly acknowledge the at additional mailing offices. National distribution by Disticor. theless, even in “God’s country” people are limits of prognostication. The reality is we FREE INQUIRY is indexed in Philosophers’ Index. Printed in the United States. Postmaster: Send address changes to FREE moving away from religious belief. A very simply do not know what will happen. The INQUIRY, P.O. Box 664, Amherst, NY 14226-0664. Opinions conservative estimate of the percentage of rise and fall of religious beliefs is difficult to expressed do not necessarily reflect the views of the editors or publisher. No one speaks on behalf of the Council for nonreligious in the United States would be predict with confidence. I doubt whether Secular Humanism unless expressly stated. 10 percent—substantially lower than some many Romans in the early second century TO SUBSCRIBE OR RENEW of the levels of unbelief in European coun- would have predicted the rise of Chris - Call TOLL-FREE 800-458-1366 (have credit card handy). tries but still a marked difference from the tianity, whether many Americans in the Fax credit-card orders to 716-636-1733. level of unbelief in the United States just mid-nineteenth century would have fore- Internet: www.secularhumanism.org. twenty years ago. Mail: FREE INQUIRY, P.O. Box 664, Amherst, NY 14226-0664. To what can we attribute this Subscription rates: $35.00 for one year, $58.00 for two years, $84.00 for three years. Foreign orders add $10 per dramatic change? No one really year for surface mail. Foreign orders send U.S. funds drawn knows, although theories abound. on a U.S. bank; American Express, Discover, MasterCard, or Visa are preferred. Some attribute it to higher stan- Single issues: $5.95 each. Shipping is by surface mail in dards of living, increased longevity, U.S. (included). For single issues outside U.S.: Canada and more secure social safety nets, “Widespread religious skepticism 1–$2.07; 2–3 $4.81; 4–6 $7.00. Other foreign: 1–$4.60; 2–3 $10.56; 4–6 $13.95. which remove some of the anxieties was largely unknown until that motivate some people to turn CHANGE OF ADDRESS modern times; indeed, Mail changes to FREE INQUIRY, ATTN: Change of Address, to God for help. Others maintain it’s principally a phenomenon P.O. Box 664, Amherst, NY 14226-0664. that education has played a signifi- Call Customer Service: 716-636-7571, ext. 200. cant role. A contributing factor may of just the last few decades.” E-mail: [email protected].

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The Developed World Is Less Than Religion Is Not Going Away Quietly out from under the dead hand of religion, Half the World and that’s a sufficient task unto itself. Believers are aware of these secularizing However, we will need to get our One reason a religious resurgence cannot trends, and religious leaders—and their ethics from somewhere. The religionists be ruled out is that secularization has political sympathizers—are doing whatever claim that we nonreligious people have no been limited, for the most part, to the they can to combat and reverse them. rational basis for our morality, because developed world. Religious beliefs and For Americans, this is especially evi- without God we have no foundation for practices still dominate over half the dent in this election cycle as most our ethics, and, therefore, atheism implies globe. As I write this editorial, I’ve just Republican presidential candidates loudly nihilism or a dependence on the com- been made aware of a news story about proclaim their faith and seem to vie for mands of a human dictator who will an Indonesian man who was beaten and the title of “most God-fearing.” Some of replace the divine law-giver. arrested for stating on his Facebook page this can be dismissed as political pander- The religionists’ claim is false, but it’s that God does not exist. Open atheism is ing and posturing, but perhaps less impor- important to understand why. If we con- illegal in Indonesia, and this person could tant than the sincerity of the politicians’ tinue to think of morality as something expressed views is the based on rules “from above,” then remov- reaction they receive from ing the “above” does present us with a their audiences when they problem. But morality should be regarded proclaim the need for faith “The contemporary embrace of religious as a human-centered institution serving and de nounce . skepticism by large numbers of individuals in human needs. Morality serves certain pur- Newt Gingrich may be poses, such as providing security to mem- Europe and North America is the result the most outspoken of the bers of the community, creating stability, of wholly voluntary decisions. It’s a popular GOP contenders, and his ameliorating harmful conditions, fostering speeches seem to strike a movement, and this widespread voluntary trust, and facilitating cooperation in achiev- chord among true believ- rejection of God and gods is something ing shared or complementary goals. In ers. Gingrich repeatedly de - short, morality enables us to live together new in human history.” nounces “radical secular- and, while so doing, to improve the condi- ists” and has asserted that tions under which we live. a person who does not Religion has obscured the proper, pray cannot be trusted practical function of morality by assigning be facing a five-year prison sentence. In with power. These attacks on secularism to God—meaning his priestly inter- terms of population, Indonesia is the world’s are often greeted with thunderous ap - preters—the role of imposing rules, some fourth-largest nation; it’s a democracy with plause. Sure, those are Republican parti- of which had no purpose other than the world’s eighteenth-largest economy; sans, but they represent a not inconsider- maintaining existing power structures and and it’s not considered a backward, isolated able portion of the American population. increasing the authority of the priestly country. That an open expression of atheism Whether the religious can be effective in class. Forging a truly humanistic ethics is a would draw this type of reaction in stemming the tide of rising secularism is task that does await us and which we Indonesia gives one a sense of the animos- uncertain. What is certain is that they will must accomplish if we are to finally live a ity with which much of the world still try. At a minimum, this means we are fac- life free of gods. Refusing to accept fairy regards religious skepticism. ing a short-term intensification of the cul- tales is not enough. We also have to take Yes, the world is becoming more inter- ture wars, focused on issues such as abor- responsibility for reasoning together dependent, and there are numerous cul- tion, same-sex marriage, and stem cell about how we can best achieve our tural, social, and economic ties that knit research. together the various parts of the world. shared goals while maintaining respect for (Note that the Indonesian atheist used OK, We’re Atheists. Now What? the dignity and worth of all humans. To end the childhood of humanity we Facebook to post his message.) Secular As indicated, atheism is, all other things not only have to put away our fantasies; trends in the West can influence beliefs being equal, a good thing. It’s better to be we also have to accept the responsibility and attitudes in other areas. Similarly, correct than mistaken about the existence that comes with recognizing there are however, religious beliefs and practices of supernatural beings, especially if those no gods to tell us what to do. I am from other parts of the globe can take supernatural beings are supposedly issuing cautiously optimistic that we are ready for root and spread in the West, especially directives about how one is supposed to this challenge. when they are accompanied by immigrant behave. (“Yes, you don’t have to wear that populations. Whether religious belief as a silly hat anymore, and your wife can drive global human phenomenon is on its way the car.”) out or is merely undergoing one of its Atheism doesn’t supply Ronald A. Lindsay is president and CEO of the Center for periodic transformations is a question a code of conduct. It doesn’t Inquiry and the Council for Secular Humanism. unresolved. have to; its job is to get us

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Leading Questions The Science of Free Will and Other Matters A Conversation with Daniel C. Dennett

In December 2011, the Center for Inquiry (CFI) held a conference titled “Daniel Den nett and the Scientific Study of Religion: A Celebration of the Fifth Anni versary of Breaking the Spell: Religion as a Natural Phenomenon.” Breaking the Spell launched an unprecedented era of openness for athe- ists and public discussion of the validity of religious belief. During that conference, John Shook, CFI’s director of education, sat down with Dennett to discuss Den nett’s past and current work and his thoughts on free will, morality, and how to expand the reach of secular humanism. A portion of that discussion follows. Dennett is a philosopher, writer, and cognitive scientist whose research centers on philosophy of mind, philosophy of sci- ence, and philosophy of biology, particularly know. The question is, are they any- as those fields relate to evolutionary biology thing that we should care about hav- “...There’s some research that shows and cognitive science. In addition to Break - ing? And I argued that no, those are ing the Spell (2006), he’s written many not worth wanting. They seem to be that if you present people with hugely influential books such as Science worth wanting because people are the claim that ‘science has shown and Religion: Are They Compatible? (with confused about what free will is or that we don’t really have free will’ Alvin Plantinga, 2011); Freedom Evolves could be. (2003); Darwin’s Dangerous Idea (1995); There are varieties of free will that in a variety of circumstances, and Consciousness Explained (1992). He is are definitely worth wanting that do they will actually behave currently the codirector of the Center for underwrite our sense of purpose and less morally.” Cognitive Studies and the Austin B. Fletcher responsibility. The very meaning of life Professor of Philosophy at Tufts University. depends on these senses of free will, This interview was originally broadcast and they are all compatible with what we’re don’t really have free will” in a variety of cir- on , CFI’s radio show and learning from science. Unfortunately—you cumstances, they will actually behave less podcast. To hear the interview in its entirety, asked me what science tells us—if only morally. They will be more apt to cheat. please visit www.pointofinquiry.org. that’s what scientists were telling people. There are some very unsettling experiments —THE EDITORS But scientists, especially in the last few that show that, and it’s important to repli- years, have been on a rampage writing ill- cate them and see what the effects are and JOHN SHOOK: Religion is often credited with considered public pronouncements about what they aren’t. Quite independently of being very useful for human beings, and free will that actually in some cases verge on science, people can talk themselves out of that has to do with giving human beings a social irresponsibility. free will and turn themselves into fatalists. If sense of control and responsibility, of SHOOK: You might have in mind brain you actually succeed in turning yourself into agency. Could you talk a little bit about scientists or neuroscientists? some sort of fatalist, you disable yourself. what science says about free will? DENNETT: The recent flood of books by We certainly don’t want people disabling DANIEL C. DENNETT: Back in 1984 I pub- neuroscientists has very little worthwhile themselves with bad science. lished the first of two books on free will stuff and a lot that’s seriously confused. SHOOK: What is Daniel Dennett’s quick, called Elbow Room. The subtitle was just as And, as we’re now actually beginning to scientifically approvable, 100-percent-natu- important: The Varieties of Free Will Worth get some scientific confirmation, it makes a ralistic-yet-friendly-to-agency definition of Wanting. I and other philosophers have difference, because there’s some research free will? defined varieties of free will that are incom- that shows that if you present people with DENNETT: Let me back up and build to it. patible with modern science, with what we the claim that “science has shown that we When life started on this planet, there was

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no free will. Bacteria have negligible options these things. The first time these reasons are of holding people responsible both for the and negligible capacities to act on those represented are when clever people—scien- good and bad things we do. They are the options. Basically, they’re very myopic if tists—come along and reverse-engineer authors of the good things and also of the something isn’t touching them. It takes con- these things, and then they see the reason evil they do, the crimes they commit. If you tact. They don’t have any distals: they don’t the parts are the way they are. And it’s just start there and say, now what has to be the have any vision; they don’t have any hear- breathtaking. You find this tremendous case to justifiably, reasonably, with good ing. A distal perception like hearing or vision ingenuity in nature. In the same way, we grounding, hold people responsible for is really important because for the first time can reverse-engineer a radio or an automo- those deeds? You work back from that, when you have that you can begin to think bile engine or a computer and figure out and that’s what free will is. The definition is ahead. You can duck that incoming brick. why the parts are the way they are. important, because it’s the necessary con- You can go catch that fleeing dinner or run So the first thing is that there are rea- dition for the world to take life seriously away from that galloping predator who’s sons everywhere. It’s just that only a very and hold people responsible. coming toward you. limited percentage of living things recognize SHOOK: That would nicely explain why Now that gets us to quite an interesting reasons, are moved by reasons, or do things freedom comes in degrees, because we’re variety of agency. It’s just really free agency for reasons. There is a reason why trees talking about the development of human but still impressive. Where there are options, spread their limbs, but the tree doesn’t have capacities in the social realm. As John there are good reasons to go one way or the reason; the tree doesn’t think the rea- Dewey once famously quipped, no one ever another. And to a remarkable extent, organ- son. There’s a reason why bacteria have marched in protest over lack of metaphysi- isms are in effect capable of tracking those membranes, but the bacteria don’t have a cal free will. What people really want is reasons. They tend to do the right thing at reason for having membranes. In fact, dogs social freedom, and more of it. the right time, because if they didn’t they’d don’t have reasons for what they do. DENNETT: Yes, I think that’s true. Meta - be supper. Porpoises don’t have reasons for what they physical free will, being somehow sort of do. Or chimpanzees. insulated from causality, is—the more you SHOOK: So it’s one thing think about it—just a preposterous idea. But to have goals, aims, purposes it’s deeply rooted in everyday thinking. And to achieve these things, and the fact that so many people think that that “. . . Imagine we have morality and we it’s quite another to know is what free will is, is why we get so much want to have the idea of holding people that you’re deliberately going thoughtless or imperfectly thought-out responsible both for the good and bad things about doing them. work by neuroscientists who see the folk DENNETT: This is a very link between determinism and lack of free- we do.... If you start there and say, now familiar theme in moral phi- dom and just take it on its face. And of what has to be the case to justifiably, losophy—to be moved by course there are those who think that, well, reasonably, with good grounding, hold reasons. You can go back to at least we don’t have to worry about this Kant, or more recently Wilfrid because quantum physics is indeterministic. people responsible for those deeds? Sellars talking about the They view quantum mechanics as their trap You work back from that, and that’s space of reasons, how so door to get out. Let’s grant that at least what free will is.” much of what we do is built according to current wisdom, indeterminacy on this sort of interactive reigns thanks to quantum physics. My point game of asking for reasons, is it doesn’t matter. The whole issue be - being able to give reasons, tween determinism and indeterminism in being able to trade reasons physics is a red herring as far as free will is and to compare and evaluate concerned. The science that you need in SHOOK: Is it the stage at which it be - reasons and say, well that’s not a very good order to understand free will is not physics; comes appropriate to have teleonomic or reason. We’re the only species on the planet it’s biology. teleological distinctions? that does that, and free will of the kind SHOOK: So perhaps the neuroscientists DENNETT: Part of my current campaign is that’s really worth wanting de pends on that. and other folks are being too reductionistic to push harder and harder the idea that I’ve That’s why small children and brutes—ani- in trying to look for free will in the relations been developing over the years: what I call mals that don’t have language—don’t have between atoms and subatomic particles free “floating rationales.” Nature is aflood free will in the morally important sense. when they should be looking for where it with reasons. There are reasons for so many That’s why if a bear kills a man that’s not was all along—in the relationships between things in the bacterial world. There are rea- homicide. human beings. sons why the motor proteins are where they SHOOK: So by making sure that this social DENNETT: Think about it this way. You are. There are reasons why there’s a mem- space of reasons can be understood totally raise the term reductionism, which usually brane. There are reasons all over the place naturalistically, you’ve built a bridge—we I want to object to because it means so right down to the macromolecules. But develop and share reasons and then hold many different things to so many different they’re not anybody’s reasons; they’re not each other responsible for our conduct. people. But I think most people now are the reasons of any mind. They are the DENNETT: We say, all right, imagine we quite happy with the idea that things can be reason that nature honors in evolving all have morality and we want to have the idea colored even though their finest parts aren’t

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colored. Atoms aren’t colored, but things good lives. And in many parts of our nation, where they’re going to enter data on peo- can be red and blue and green—they can it’s the only game in town. So of course you ple with flu symptoms. You don’t have to really be red and blue and green, and it’s not join some church because there’s a commu- diagnose flu; you just have to notice people just an illusion that they are red and blue nity; there’s some teamwork, and it’s the with flu symptoms in your family and in and green, even though the atoms that they only way you see for doing serious con- your neighborhood. As soon as you report it are made of are not any color at all. Things certed good together. Until secular organi- they’re going to create this huge database can be alive, like a cell, even though they are zations figure out how to be more attrac- that will be very valuable to disease-control made of parts that are not alive. In fact, if it tive—oh, let’s talk about it in market terms: people. That’s just low-hanging fruit; that’s doesn’t work out that way we’re in deep how to compete in the marketplace for the the first of the nth of hundreds and hun- trouble. good teamwork market—religions are dreds of things like this where individuals— So you can make something living out going to have sway. without having to march, without having to of parts that are not living. You can make SHOOK: So it’s okay in your view to have stand up and sing hymns, without having to something colored out of parts that aren’t secular organizations imitate some of the sign on to any creed—can contribute to colored. You can make something con- structural features and functions of religious important social projects. scious out of parts that aren’t conscious. organizations without duplicating any of SHOOK: We need all the advice we can Neurons aren’t conscious. To my amaze- the religious flavor or religious emotion. get about effective strategies for dealing ment, some people say, “Well, individual DENNETT: Absolutely! My favorite with religion. For typical folks out there con- neurons must be conscious.” I think, OK, if example, one that I’m actually involved fronted with religious family, religious neigh- neurons are conscious, well, so is athlete’s with, is TED, which used to stand for bors, religious community, how can people foot. They’re both eukaryotic cells. Not Technology, Entertainment, and Design. If “come out” so to speak, in a constructive much difference between them. Do you you go to ted.com you will find wonderful, way to say not just “I don’t believe,” not really want to say that yeast is conscious? wonderful, talks and presentations that just “I’m an atheist,” but with some sort of You can make something free out of brilliantly adopted the best production val- positive, effective response to the resistance parts that aren’t free—“free” in the impor- ues. One of the rules is that the longest that they’re inevitably going to get? tant sense, in the same way as being alive talk is eighteen minutes. That’s about the DENNETT: For several years after the pub- and being conscious and being red—these length of the longest sermon, too. They lication of Breaking the Spell I spoke to are macroscopic properties that are not use art, music, and technology brilliantly, groups of unbelievers—student groups and shared by their microscopic parts. The same and they use the allegiance of their mem- the like—around the country. They would thing is true of freedom. It doesn’t mean bers. And they get people, if not to tithe, say very often, “Thanks for putting us in the that when you put enough neurons to- at least to pay big bucks to be members of spotlight. For a while we’ve got a lot of new gether in this way you have something that that community. Then they give away the members coming into our groups. Now violates the laws of physics. It’s just as de - product to everybody on the web! More how do you advise us to proceed?” termined by the laws of physics; if they’re than half a billion people have down- I often shock them and say, “Well, why deterministic, it does not escape that. It’s loaded TED talks all round the world. don’t you get together with all your mem- just that it has this property at a higher They’re being translated into many lan- level, which is the one that matters to us. guages. You can get subtitles in not just bers and see if you can figure out a cause And it isn’t illusory, any more than being French, German, Spanish, and Japanese, that you would all tithe for?” Their eyes red is illusory or being alive is illusory. but in languages from Africa and Asia. goggle. I say, “How about putting together a group and going to help rebuild houses in SHOOK: You’ve now had a chance to SHOOK: People want to feel connected; look at five years of continuing research they want to feel educated; they want to the wake of Katrina under the banner of along the lines of what you talk about in feel up to date, and they want to be able to your group?” There’s lots of things you Breaking the Spell. Do you think that stud- share with friends, neighbors—people of could do, local things, international things, ies on the relationships between religion similar interests. So you’re saying that’s very to just put the lie to that not-good-without- and morality help us better understand why important for the secular segment of society God idea. nonbelievers can be good without God? to be able to advance those sorts of com- SHOOK: Which returns us to the impor- DENNETT: I think that the idea that one munities where people are feeling profited tance of sociality. Atheists shouldn’t just be can’t be good without God is probably the from feeling connected and educated. atheists, shouldn’t just be loud and proud, single most pernicious myth in the world DENNETT: I think we do want to think but should be active contributors to their today. It exploits a wonderful human trait. seriously about finding organizations, struc- communities. That’s after all where they live. People want to be good; they want to lead tures, and infrastructures in which well- DENNETT: Yes, I think that to me there’s good lives. That’s the lovely thing. So then meaning individuals, without losing their nothing more boring than sitting around along comes religion to say you can’t be individuality, can contribute to larger causes. with a bunch of atheists and saying, “Oh good without God. That may be the main The technology now exists for citizen sci- my gosh God doesn’t exist. Aren’t those motivation for people to try to take religion ence, for instance, where thousands of peo- people stupid to believe in God?” Right, seriously, to try to establish an allegiance ple for a few minutes a day enter data on— right—we got that a long time ago. Now with a church, because they want to lead well, there’s one now that Google is starting what are we going to do?

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Tom Flynn OP-ED

Why Seculars Don’t Sing

ike philosopher Andy Norman, long ing to the small minority that (in our ing participants with a sense of well-being whose report on the recent Center opinion) gets them right. Such a view may and, coincidentally, a heightened pain L for Inquiry–Transnational symposium be longer on straightforwardness than it is threshold. They create a feeling of solidarity celebrating Daniel Dennett’s 2006 book, on humility, but it captures something and personal closeness—a sense that Breaking the Spell, appears in this issue essential about who we are as secular together the community can accomplish (p. 21), I was in attendance when psychia- humanists, and we might as well own up great things. trist James Thom son performed what to it. In another context, Alan Greenspan Norman aptly calls “an unusual experi- What if something similar obtains with offered two memorable words to label the ment: he had about one hundred ardent regard to secular humanists’ distaste for state I am describing: “irrational exuber- secularists link arms, sway back and forth, the trappings of ritual? Norman is the lat- ance.” There’s no denying that such prac- and sing Amazing Grace.” est in a long line of commentators—Greg tice can be efficacious at enabling small Yes, I linked arms with those beside me. Epstein, anyone?—to write regretfully of groups of people to bond together more I swayed back and forth. I sang Amazing our disinclination toward touching, sing - deeply than reality demands, to feel a sense Grace—badly, but I still sang it. (Try not to ing, chanting, swaying, and such. “Why of well-being not justified by their actual dwell on that image.) To this staunch secu- do we cut ourselves off,” they ask, “from circumstances, and to resolve to tackle chal- larist, doing these things didn’t just feel so much that is part of our human her- lenges others might recognize as foolish or weird. It felt wrong. itage—from practices whose psychologi- insurmountable. Given that humans (espe- Yet, as Norman recounts, “A quick cal effectiveness is easily documented?” cially in groups) are imperfect judges of the ‘after’ poll indicated noticeable changes in In this op-ed, I’m going to people’s moods, attitudes, and pain do something staunch secu- thresholds.” The effect—as compared to lars seldom do when faced results that had been obtained when the with this question. I’m going same rough-and-ready measures were to try answering it. I think sec- “I think secular humanists are not self-administered just before all that sway- ular humanists are not only only right but wise to banish (for lack of ing and singing—was clearly discernible. right but wise to banish (for a better catchall term) collective ritual Reflecting on the experience, Norman lack of a better catchall term) asks, “Why, we were led to wonder, do collective ritual practice from practice from our (pardon the expression) secular humanists make so little use of our (pardon the expression) sectarian observances.” rhythm, ritual, and touch? It is seculars, sectarian observances. Why? not the religious, who are outliers here.” I think there are two broad Andy Norman is correct. In our typical grounds on which secular disdain for such trappings of congrega- humanists—and I emphasize tional life as rhythm, ritual, and touch—I’ll that adjective—disdain such practice: impossible, there have no doubt been his- add melody and unison recitation of song because it is erosive of rationality and be - toric occasions when the ungrounded bon- or spoken word for good measure—in our cause it denigrates the autonomy of the homie such practice engenders has em- organizational life, we secular humanists individual. Let’s examine these accusations powered communities united by faith to are the outliers. But then, we’re used to one by one. overcome obstacles and realize achieve- that. In comparison to Americans in gen- ments that other communities could not. eral, we have always been outliers in such Does Collective Ritual Practice Erode Many evolutionary biologists accept that matters as disbelieving in God, disavowing Rationality? for this reason, religion may have played a eternal rewards beyond the grave, and Consider the function it serves in religious significant role in heightening resilience in declining to draw our ethics from the mys- congregations. As Thomson demonstrated, early human communities. tical literature of long-ago pastoralists. We touching, swaying, singing, and the rest But aren’t we past that now? More manage to bear up under the conviction have measurable psycho-physiological ef - important, shouldn’t we be past it? It’s easy that most people are simply wrong about fects. They apparently promote physical re - these things. In fact, we take pride in be - sponses such as endorphin release, suffus- (Continued on page 40)

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Greta Christina OP-ED

Why Atheism Demands Social Justice

’m going to go out on a limb here: also for reasons that are pragmatic and So what are the noble, high-minded being an atheist demands that we work Machiavellian to the point of being crass. reasons that atheists should work for social Ifor social justice. Let’s start with the crass, Machiavellian justice? If you don’t believe in God or an A lot of atheists will argue with this. reasons. (Those are always more fun, afterlife, and if you think this world is the They’ll say that atheism means one thing right?) If we want to make a world that’s only one we have . . . I bet you see where and one thing only: the lack of belief in better for atheists, making a world with I’m going with this. If you don’t believe in any god. And in the most literal sense, more atheists would certainly be an excel- God or an afterlife and if you think this they’re right. It’s different from secular lent step. Safety in numbers and all that. world is the only one we have, then this life humanism in that way. Secular humanism And if we want to make a world with suddenly matters a whole lot more. is more than just not believing in gods or more atheists, an excellent first step If religious believers are right and this the supernatural. It’s a positive, multifac- would be to work toward a world with mortal life really is just a trivial eyeblink in eted philosophy that includes specific greater levels of social justice. According the eternity of our real spiritual afterlives, principles of ethical conduct. Atheism, to Phil Zuckerman’s carefully researched then making this life happy and meaning- technically, means only the conclusion Society Without God: What the Least ful wouldn’t be so important. If we really that there are no gods. Religious Nations Can Tell Us About did live forever in heaven after we died, it Contentment, countries with wouldn’t matter so much that many chil- the highest rates of atheism dren around the world are born into hope- tend very strongly to be coun- less lives of misery and despair. A few years tries that score highest on the of hunger, disease, violence, and helpless- “If religious believers are right and “happiness index”: they have ness compared to a blissful eternity in the low rates of violent crime, low arms of the Lord—what’s the big deal? this mortal life really is just a trivial rates of government corrup- But religious believers aren’t right. eyeblink in the eternity of our real tion, excellent educational sys- There is no God. There is no heaven. This spiritual afterlives, then making tems, strong economies, well- mortal life is all we have. And if this mor- supported arts, free health tal life is all we have—and there are mil- this life happy and meaningful care, egalitarian social policies, lions of people whose only lives are hope- wouldn’t be so important.” and so on. less lives full of misery and despair for no Now, there’s no reason to reason other than the bad luck of how and think that atheism creates these where and when they were born—then high levels of social functioning. that is a fucking tragedy. It is injustice on a In fact, it seems to be the other gruesomely epic scale, and we have a pow- way around. When people are erful moral obligation to fix it. If we have happy, stable, well-educated, any morality at all—and the evidence But conclusions don’t stand in a vac- empowered, and have high hopes for their strongly suggests that we do, that human uum. They have implications. That’s true children, they’re more likely to let go of beings have some common moral principles for the conclusion that there are no gods their belief in God. A high level of social wired into our brains through millions of as much as any other conclusion. When functioning creates atheism, or contributes years of evolution as a social species—then you conclude that there are no gods, I to it, anyway. seeing terrible harm done to others through would argue that one of the implications So if we want to create a world with no fault of their own should make us cringe is a demand that we work for social jus- more atheists—and thus a world that’s safer and demand our immediate and passionate tice: an end to extreme poverty, political and better for atheists—it would be very attention. disempowerment, government corrup- much to our advantage to create a world I’m going to be very clear about this. tion, gross inequality in economic oppor- that’s safer and better for everybody. A We don’t all have to agree about exactly tunity, misogyny, racism, homophobia, world with greater social justice is far more how social justice should be reached, and so on. For reasons that are high- likely to be a more atheistic world. Hey, I what our priorities and goals should be in minded and noble and altruistic . . . and warned you that I was going to be crass. (Continued on page 40)

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Letters

I’ve long avoided terms likely to give believ- pens,” that I can’t agree with, and it’s cer- ers a false impression of what I believe. tainly not because I find the crudeness of Those who know me wouldn’t get it wrong, it offensive; in fact, when I first saw a ver- but those who don’t very well might. sion of the phrase, I thought it was quite Spiritual is perhaps the term most likely to humorous. But the expression does not convey the wrong idea. When confronted really de scribe a naturalistic view of the with it, I try to shift toward talking about the universe. It more accurately answers the wonders of science and how much more question, “Why do bad things happen to wonderful reality is than the myths of those good or innocent people?” And while rab- Middle Eastern goat herders. You know, the bis and priests and preachers have fum- ones who, as Bill Maher says, “didn’t know bled with this one ad nauseam, they can where the sun went at night.” never answer the question because they Tom Noe view it in a framework that includes an Wilie, Texas omniscient, omnipotent, omnipresent, loving god. The only reasonable answer to the question is “shit happens,” which Whether it is a sunset, warm sunshine en- would have to come from a naturalistic On Excrement and ‘Spirit’ Talk joyed while hiking the hills, the flight of a view. hawk, or whatever it might be that elevates The problem comes when we try to Three cheers for Tom Flynn’s espousal of you to a higher level of understanding and explain every natural happening in the straightforward atheistic language, as op- appreciation—that is spirituality. I think Flynn universe with the negative word shit. posed to the euphemistic (not to say pusil- is whistling in the dark when he proclaims, When Flynn asks us to do a thought exer- lanimous) use of words like spiritual and “when we employ ‘spirit’ talk, we encour- cise by contemplating the night sky, he sacred, carried over from discarded beliefs age our hearers to suspect that we are inse- uses the terms glories, magnificent, and (“Excrement Eventuates!” FI, February/ cure in our naturalism.” He appears fearful awe. Is that shit happening? These macro- March 2012). As Flynn indicates, this mealy- of things and experiences that evoke emo- cosmic and microcosmic things we see mouthed humanism gives the impression tion reminiscent of his own religious past. don’t have to be spiritual or loaded with that we are clinging to the wreckage of reli- transcendent meaning or “woo-woo,” gion. But it is, I think, characteristic of ex- One can be spiritual while not subscrib- but neither is it helpful to describe them as Protestant rather than ex-Catholic atheists. ing to a rigid, organized religious creed. shit. I can’t think of a catchy bumper- When mainstream Protestants turn to rea- Spirituality, to me, bridges the majesty of sci- sticker aphorism that cleverly describes a son, they are able to do it in stages. First, ence with the deep appreciation of the nat- naturalistic view of events, but I do know perhaps, the immorality of eternal punish- ural world. that “shit happens” doesn’t do it for me. ment causes them to discard the doctrine of Steve Pellegrini Hell, then other doctrines gradually follow, Yerington, Nevada Rick Ronvik one by one. But those of us brought up in Evanston, Illinois the tradition of papal infallibility could not do that: for us it had to be all or nothing, I was fascinated by Tom Flynn’s editorial Tom Flynn makes a mistake repeated by too after years of mental turmoil. And though I because he seemed so right in his conster- many atheists these days: he fears talking think I am some three decades older than nation regarding secular humanists who about spirit. To me there are two sides of Tom Flynn, there would have been, for him “shoot themselves in the foot” when they as for me, no halfway house between faith life, the material and the spiritual. How ever, slip into “spirit talk” and yet so wrong in and atheism. We therefore have no vestage when discussing the latter, I am not talking his choice of slogan to explain a naturalis- of faith to cling to. about the supernatural spirit we attribute to tic view of the universe. I certainly agree In recent decades, as the Catholic deities or ghosts that comes from faith or with the first part, as I have listened to Church has become more Protestant, this fear. I mean the very natural spirit of life as many friends who consider themselves distinction has almost disappeared. But it is explained to us by science. nonreligious as they speak patronizingly to be hoped that Christian apostates, from To find the essence of life, we need to about not believing in a god with a white whichever sect, will now have the courage consider the difference between living beard sitting up in the clouds but assure to adopt Flynn’s honest, unequivocal athe- things and inert matter. Whether living or listeners that they realize there is some ism without blurring it with weasel words, dead, everything is made of matter, which derived from superstition, so as to invite intelligence greater than ours that has set means it is made of tiny particles that have misunderstanding. some design into motion. And as they mass and volume. But yet we recognize Barbara Smoker speak, I see them drifting into “woo-woo” there is something different about a living Former President, National Secular Society land. Kent, England, United Kingdom It’s the two-word slogan, “shit hap- (Continued on page 62)

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Russell Blackford OP-ED

Who’s Afraid of Scientism?

ne fashionable criticism of outspo- offers some examples of what he considers tism.” He showed no interest in Barash’s ken atheists is that we demonstrate to be science’s limits and suggests some substantive topic but instead pounced on Othe vice of scientism—whatever that questions that he thinks it cannot answer. his opening sentence. Ruse claimed that is exactly. This criticism comes from many How do I know someone loves me? How there are many things that we can know theologians, such as John Haught, but also should I understand a particular work of lit- only by means other than science. He from some secular philosophers. The critics erature? How do I, or how should I, re - offered some examples: what he takes to seldom define scientism, and I doubt that spond to nature? For Haught, questions be mathematical facts, moral facts, and they can agree on a definition. Is it skepti- about God also fall into this category. the claims of philosophical epistemology. cism about specifically religious “ways of Critics of alleged scientism fall into In the last of these categories, we have knowing” such as mystical rapture and two main categories. Some want to find a meta-level facts about what kinds of facts divine inspiration? Is it perhaps no more place for religion within a scientifically we can know and how. Thus, according to than enthusiasm about science? In either of informed understanding of reality. Others Ruse, if it were true that science is the best those cases, what’s so wrong with it? seem more worried about encroachments (and perhaps only) way to obtain genuine The best sense I can make of Haught’s by science on the humanities. Michael knowledge of the world, it is not a truth prolific discussions of the issue is that sci- Ruse, a prominent philosopher of biology, that has been discovered through scien- entism, at least for him, amounts to the appears to fall into both camps. Although tific investigation. he is not a religious adherent, Ruse concludes with a plea for “the many of his publications argue scientific community not to fall into the that science leaves room for trap of the religious and think that they religious faith and is, in some uniquely have the answers to every ques- sense, compatible with it. tion worth asking.” In excusing himself for However, he also seems wor- a “cross” tone, he explains that he is con- “Critics of alleged scientism fall into two ried about the relative stand- cerned about funding and political sup- main categories. Some want to find a ings, in terms of funding and port for the humanities if it comes to be place for religion within a scientifically prestige, of the sciences and believed that science can answer all ques- the humanities. tions that are worth asking. informed understanding of reality. Others Consider a recent online At this stage, it’s tempting to say that seem more worried about encroachments dustup between Ruse and evo- Barash spoke slightly loosely and that Ruse by science on the humanities.” lutionary psychologist David Ba - overreacted in making such a fuss about rash. In a December 10, 2011, it. However, it’s not so simple. First, I think post on the Chronicle of Higher that Barash had a point. Second, Ruse also Edu cation’s blog Brain storm, had a point in wanting to support the Barash wrote: “I love science, humanities. But third, science does tend to and you should, too, if only undermine religion: efforts to accommo- because it provides us with the date religious faith within a scientifically belief that scientific methodology—what- best (perhaps the only) way of genuinely informed understanding of the cosmos are ever that is exactly—can answer all ques- knowing the world.” From there, he segued always likely to run into trouble. How can tions. That seems consistent with some into a discussion of fascinating questions I think all those things at once? It depends dictionary definitions, such as this one that science has not yet answered. The post on getting some clarity about the tricky from Merriam-Webster: “an exaggerated was mostly about the mystery of why Homo relationships that exist among science, trust in the efficacy of the methods of nat- sapiens evolved to be one of the few mam- religion, the humanities, and our everyday ural science applied to all areas of investi- malian species in which ovulation is con- ways of experiencing and understanding gation (as in philosophy, the social sci- cealed. the world. ences, and the humanities).” In his 2008 The following day, Ruse replied on the book God and the , Haught same site in a post simply titled “Scien - (Continued on page 42)

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Ophelia Benson OP-ED The Trouble with Gods

t could have been a good idea, the anyway, but a perfect being at the summit Mass: apparuit: “there has ap - invention of gods. It could have been a gives it a sanctified prestige that shields it peared.” This is a programmatic way of solidifying thoughts about how from skepticism and rebellion. The hierar- word, by which the Church seeks to I express synthetically the essence of humans could be better than they are. chy becomes holy, sacred, divine; egalitar- Christmas. Formerly, people had spo- It’s an impressive and touching thing ianism becomes blasphemy. ken of God and formed human about us that we realize we’re not good The fact that the perfect being is con- images of him in all sorts of different enough. Gods (or God) could have been a ceptualized rather than experienced works ways. God himself had spoken in helpful or even inspiring way to conceptu- to entrench this notion because it means many and various ways to mankind (cf. Heb 1:1 Mass during the Day). alize The Better. that God’s rules can’t be updated and that But now something new has hap- But there’s a flaw at the heart of the they are delivered through intermediaries. pened: he has appeared. He has re - idea: humans are the ones conceptualizing In one way, the flimsiness of this is obvious, vealed himself. He has emerged from the gods, so their ideas of what is better as if a neighborhood bully should tell us, “I the inaccessible light in which he are the products of flawed humans, not have a secret invisible boss who says you dwells. He himself has come into our midst. This was the great joy of those of a perfect being. We can’t lift our- have to give me 10 percent of your prop- Christmas for the early Church: God selves up by yanking on our own feet. erty.” In that form we would at least recog- has appeared. No longer is he merely Humans are competitive, territorial- nize what was afoot. But in another way, an idea, no longer do we have to aggressive, possessive primates who con- the flimsiness is just what keeps the racket form a picture of him on the basis of ceive of the good the way other such ani- going. If God were physically there, able to mere words. He has “appeared.” mals do. Gods can be models for self- receive delegations and deliver improvement, but they can also be models annual sermons in the manner of various brands of thug: monarchs, dicta- of the pope, it would be possi- tors, tyrants, crime bosses, warlords. They ble to petition or just plain can never be securely free from the poten- revolt. Since God is not there, tial for thug-dom. One of the perfections we can’t petition. We can’t of “God” is power: God is omnipotent. deal with the monarch/dictator “. . . Humans are the ones conceptualizing Once God is conceptualized that way, it directly but only with the dicta- the gods, so their ideas of what is becomes impossible to separate its higher, tor’s self-declared representa- better are the products of flawed humans, better, transcendent qualities from its abil- tives, the priests and mullahs ity to push humans around. and rabbis. The representatives not those of a perfect being. We can’t lift It may be that competitive, aggressive, are all that we have ever dealt ourselves up by yanking on our own feet.” possessive primates can’t invent gods or a with, all the way back through god that don’t become dictators because history. it’s just not in us to do without hierarchy Christianity claims that God and the principle of subordination. A cur- has ap peared, though only for sory glance at our history seems to sug- one thirty-three-year sliver of gest that. If that’s the case, then a god is a time, twenty centuries ago, disastrous thing for us to invent because it which is not noticeably different from being God has appeared, according to the pope has supernatural total power with no secret/invisible now. The priesthood natu- and his colleagues, but that was then and accountability. Even if we conceive of that rally doesn’t admit this: the pope underlined this is now; now we just have to take the god as perfectly good, the good in ques- the “one appearance is a great favor” inter- clerics’ word for it that they are speaking tion is still our all-too-human idea of pretation in his 2011 Christmas Eve homily: for him. To fail to do so is to lack faith, “good,” and we can’t be trusted with it. The reading from Saint Paul’s Letter and to lack faith is a crime against this The idea seems aspirational and inspi- to Titus that we have just heard god who isn’t about to appear again. rational, but it also reinforces the idea of a begins solemnly with the word Cen turies of repetition have worked to hierarchy or a Great Chain of Being. We “apparuit,” which then comes back would probably have the idea of hierarchy again in the reading at the Dawn (Continued on page 41)

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Nat Hentoff OP-ED

Schools Show ‘Zero Tolerance’ . . . of the Constitution

or years, public school systems and “the father of the Constitution.” At the how did the County Circuit Court rule? It principals around the nation have rig- 1787 Constitutional Convention, Madison upheld his punishment by his high school. Forously exercised a “zero tolerance” was the only person who took notes of But the judges were slightly troubled by policy that imposes severe, automatic the daily proceedings, which were closed the “incongruous” suspension of Mikel for punishments for students accused of dan- to the press. Interestingly, it was also the remainder of the school year when a gerous or other harmful actions. An outra- Madison who first introduced the Bill of student at this same high school got only a geous but not uncommon imposition of Rights in our first Congress.) ten-day suspension for punching another zero tolerance that I’ve been following Whitehead, a lawyer and warrior for the student in the eye. concerns a then-freshman student, An- Constitution, reports what happened next Next stop for the Rutherford Institute: drew Mikel II, suspended from Spot syl - to teach this high school student a public the Supreme Court of Virginia. Says White - vania High School in Virginia in December lesson in proper school behavior in this land head: “In asking the Virginia Supreme 2010 for the remainder of the school year. of the free and home of the brave: a fusil- Court to rehear the case, Institute attor- lade of consequences that neys challenged the school’s characteriza- might well dog Andrew Mikel tion of Andrew’s actions as ‘criminal’ and for a lifetime. The Spot sylvania the spitwads as ‘weapons,’ contending County School Board upheld that there was no indication that Mikel “When [Andrew Mikel II] applies to his suspension “for the remain- intended to harm anyone and that the colleges of his choice—unless he is der of the school year”—and plastic tube and pellets did not rise to the cleared by a higher court—his criminal dig this: “school officials re - level of ‘weapons’ as defined by the school ferred the matter to school law code. ... Furthermore, Insti tute attorneys record will follow him.” enforcement, which initiated insisted that Andrew’s conduct did not rise juvenile criminal proceedings to the level required by the school code. for assault.” Then came what Furthermore, Institute attorneys insisted Mikel’s high school regards as specifically that Andrew’s conduct did not During a lunchtime period, he had been rehabilitation for this menace to the school rise to the level required for expulsion or fooling around by hurling a few little pel- community. He was “placed in a diversion long-term suspension under the School lets, like plastic spitwads, at students. program and had to take substance abuse Code of Conduct.” Although he had no previous disciplinary [sic] and anger management counseling.” That’s a pretty strong case for a rehear- record, this honor student who was also When this young man applies to col- ing, I would think. But—and it’s a startling active in his church and in the ROTC was leges of his choice—unless he is cleared “but”—Vir ginia’s Supreme Court did not initially suspended for ten days. The by a higher court—his criminal record will agree. It refused the petition for a rehearing. charge—under the school’s Student Code follow him. It may eventually make him “a As I have reported elsewhere, the of Conduct—was criminal assault and, I person of interest” to state and local unyielding doctrine of zero tolerance in kid you not, possession of a weapon. police, as well as qualifying him for a public schools continues to produce viola- I first heard of Mikel’s case—having Federal Bureau of Investigation “threat tions of due process, unilaterally saddling reported on others—from John White- assessment” investigation—without the students with suspensions or expulsions head. Whitehead is the nation’s only reg- FBI, of course, having to be troubled by for purportedly defying these schools’ ular defender of these zero-tolerance first going before a judge for permission. codes of conduct, and often with criminal “criminals” in court—and he renders this But currently, young Mikel has at least prosecutions as well. Since most public service at no charge. He is president of the earned the attention of the Virginia judici- schools these days have no civics classes, Rutherford Institute in Charlottesville, ary. Whitehead’s attorneys asked the only the futility of “equal protection under Virginia. (Keep in mind that Virginia was Spotsylvania County Circuit Court to over- the laws” is being taught. the home of Thomas Jefferson and James turn the School Board’s ruling as “arbitrary, Madison, the latter often referred to as capricious and an abuse of discretion.” So (Continued on page 42)

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Katrina Voss OP-ED

Ready for Prime-Time

elevision trivia websites provide a it did for lesbianism, bed-sharing, and pres- minds could never quite embrace. True, wealth of information about the idential pigmentation? Probably, but so far skeptical protagonists rarely are con- T industry’s envelope-pushing “firsts.” it has never really tried. To their credit, sci- verted, but apparently television writers For example, television audiences wit- ence-friendly shows such as House and believe that supernaturalism must be nessed the first lesbian kiss on L.A. Law in Bones feature lead characters who are given an occasional shout-out just to 1991, while the first interracial kiss ap- themselves open atheists. But Dr. House maintain cordial relations. peared much earlier, on Star Trek in 1968. and Dr. Brennan simply do not qualify as On the other hand, now that previous Trivia websites are less clear about which breakthrough atheist normalizers for the taboos have been broken, when do we ever show first featured a couple sharing a bed: simple reason that they are not normal. really see their counterarguments given Most sites name the late-1940s sitcom They are not, after all, Starbucks baristas or equal billing? For example, imagine a Mary Kate and Johnny. Some sites also accountants. In fact, their only truly normal homosexual character being taught a simi- give an honorable mention to The feature is the fact that they are flawed. lar lesson about the rewards of a heterosex- Flintstones and The Munsters, while point- And the nagging suggestion is that they ual lifestyle. Imagine a dénouement where ing out that because Fred and Wilma and are flawed, not because they are human, a gay man contemplates (as acoustic guitar Herman and Lily are, respectively, cartoon but because they are atheists. characters and nonhumans, they may be Dr. House’s pill addiction and disqualified. Other prohibition-shattering general nastiness are pre- “firsts” include a storyline about abortion, sented as the necessary bur- “. . . Whether TV writers break rules out of a an audible fart, the use of the word con- dens that a freethinking un - dom, and a plot involving a senior citizen tangler of medical mysteries commitment to artistic integrity, a sense of being tested for HIV. must bear. Like wise, Dr. Bren - social duty, or simply to boost ratings ... A true secularist understands that tele- nan’s social awkwardness and they advance many worthy causes with vision’s duty is to break taboos if only humorlessness—however ador - because art, in any form, is at its best able—are portrayed as prod- much greater success than even the most when it rattles cages. But regardless of ucts of her über-ra tional, fact- deliberate social campaigns.” whether TV writers break rules out of a driven mind. The message is commitment to artistic integrity, a sense of that atheists are crazy smart social duty, or simply to boost ratings, in but tragically screwed up. doing so, they advance many worthy What’s more, there is a big difference music plays melodiously in the background) causes with much greater success than between how television portrays atheism how his life might be richer and fuller if even the most deliberate social cam- and how it portrays other “controversial” only he embraced the cosmic mystery and paigns. Of course, it is impossible to know states of being, such as homosexuality or wonder of the vagina. Would such a “teach just how far L.A. Law’s C. J. and Abby ad - African Americanness. That is, atheist the controversy” episode ever pass muster vanced gay rights or just how many clos- characters never are allowed simply to with the American public? eted lesbians felt empowered to come out be—without question or further com- That such a scene is never aired (nor thanks to that on-screen lip-lock. Still, it is ment. Every once in a while, a religious would it be tolerated if it were) is good not an exaggeration to say that television character is introduced to give “sciency” news in itself. It means that our official, is one of the most powerful media for atheistic characters a lesson in “spiritual- tele vision-appropriate position is one of tol- social change. In fact, many theorists have ity.” In the end, the atheist characters end erance with regard to homosexuality. True postulated that Barack Obama’s nomina- up cocking their heads thoughtfully and (and sadly), there are still religious groups tion was facilitated by Dennis Haybert’s saying something vaguely nice about faith who claim to be able to “cure” people of portrayal of African-American president or even musing about how their lives lack homosexuality. But the fact that homosexu- David Palmer on the television series 24. a certain je ne sais quoi that only faith So could television do for atheism what could supply but that, alas, their scientific (Continued on page 44)

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Tom Rees OP-ED

What’s So Smart About Unbelief?

ntelligence is a bit of a slippery eel— found that that lower IQ was significantly nating test in which people are presented it’s pretty tough to get it pinned down associated with every one of six different with facts (a famous person’s name or a Iprecisely. And yet, cognitive scientists do measures of religion. For the most part, scientific concept, for example), and they think there is something they call “general this association still held even after adjust- have to say how familiar they are with it. intelligence,” which describes an individ- ing for factors such as education, sex, age, Some of the facts are false, and by using ual’s ability to perform well on a broad and even personality—the only exception some clever processing the researchers range of different kinds of intelligence being spirituality, the weakest of all indica- can tease out how much the subjects are tests. Put simply, someone who does well tors of religion. Overall, the link between overclaiming their familiarity with the real on one test is likely to do well on another. religion and IQ was strongest for the “fun- facts. What does this have to do with athe- damentalism” measure, although the Putting the results of these three tests ism? A number of studies have shown that team points out that even here the associ- together allowed Bertsch and Pesta to atheists are more intelligent than believers. ation was pretty weak. measure their subjects’ basic information- Actually, to be precise, these studies show So does this mean that atheists have processing abilities. They found that those that on average atheists are slightly more shrugged off their religious beliefs be - who were best able to process information intelligent than believers. For example, Sa - cause they are more intelligent? Maybe were also the least religious. The effect was atheists are smart enough to figure strongest in relation to sectarianism (by out the truth. Well, maybe; but the which they mean the belief that your par- problem with that theory is that ticular religion is the only true religion), but intelligence and rational thinking they got similar results for scriptural accept- are quite different beasts. A study “Maybe atheists are smart enough to ance and religious questioning (the most by Keith Stanovich of the Uni - accurate in judging line length were least figure out the truth. Well, maybe; but versity of Toronto and Richard accepting of scriptural truth and the most ... intelligence and rational thinking West of James Madison University willing to question beliefs). Bertsch and in Harrisonburg, Virginia, has are quite different beasts.” Pesta did find that IQs had a similar associ- found there is no correlation be - ation, but when they analyzed the statistics tween intelligence and a person’s they found that this was most likely simply ability to avoid some common because people with high IQ also tend to traps of intuitive thinking. It seems be speedy at information processing. that intelligence only helps over- More evidence to support this idea come the cognitive biases that lead comes from a research team lead by Am - toshi Kanazawa, a controversial psycholo- to poor judgment if you are the kind of itai Shenhav, a psychologist at Harvard gist based at the London School of person who uses it. It’s not so much about University. Shenhav and his colleagues Economics, found that the least religious innate braininess; it’s about how you use it were interested in whether people make in your approach to the world. adolescents in the United States have an IQ snap decisions based on their gut feelings that’s around six points higher, on average, Take a recent study by Sharon Bertsch or whether they ponder things a bit more than that of the most religious. (University of Pittsburgh) and Bryan Pesta deeply. So they asked their subjects a That’s a narrow gap relative to the (Cleveland State University). They flashed seemingly simple question: “A bat and a spread of IQ scores in the population, but a series of straight lines in front of their ball cost $1.10 in total. The bat costs it’s a finding that is typical of other studies. test subjects and asked them to judge $1.00 more than the ball. How much does In one of the most thorough such studies, how long each line was. They also ran a the ball cost?” Now, if you don’t stop to which used data from the MacArthur test in which their subjects had to pick out think about it, you’d probably say the Foundation Survey of Midlife Develop - a letter from a crowd of other letters. Their answer is ten cents. If you think about it a ment in the U.S., a group of psychologists final test checked how prone their sub- at the University of Edinburgh in Scotland jects were to “overclaim.” This is a fasci- (Continued on page 43)

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Shadia B. Drury OP-ED

Is Freedom of Religion a Mistake?

reedom of religion is a hard-core courts, business, and media. Dominionism is the reverse is not the case. The state is pro- American value that is rarely ques- nothing new. Once again, religion is unsat- hibited from interfering in religious faith by Ftioned. It was supposed to be the ulti- isfied with freedom; it seeks dominance. So, creating an established church akin to the mate solution to the grisly wars of religion why should freedom of religion be granted Church of England, which was established that ravaged Europe in the sixteenth and to those who understand freedom in terms by Henry VIII and Elizabeth I as a means of seventeenth centuries. But religion is rarely of dominance? It is necessary to reconsider preventing the Catholic Church from mak- satisfied with liberty. It invariably seeks or renegotiate freedom of religion. ing the states of Europe the the instruments dominance. It is akin to a wild beast that The first step is to make absolutely of its nefarious commands: Kill these cannot be tamed; the brute is always there clear that freedom of religion is not a nat- heretics! Segregate these Jews! Burn these and ready to turn on its benefactor. ural right. The freedom of religion is a witches! The newly established church was During the Republican primaries for the political right that is granted by a given subordinate to the Crown—and still is. In 2012 presidential nomination, Repub lican state. As a political right, it is not without contrast, American churches are free. It is hopefuls made clear that, as far as they corresponding obligations; first among no wonder that they are so much admired were concerned, America was a Chris tian these is respect for the laws of the state. by the pope, who applauds the way they country and that they would govern ac - The reason that Catholicism wreaked so use their freedom to reestablish the domi- cordingly. Newt Gingrich, a recent convert much havoc on Europe was its refusal to nation over the state that he believes is to Catholicism, declared that he would not be subject to any law. It insisted on being rightfully theirs. suffer atheists to teach in the schools: “I mistress of all, above all tem- wouldn’t have anybody teaching who felt poral orders, living by the light uncomfortable explaining what the of God, which amounted to Founding Fathers meant when they said being a law unto itself. that our rights come from our creator.” All Freedom of religion is the the candidates seemed eager to reverse same as freedom in general. “. . . Religion is rarely satisfied with liberty. Roe v. Wade and protect the “rights of the No one is born free. We are all unborn” from the moment of conception. born in a state of tutelage to It invariably seeks dominance.” Rick Santorum proudly declared that he our parents. We earn the right would outlaw abortions even in cases of to be free as we cultivate the rape or incest—because every child is a gift rational means by which to of God, no matter how brutally God de cides govern ourselves. Free dom pre - to deliver it. Most of the candidates were supposes rationality and re - enthusiastic about passing the De fense of sponsibility. It belongs to those who recog- The First Amendment sets no conditions Marriage Act, which would rob homosexu- nize that it is not reasonable to demand or limits that would lead to the forfeiture of als of their freedom to live like other cou- rights and freedoms that we are unwilling the free exercise of religion. The law is based ples. In one “debate” after another, the Re - to grant to others. The freedom of individ- on the false assumption that nothing bad publican hopefuls made it clear that their uals has never been unconditional. But the can come from the free exercise of religion. intention is to restore Judeo-Chris tian values freedom of religion in the United States In his famous letter of 1802 to the Danbury to America and to use the coercive power of has been a sacred cow without conditions. Baptist Association in Connecti cut, Thomas the state for their ends. That freedom is enshrined in the First Jefferson assumed that religious duty would Evangelical Christians could not be more Amendment to the Constitu tion, which never conflict with man’s “social duties.” He delighted since all the candidates fit the pro hibits the making of any law “respect- missed precisely what was problematic goals of the new evangelical movement— ing an establishment of religion” or im- about Protestantism: in its revolt against the Dominion ism, which aspires to ensure that peding “the free exercise” of religion. The power of the papacy to dictate correct Christian values dominate every aspect of First Amendment makes it clear that the American life, including family, civil society, church has no obligations to the state. But (Continued on page 44)

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Arthur L. Caplan OP-ED

Let’s Be Mean to Deen

s I write this, celebrity chef Paula The company is right—but not about bread, for the bun. Deen is being defended in some how Deen can be a light to us all. Rather, Children are not exempt from her siren A quarters against critics, including the reaction to Deen’s announcement and call to eat poorly. Her Cookbook for the me, who have accused her of gross the criticism that it evoked tells us a lot Lunch Box Set presents a torrent of recipes hypocrisy in taking on the nicely compen- about how many Americans have a dis- for ensuring fat children, including cheese- sated role of shill for a diabetes drug. After torted, dreamy view of self-determination, burger casserole, breakfast cheesecake, not disclosing the fact that she had dia- personal choice, and personal responsibility. sausage cheese muffins, bacon-cheddar betes for three years while promoting Deen has had a television show on the meat loaf, gooey butter cake—well, you get foods that give diabetologists everywhere Food Network for many years. She has the idea. hives, she went on national television this made a fetish out of hyping decadent So when Deen came out and said past January to announce her malady. Southern-style cooking. The food she pro- essentially “Yeah, I’ve been promoting bad She then went on to say she had been motes includes big portions of butter, heavy eating for years, making a nice living doing signed on by the pharmaceutical company cream, sugar, shortening, cream cheese, so, and have had diabetes for a long time Novo Nordisk to be a spokeswoman for its and other heart-clogging ingredients. Krispy while telling my fans to eat crap. And now, $500-per-month diabetes drug. The com- Kreme donuts feature heavily in her recom- having fattened them up, I am ready to be pany says Deen can help us all see “dia- mendations for how to make a cheese- a spokesperson, not for healthier eating or betes in a new light.” burger—use donuts when available, not even exercise, but to get them all on an expensive medicine!” you might have ex - pected some sneering. And there was. Lots of folks called Deen out, including some of her fellow TV chefs such as An thony Bourdain. I wrote that she is an ethically nasty hypocrite. But then the backlash against being mean to Deen began. Those bugged about pointing the fin- ger of guilt at Deen all had pretty much the same thing to say. Matt Blondin, chef de cuisine at the Southern-influenced restau- rant Acadia in Toronto, said, “Unhealthy food will always be out there (just like alco- hol) and there will always be people with big bucks heavily promoting it.... It’s up to people who follow those things to con- sume in moderation.” And how can we be moderate at the plate? Well, many Deen defenders echoed Richard Huff, who wrote in the New York Daily News: “A better question is what idiot eats [Deen’s] fat-laden, sugar-soaked meals every night without realizing it’s bad? Does Paula Deen, while on TV, make the kind of food that makes people fat and unhealthy? Absolutely. Does she twist the

SMITHFIELD FOODS/PR NEWSWIRE/Newscom (Continued on page 45)

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Andy Norman

CFI’s Celebration of Daniel Dennett’s Breaking the Spell

n early December 2011, the Center for and emotional systems. Belief in a universal, moral guidance, and to add depth and Inquiry–Transnational held a fascinating supernatural god is not a biological inheri- mean ing to our lives. Collective wisdom on Iconference on the scientific study of reli- tance but a cultural innovation that solved a these matters is not served by pugnacious gion in Amherst, New York. I was fortu- “branding” problem faced by larger social secularism: on Wildman’s view, gentle, nate enough to attend, and I would like to organizations with monopolistic aspirations. noncoercive engagement holds more share what I learned with readers of FREE Religions are best understood as social “car- power to promote understanding and raise INQUIRY. tels.” We should not regard them as “pro- consciousness—on both sides. The conference was, among other social” (no more, presumably, than we Helen De Cruz of the Research Foun - things, a tribute to philosopher Daniel should commercial cartels). dation Flanders then argued that no Den nett’s Breaking the Spell: Religion as a Psychiatrist and researcher James account of religion as a “natural” phe- Natural Phenomenon. Published in 2006, Thomson presented fascinating evidence nomenon can do justice to the artifice the book called for a thoroughly naturalis- that ritual can stimulate the release of involved. Religions are cognitive “tech- tic understanding of religious phenomena. sociality-boosting neurochemicals such as nologies”—tools that harness and extend The conference was, in essence, a series of dopa mine, oxytocin, and sero- dispatches from the front lines of the tonin. Song, dance, — effort to develop such understanding. In even synchronized activity of the what follows, I recount seven highlights of most elementary sort (like walk- the event; the picture that emerges should ing side by side or marching in “. . . No account of religion as a be of interest to freethinkers of all stripes. lockstep)—can increase pain tol- ‘natural’ phenomenon can do justice Dynamic young psychologist Azim erance, create a fervent sense of to the artifice involved. Religions are Sharif kicked off the conference by argu- togetherness, and induce a kind ing that religion played a vital role in of euphoria. Human touch can cognitive ‘technologies’—tools human evolution. By helping to solve the quiet the brain, improve focus, that harness and extend natural free-rider problem, religions helped to sta- and create trust. Thomson then capacities in ways that vary bilize the social units that would prove performed an unusual experi- biologically successful. He cited studies ment: he had about one hun- from culture to culture.” showing that, on average, religious com- dred ardent secularists link munes survive much longer than secular arms, sway back and forth, and ones, as well as studies showing that ver- sing Amazing Grace. A quick bal and written religious “cues” have psy- “after” poll indicated noticeable changes natural capacities in ways that vary from chological effects that tend to deter cheat- in people’s moods, attitudes, and pain culture to culture. Everywhere we look, ing and increase trust. Parochial gods and thresholds. Why, we were led to wonder, religions involve deliberate practices the spirits of ancestors helped promote do secular humanists make so little use of (prayer, dance, ritual), imaginary beings social cohesion in pre-agricultural soci- rhythm, ritual, and touch? It is seculars, not (gods, spirits), and material objects (holy eties, but the larger social constellations the religious, who are outliers here. objects, iconography, temples) to induce made possible by agriculture necessitated Wesley Wildman, cofounder of the Ins - valued—and very real—“placebo effects.” a shift to the “big,” universal, all-seeing ti tute for the Biocultural Study of Reli gion, Religion, she concluded, is not a natural gods of the Abrahamic faiths. argued against an aggressive secularism. condition but a deliberate construct. Pascal Boyer, author of Religion Ex - The concept of religion has morphed into Freelance researcher Gregory Paul left plained, offered a more complex picture. If something that makes naturalized religion no doubt as to why MSNBC labeled him we examine hunter-gatherer tribes, it be - seem a strange notion, but in fact, religions “public enemy number one” of the nation’s comes clear that creedal, supernaturalist reli- without supernatural trappings have a long churches. Using demographic data, Paul gion is not a cultural universal. Re ligious and distinguished history (Buddhism, showed that American atheism is on the rise thoughts and behaviors, however, are found Confucianism, and Unitarian ism, for exam- and poised for further dramatic growth. He in all cultures, so it is these that we must ple). Religious communities have real (Continued on page 46) study to understand the underlying cognitive power to bind people together, to afford

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Edward Tabash

We Grieve for His Silenced Voice; We Rejoice in His Memory: Honoring Christopher Hitchens

nothing to obstruct his goal of securing a foothold for reason and evidence-based knowledge. He was determined to educate a world excessively bound by superstitious attitudes about the opportunities to escape from such benighted mythologies, available to everyone. He accurately dub - bed the deity portrayed in the Bible and Qur’an as nothing more than the worst form of cosmic dictator. Among his incredible contributions to the battle against blind-faith religious doc- trines were his courageous criticisms of not just beliefs deemed too sacred to be chal- lenged but also of religious figures whom overwhelming majorities of people placed on virtually untouchable pedestals. Our intrepid Hitch pioneered a new horizon in intellectual profiles in courage when he blazed a potentially dangerous and un- charted trail in exposing certain attitudes and actions of perhaps the most revered religious person of our time, . He revealed her hypocrisy in her attempts to impose her religious views on entire nations. For example, she strongly opposed allowing legal divorce in Ireland yet was his is a time of celebration and sad- six months before he died, he wrote in the happy that her friend Princess Diana was ness, of exultation and grief. We June 2011 issue of Vanity Fair, “My chief able to escape from a miserable marriage. Tcommemorate the life of Christopher consolation in this year of living dyingly She claimed to devote her life to easing the Hitchens, our “Hitch.” has been the presence of friends.” suffering associated with poverty yet op - Atheism has lost a singularly eloquent There is a raging debate over whether posed all forms of modern contraception, voice—a fearless, groundbreaking intellec- rigorous intellectual arguments can ever thus perpetuating the very misery she tual giant who dared to challenge the most compete with unsubstantiated but popu- claimed to be trying to alleviate. cherished notions of God and religion that lar emotional appeals. Of course, those of In a society that is indefensibly prudish still so thoroughly pervade human life. We us who see supernatural beliefs as false when it comes to unbridled wit and humor have lost a leader who, now that his life is fervently hope that intellectual rigor will unleashed on its sacred cows, Hitchens was over, can be said to have taught us how to ultimately prevail. We work toward the undaunted in pushing boundaries. The cultivate the courage to live and how to die. day when society reaches a level of matu- funny and irresistible title of his book about Hitchens’s musings about his own rity so that intellectual depth will, itself, be Mother Teresa, The Missionary Position: impending death from cancer were a win- a basis for stirring the most heartfelt emo- Mother Teresa in Theory and Practice, was dow into the mind of someone who could tions in the direction of wherever the evi- just one example of his wit. Another exam- navigate profound emotions as well as dence leads. intricate intellectual concepts. Still display- Hitchens stood at the crossroads of this (Continued on page 46) ing his irrepressible ability to turn a phrase great debate. He was determined to allow

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The History of Humanism

Gordon Gamm, a lawyer and longtime humanist activist (among other positions, he has served on the board of directors of the American Humanist Association), ap proached FREE INQUIRY last year about the possibility of asking an historian to write an essay addressing the connections between the Enlightenment and contemporary humanism. Although humanists routinely reference the Enlightenment as one of the principal sources for humanist thought, there have been few detailed analyses of the key ideas within the Enlightenment that subsequently had a critical influence on humanist thought, especially in the area of humanist ethics. Gamm generously offered to sponsor an essay provided an appropriate historian could be recruited to undertake this task. He conducted the author search in collaboration with Ronald A. Lindsay, president and CEO of the Center for Inquiry and the Council for Secular Humanism. Alan Charles Kors, Henry Charles Lea Professor of European History at the University of Pennsylvania and a noted authority on the Enlightenment, graciously agreed to research and write the essay, which we are pleased to publish in its entirety. We believe this essay substantially adds to our understanding of the intellectual heritage of humanism and will prove to be an important resource for movement.—THE EDITORS Introduction

Gordon Gamm

lan Charles Kors is one of the world’s leading scholars on On the contrasting Enlightenment view, because living crea- the history of the Enlightenment. He served as editor in chief tures seek earthly pleasure and flee earthly pain, this must be a A of the four-volume Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment reflection of God’s plan. The pursuit of happiness was not only a (Oxford University Press, 2002) and was selected by the Teaching good in itself; it was also God’s choice for us. The philosophes Company to teach an elegant course on The Birth of the Modern never said how they justified redefining God from a dictator of Mind. The Center for Inquiry and the Gamm Project were fortunate morals to the architect of natural laws that could be discovered to engage Kors to contribute the article that follows, “The En - through experiential testing. Bishop Joseph Butler made the argu- lighten ment, Naturalism, and the Secularization of Values.” ment that because we are made in God’s image, God in his good- What is the relationship between contemporary humanism and ness gave us emotions that were intended for our happiness to be the Enlightenment? Contemporary humanism traces its origin to the expressed in this life. This is a normative argument that equates Humanist Manifesto I of 1933. All of the world’s current humanist our pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain with God’s morals organizations had their beginning in this document. In the United because it expresses our natural state of being. States, these include the Council for Secular Humanism; the Amer - The Enlightenment philosophes redefined the word God to ican Humanist Association; the American Ethical Union; the Society denote the architect of (1) predictable patterns in the experienced for Humanistic Judaism; and HUUmanists (formerly the Fellowship of world and (2) natural laws of behavior discoverable through the Religious Humanists), the affiliate organization for humanists within moral imperative by applying utilitarianism. However, it is confus- the Unitarian Universalist Association. ing when participants in dialogue use the word God in conflicting The Manifesto, which rendered the word humanism with a ways, denoting a conventional, supernatural, inerrant deity or the capital H, defined Humanist truth about the natural world (episte- source of discoverable patterns in nature. For example, when mology) as discoverable by the scientific method through such Jefferson referred to a “creator” who had endowed human methods as experiential verification, establishing criteria for falsifi- beings with the self-evident right to the pursuit of happiness, he cation; and the like. The Humanist ethic was defined as utilitarian was not speaking of a conventional Christian God whose laws (maximizing human fulfillment and minimizing suffering). were indisputable regardless of their consequences. After all, Therefore, there was no purpose for a supernatural source of truth Christianity had condoned slavery, sexism, and torture for over a and morals. All in this movement derived these ideas from the thousand years, and had repudiated a right to happiness in this Enlightenment philosophes. life as venal. Kors highlights the Enlightenment as the fount of a new phi- losophy that transformed the conventional religious paradigm. Traditional Christian moral theology (as espoused by, for example, Aquinas in the form known as Aristotelian Scholasticism) had den- Gordon Gamm, JD, was the first lawyer to write amicus briefs to explain igrated human fulfillment in this life (falicitudo), considering it far humanism for state and federal courts on behalf of all of the humanist more important to receive fulfillment after death for eternity organizations listed above. (beatitudo). Suffering in this life was viewed as a natural part of our duty to God.

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The Enlightenment, Naturalism, and the Secularization of Values

Alan Charles Kors

he most influential contribution of the Enlightenment to revolution in seventeenth-century natural philosophy radically modern thought, after its transformation of religious tolera- transformed the culture’s sense of nature and its relationship to Ttion from a negative to a positive value, was the seculariza- divine providence. As we shall see, that transformation made it tion of ethical debate. Historically, however, it would be one- increasingly possible for thinkers to dispense with theological jus- dimensional—indeed wrong—to understand this phenomenon as tification in ethical debate and to refer to nature alone. the product of a virgin birth of ideas in the Enlightenment. Both The seventeenth-century natural philosophers who had bro- deistic and atheistic Enlightenment authors were part of the same ken from the scholasticism and the authorities then dominant in world of thought. Similarly, both eighteenth-century Christian and the universities of Europe believed that their inquiries revealed Enlightenment thinkers were heirs to the same conceptual revolu- ordered laws of nature, with God as lawgiver. The laws of nature tion of seventeenth-century natural philosophy (which included were seen more and more as embodiments of the will of God, what we now term science), and both moved on the same deeper agents of his wisdom and purpose. The laws of nature, in such a tidal currents of early-modern intellectual change. view, were admired for accomplishing the intentions of God with- out need of further intervention. For the seven- teenth-century experimental and quantitative philosophers, their work was not constructing a view of nature but discovering laws of nature that “The seventeenth century produced a flowering had been there for the duration of the universe. of deep theological thought, and, indeed, it was the Johannes Kepler, in announcing his third law high-water mark of European demonological belief of planetary motion, proclaimed the belief that he was the first human being to gaze upon God’s and persecution. It also created the ‘new philosophy’ handiwork with understanding. He had found that was so dramatically an agent of historical change.” what God had done. Indeed, how could thinkers not believe that they had found the order, provi- dence, and craft of God in the discoveries we still call “the scientific revolution”: Kepler on plane- tary motion; Galileo on mechanics and motion; Harvey on the circulation of the blood; Gilbert on The seventeenth century produced a flowering of deep theo- magnetism; Torricelli on air pressure and the vacuum; Boyle on logical thought, and, indeed, it was the high-water mark of pneumatics; Huygens on the pendulum and centrifugal force; and, European demonological belief and persecution. It also created the above all, Isaac Newton on motion, optics, and universal gravita- “new philosophy” that was so dramatic an agent of historical tion? When Alexander Pope penned the epitaph for Newton, he change. The new philosophy involved a rejection of the presump- spoke for an age: “Nature and Nature’s laws lay hid in night / God tive authority of the past and an experimental and often mathema- said ‘Let Newton be!’ and all was light.” tized model of natural knowledge. This new philosophy, as it Before the new philosophy of the seventeenth century, indeed was called, emerged within a deeply religious culture. Its European thinkers had looked on the world of nature as sharply unintended consequences, however, would create an increasingly divided by the boundary between the heavens and the earth. In secularized culture in terms of scientific and ethical belief. At the the physical heavens and the celestial bodies, there was regularity heart of this were the fruits of the systematic study of nature. and order, though this was not expressed in terms of law: astron- How, then, did the religious intellectual community contribute omy was the one dignified area of natural inquiry for a learned to the formation of the Enlightenment mentality? Above all, the mind. Beneath the moon, however, chaos reigned: disorder, insta-

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The History of Humanism

bility, and disharmony. God’s providence extended to the whole of suit of union with God, the Christian was expected to see earthly the creation, but beneath the moon, it was above all in terms of pleasures as trivial and, at times, dangerous distractions and to His particular acts of will that He governed. The ongoing motions accept many of the burdens and pains of life as occasions of a of the heavenly bodies alone seemed to bear the imprint of a closer relationship to God. more general providence. All of this changed in the aftermath of In light of the new philosophy of the seventeenth century, the seventeenth century. however, such an evaluation was quite thoroughly rethought. If it There was, as a matter of historical fact, a religious awe in the were, indeed, a law of nature that all living creatures, including new science, but it was one that located God’s providence far less human beings, sought earthly pleasure and fled earthly pain, then in the history of miracles and prophecies and far more in the natu- it followed that the pursuit of such pleasure was nothing less than ral mechanisms around us. Indeed, without an initial religious won- the divinely ordained end of human life. What could be, in der at the order of nature, European civilization would scarcely Jefferson’s later phrasing, more “self-evident”? The commonplace have been able to patronize, value, and extend the domain of nat- observation that we sought pleasure and fled pain now became ural explanation. Such a change in understanding, however, an understanding of the very mechanism whereby the will of God beyond any conscious desire of most natural philosophers to alter was fulfilled. The pursuit of happiness was what God himself had their culture in theological terms, made possible a reconceptualiza- chosen for us and, given that source, had surely joined to the tion and revaluation of nature with profound implications for reli- good. If increase of natural pleasure and reduction of natural pain gion, for thinking about human nature, and for ethical theory. was God’s criterion for us, then the simplest route to a proper eth- For the new philosophy, it was the mechanisms and laws of the ical understanding was to find in nature the real causes of human natural order—including those of human nature—that embodied well-being and suffering. divine will, such that following the empirically discernible laws of nature meant following the laws of God. If the two were equated in any way, however, one safely and reasonably could “... Without an initial religious wonder think of human nature solely in terms of the commonly accessible natural order alone with- at the order of nature, European civilization out theological fear or condemnation. As the would scarcely have been able to patronize, value, great (and pious) scientist Robert Boyle put it in and extend the domain of natural explanation.” his Experiments Physico-Mechanicall (1660), “God gave motion to matter, and in the begin- ning . . . the various motions of the parts of it, as to contrive them into the world he designed they should compose.” John Locke’s influence upon the eighteenth century and the This change was most dramatic in moral philosophy. It always Enlightenment was virtually immeasurable. In the 1691 edition of had been a commonplace of Western thought to say that human his Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690), he explicitly beings, like all animals, sought pleasure and fled pain. There were asserted (Book I, Chapter 3, Section 6) that God had harmonized profound distinctions, however, among genres of pleasure: beati- the physical and moral worlds. Certain that moral knowledge (like tudo (eternal bliss); delectatio (delight); voluptas (sensual pleas- all knowledge) was learned by experience, Locke concluded that ure); and felicitas (worldly happiness). Aquinas and almost all tra- the true and knowable causes of enduring human happiness, and, ditional Christian moral theology argued that the pursuit of felici- thus, of virtue, were identical to virtue. We could err, especially if tas was a simulacrum—a pale, corrupted shadow, and a false we let our passions govern our lives without mediation by resemblance—of our original desire for the highest good and acquired knowledge, but over time our accumulated experience highest happiness, beatitude. It was what remained after the Fall. would lead us to the very knowledge we desired. Locke wrote, Given the distance between the goal of earthly happiness and the “Virtue [is] generally approved, not because innate, but because goal of union with God, being governed by the pursuit of natural, profitable.” There was an “inseparable connection” of “virtue secular pleasure and the flight from natural, secular pain was far and public happiness,” and virtue in behavior was “necessary to removed from Aquinas’s discerned end of the human quest for the preservation of society, and visibly beneficial to all with whom beatitude and in that sense was even the mark of our sin and our the virtuous man has to do.” Thus, a man naturally would choose distance from God. Our effort to secure earthly pleasure and to to “recommend and magnify those rules to others, from whose avoid earthly pain provided subject matter for countless sermons: observance . . . he is sure to reap advantage to himself.” Whether it was the sign of our depravity and bestial state. To the extent from conviction or self-concern, he naturally would term “sacred” that it ruled our lives, it was the indication that we had not raised those values “which, if once trampled on and profaned, he him- ourselves or been raised by God to a higher level of being. In pur- self cannot be safe nor secure.” Cherishing the values essential to

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terms of our natural desire to preserve society and provide bene- fits to ourselves and to all humankind. Locke’s model of the empirical discernment of nature’s mech- anisms, however, was not the only influential version of locating the “nature” given to things by God. For some, “natural” meant the statistical norm. It was “natural” for mothers to love their off- spring and “unnatural” for them to abandon them; “natural” to be between five and six feet tall, but “unnatural” to be three or seven feet tall. For others who were still influenced by a long tra- dition of Western thought, the “nature” of a being was that which distinguished it from all other beings—its essence. Triangles might share many qualities with other polygons, but triangles, by their nature, were polygons with three sides, the sum of whose interior angles was 180 degrees. That was the essence of a trian- gle as opposed to all other entities. Human beings possessed rea- son and moral knowledge, which made them uniquely human whatever other traits they shared with other beings.

he naturalization of values deeply affected even the most pious TChristian ethical thinkers. The profoundly influential moral philosopher Joseph Butler, bishop of first Bristol and then Durham and confessor to the Queen of England, was a naturalizing essen- tialist. In 1724, his Fifteen Sermons on Human Nature were pub- lished to almost universal acclaim in the Protestant English estab- lishment and condemned only by a handful of evangelical preach- ers then considered marginal to polite society. There he argued that God clearly had given us a distinct human nature—reason and moral sense—and a desire for happiness, which always moti- vated us. Denis Diderot Thus, Butler argued that before and wholly independent of Christian revelation, natural knowl- edge and the ordinary tendencies of our human nature led us to virtue if instead of being irrational and impulsive we mediated our pursuit of happi- “If it were, indeed, a law of nature that all living ness by our true human nature. If we pursued hap- creatures, including human beings, sought earthly piness merely by appetite, as was the case with pleasure and fled earthly pain, then it followed that beasts, we would obtain neither happiness nor virtue. To enter this historically significant way of the pursuit of such pleasure was nothing less than thinking, imagine a human being with extreme the divinely ordained end of human life.” thirst coming to a pond surrounded by animal skeletons. Where an animal would drink by appetite, a human, endowed with reason, should infer the toxicity of the water and not yield to thirst. Similarly, a hungry animal would take food by force well-being did not depend upon believing in their religious origin, from the young or from any weaker being, which we would not “since we find that self-interest, and the conveniences of this life, condemn morally. A human being, however, endowed with a sense make many men own an outward profession and approbation of of shame, should restrain appetite in a similar circumstance, as in them, whose actions sufficiently prove that they very little consider the case of sexual appetite and rape. If he did not, we would con- the Lawgiver that prescribed these rules.” sider him bestial, and we would condemn, punish, and scorn him Thus, while it might have mattered philosophically to Locke for the failure to be human. and many of his disciples that the pursuit of happiness arose from For Locke and Butler, then, it was empirically true that those the will of God, in practice that recognition was in no way neces- who acted without reason or moral awareness did not achieve sary for finding virtue. That pursuit could be accomplished in happiness. The impulsive person came to grief. The thief, cheat,

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The History of Humanism

scoundrel, or otherwise immoral person was unloved, distrusted, asserting that Christianity had added nothing that was not or and alone. Those who asserted that the immoral were happiest could not be known from the study of nature. His work became had never made a true survey of human life. known as “the Bible of deism,” and it elicited a torrent of refuta- In the work of Locke and Butler, the informed pursuit of secu- tions, quoting and explaining his scandalous views, which lar happiness led us to moral excellence. They argued, against attracted yet a larger audience for his book and a larger acquain- both Calvin and Hobbes, that self-love was good and not in con- tance with his arguments. flict with benevolence. Would one truly want someone who did something benevolent to feel sad instead of glad about it? In y far, however, this naturalization and secularization of values Butler’s words (and he was reviled for such views by evangelicals Bfound its most prominent expression in the French Enlighten- such as John Wesley): “The thing to be lamented is not that men ment, whose widely read authors and texts changed the nature of have so great regard to their own good or interest in the present Western thought. French became the lingua franca of educated world, for they have not enough.” There was no inconsistency Europe in the eighteenth century, and the major figures of the between moral duty and self-love or self-interest, “what is really Enlightenment were celebrated in reading circles and in courts from our present interest—meaning by interest hap- piness and satisfaction.” Indeed, “self-love then, though confined to the interests of the present world, does in general perfectly coin- cide with virtue, and leads us to one and the “The anti-Christian deists of the eighteenth century same course of life.” The only Christian dimen- thus did not invent the equation of worldly happiness sion, in Butler’s fifteen sermons, was that the achievement of happiness through virtue was and virtue, but they dramatically naturalized the religious reinforced by the particular command of Christ component of the pursuit of happiness. . . . ” and, for those who did not recognize their true interest, by the fear of hell. As with Locke, the link to God may have been of paramount importance to Butler, but once our moral val- ues were deemed discernable from the secular pursuit of happi- Britain to the Germanic states to Russia. By the middle of the eigh- ness, the easiest route to them would be the study of human teenth century, there emerged in Paris and the provincial cities a nature and the dynamics of the human condition. community of thinkers and writers who shared common attitudes The anti-Christian deists of the eighteenth century thus did toward the new philosophy, arbitrary authority, and the church. not invent the equation of worldly happiness and virtue, but they They saw themselves as part of a “Republic of Letters” that, in their dramatically naturalized the religious component of the pursuit of minds, stood between a sad past of superstition, despotism, igno- happiness categorically. Matthew Tindal, England’s most influen- rance, and suffering and a possible future of Enlightenment in tial and most widely read deist, in his Christianity as Old as the which—free of the presumptive authority of the past, educated by Creation (1730), made the universal laws of nature, including the experience methodically gathered and tested, and applying knowl- human pursuit of natural pleasure and avoidance of natural pain, edge toward the end of reducing human suffering and increasing the sole moral nexus between mankind and God. God required human well-being—the human species would rewrite its relation- nothing and thus had created us for our well-being alone. Now ship to the natural and social world. It is a remarkable moment of we had a criterion for judging even supposedly religious com- the history of human consciousness—this generation that thought mands, because “it unavoidably follows: nothing can be a part of of itself as leading Europe from a phantasmagoric past into a world the divine law, but what tends to promote the common interest closer to the heart’s desire for happiness. and mutual happiness of his rational creatures.” Diverse in social and educational origin but bright, sociable, This being the case, Tindal wrote dramatically, we could dis- and recognizing each other by common values, interests, and miss an ethic of denial and suffering: “God can require nothing of opponents, the philosophes, the philosophers of the French us, but what makes for our happiness . . . [and] can’t envy us any Enlightenment, coalesced around certain institutions—cafés, happiness our nature is capable of, [and] can forbid us those salons, academies—and around certain ideas. By mid-century, things only which tend to our hurt.” The “desire of happiness” they developed a sense of community with purpose, coming to was rightfully “the principle from which all human actions flow.” recognize the importance of their rejection of inherited authority Ironically, in Tindal’s work, so influential both in Britain and France, per se and their commitment to empirical evidence, rational analy- the neglect of secular happiness now was blasphemous. sis, and nature as the sole source of knowledge and values and, Tindal’s title was a prudent one (implying the eternity of from that, a commitment to the principle of utility—that the hap- Christian truth), but it offered him only legal, not intellectual, pro- piness of the species was the highest value and that all things tection because virtually all of his readers understood that he was might be judged by their contribution to happiness or suffering.

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Their commitment to these values, and their competition with was the rigorous empirical and experimental method of the best of the clergy for the role of educator of their society, led the seventeenth-century natural philosophy. philosophes into fundamental conflict with the Roman Catholic The Encyclopédie provided a focus and means of diffusion for Church in France, a struggle that was one of the defining charac- the perspectives, scholarship, science, and analyses of the new phi- teristics of the French Enlightenment. Combating the Church over losophy. In article after article, it expressed or implied its vision of issues of tolerance and censorship, and offering quite different questioning the origins and foundations of all authorities, be liefs, histories and analyses of their societies, the philosophes came to and institutions; of intellectual progress; and of the dynamism of identify the Church (and the Church the philosophes) as their science, technology, and secular inquiry. antithesis, their deepest foe. Their rejection of traditional author- Frequently attacked and occasionally suppressed, it drew its ity and supernatural claims and their espousal of secular need as authors, experts, and readers into the experience and human the highest value led the community of philosophes to see the drama of censorship, and it found agents of collusion and support Church as the epitome of arbitrary traditional authority, antisecu- in the highest structures of the old regime: the courts, the aristoc- larism, and anti-utilitarianism, and because of its powers of cen- racy, and the ministries of the monarchy. Its very existence as well sorship, persecution, intolerance, and monopoly of most educa- as its contents were corrosive to the sacred idols and established tion, as the greatest barrier to the future they desired to bring into intellectual authorities of its culture, and it played a major role in establishing the consciousness of this movement that more and more came to call itself “the party of humanity” or “the party of reason.” That party’s criteria of truth were not claims of special authority “Anticlericalism was the most common denominator or revelation, but the reason and experience of nat- ural lights explained for all to see, replicate, ana- of the Enlightenment. Primarily deistic, it believed lyze, and judge. Knowledge was communicable that God spoke to mankind through nature and nature and conformable, requiring no occult mysteries alone and that the priests had usurped and falsified and privileged interpreters. Its goal was not despotic power but rather utility: the happiness, God’s voice in sectarian religions.” self-preservation, and flourishing of the human race. That was their self-image and, increasingly, it was their image in a culture in which they were winning the war for public opinion. The Enlightenment was not without its severe being. Anticlericalism was the most common denominator of the internal debates, but the culture recognized its heart in its claim Enlightenment. Primarily deistic, it believed that God spoke to that so much of existing authority—intellectual, religious, political, mankind through nature and nature alone and that the priests social, and ethical—was arbitrary and arose from power and tra- had usurped and falsified God’s voice in sectarian religions. dition alone. The Enlightenment did not assail authority per se, The great propagator of the Enlightenment worldview, though but arbitrary authority, and in countless works it called upon prudently toned down for legal publication, was the vast project authority in all domains to justify itself. Justification, of course, of the Encyclopédie, published, essentially under the editorship of demanded criteria. What were the criteria of the Enlightenment? Denis Diderot, in twenty-eight volumes between 1751 and 1772. First, and above all, claims had to be made and supported It was a runaway best-seller—remarkably so—and was frequently solely in terms of natural experience. The Enlightenment was sold in pirated editions throughout Europe. explicitly Lockean in the most fundamental sense of Locke’s epis- The Encyclopédie engaged over 160 writers and possibly temology (his theory of knowledge). All real knowledge ultimately another hundred informal consultants, drawing into its orbit and its arose from experience of the natural world, which meant that frame of reference the expertise and scholarship of lay (and occa- claims of knowledge were not based on social or ecclesiastical sionally even clerical) France. Its tone was set by a Discours prélimi- position or on occult interactions but were communicable and ver- naire (Preliminary Discourse), published in 1751 by the celebrated ifiable in the medium of natural phenomena. This ruled out super- mathematician (and briefly coeditor) Jean Le Rond d’Alembert. He naturalism for French Enlightenment thinkers. If our knowledge argued that the seventeenth century had effected a rebirth of arose solely from natural experience, then it was bounded by and knowledge and a qualitative change in the acquisition of knowl- limited to that natural experience and what could be inferred from edge. Knowledge, he urged, in the spirit of his seventeenth-century it. As early as 1733, in his Philosophical Letters from England, hero Francis Bacon, was a human power to understand nature and Voltaire had explained Locke to his French audience by noting that to alter what could be altered closer to the human heart’s desire for for more than a millennium, philosophers had argued about the happiness. At the heart of that recent renaissance, for d’Alembert, substance of the soul, about what underlay our experience. Like

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Locke, Voltaire averred that the task of the natural philosopher was not to know the unknowable essence of the mind—a quest that had led to more than a thousand years of disagreement with- out any possible consensus—but to study its behavior, which indeed could be known by experience. As to the metaphysical issue of the nature of the soul, Voltaire proclaimed that he was proud to be as ignorant as Locke. The greatest figures of human history, Voltaire concluded, were not murderous warriors and tyrannical kings, but those thinkers who had given human beings an accurate and useful sense of both the powers and the limits of their capacities— Newton, not Caesar; Bacon, not Alexander; Locke, not Tamerlane. The authorities maintained that philosophers were a grave threat to social order, but Voltaire insisted that philosophers thought and argued in peace while “it is rather the theologians, who, having first had the ambition of becoming heads of a sect, soon came to have that of becoming heads of a faction” and sowed discord among mankind. In the view of Enlightenment thinkers, if moral knowledge were rightly limited to natural knowledge, which clearly disclosed an ineluctable human desire for happiness, then it followed that utility, most broadly defined as an increase in well-being and a decrease in suffering, was the criterion to be applied to the issues of how we should live together. Such a criterion, however, to say the least, was not unproblematic, and the debates its application entailed are with us still. Should we think of happiness in terms of individuals or in terms of the larger society? To what extent was happiness physical or psychological? Was there a happiness to Montesquieu virtue or benevolence itself? Enlightenment thinkers indeed differed in definitions of happiness and lacked precision in specifying the application of the criterion. In general, however, they held to certain “The Enlightenment was not without its severe common notions whose influence remains internal debates, but the culture recognized its heart in forcefully with us. First, they believed that without solving the problem of social cooper- its claim that so much of existing authority—intellectual, ation, however achieved, the species was religious, political, social, and ethical—was arbitrary and doomed to unhappiness. Second, they be- lieved that despotism—subjecting the lives of arose from power and tradition alone.” individuals to the arbitrary will of wielders of power—always led to misery. Third, they be- lieved that freedom of thought was a sine qua non of human progress, both as a man- occurred within a world of natural consequences. Early on, in his ner of being human and in terms of the increased mastery it Lettres persanes (Persian Letters, 1721), Montesquieu told his brought over of the causes of our well-being or suffering. Fourth, parable of the Troglodytes. At first, the tribe sought to pursue they believed that toleration was an indispensable—perhaps the happiness by vicious means, with no thought by any individual most indispensable—route to human well-being. All of these about the well-being of others, but their vice brought them only themes, for them, were interrelated. anarchy, misery, and death. The virtuous Troglodytes who survived These notions were set early in the French Enlightenment and them, on the other hand, sought happiness without government strengthened as the century progressed. Enlightenment thinkers by means of virtue, mutual concern, cooperation, and honesty; were acutely aware of the astonishing diversity of human societies and they achieved a blissful life (until, at the height of prosperity, and values, but they understood full well that this diversity they sadly traded the burden of self-government for monarchy).

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One generation after the French coercively had rid the realm of the contrast to arbitrary French society and authorities. He cam- most Protestants, one of Montesquieu’s Persian characters wrote paigned for the English innovation of inoculation (who had taken of the good fortune of the Persians in refusing to cede to the it, he explained, from the Turks) against smallpox, suppressed in clergy’s desire to banish Christians from Islamic lands, given the France both by a Faculty of Medicine that viewed the practice as a benefits they brought to that society. When a Frenchman discov- violation of the Hippocratic Oath and by a Faculty of Theology that ered that the main protagonist was from Persia, he asked, betray- saw the practice as man playing God. He praised productive citi- ing his parochialism, “But how could anyone be a Persian?” The zens and independent farmers who enriched their country while main Persian protagonist was sensitive to despotism everywhere in titled aristocrats lorded their status over everyone and crushed the Europe but not in his own life, where his power over his cloistered peasantry under taxation from which the nobility was exempt. He wives was absolute. Absence reduced the fear by which he ruled praised the gifts gotten from a science unrestricted by theological there, however, and, as his favorite wife wrote in a final letter as censorship. Above all, Voltaire stressed the bounty and peace of a she betrayed him, the voice of nature had replaced his rule. Did nation where citizens of all religions and backgrounds could work you truly believe, she asked, that I was made to serve you? “for the benefit of mankind.” In an England that encouraged trade and commerce, he noted, Christian, Jew, heretic, and Muslim trusted each other’s word “and reserved the name of infidel for those who went bankrupt.” If there were one religion in England, he warned a France proud of its uniformity, there would be tyranny; if there were two, “they would cut each oth- “The Enlightenment did not assail authority ers’ throats.” But there were thirty, so they “lived per se, but arbitrary authority, and in countless works happily and in peace.” Indeed, the great issue and battle cry of the it called upon authority in all domains to justify itself.” Enlightenment that united virtually all of its diverse tendencies and that won over public opinion was toleration. After two centuries of religious hatreds, persecutions, and wars that left Europe in exhaus- tion and in recoil from its own cruelties, the Enlightenment found its audience receptive to the claim that the intolerant always caused harm and There was a cosmopolitanism to much of Enlightenment that toleration always was a blessing. Voltaire—who was the first thought that fought against the European will to see all things in to hold a pen that indeed was mightier than any sword—spent reference to their own place in the world. Montesquieu, through- more than four decades, with increasing fame and success, trum- out the Lettres persanes, emphasized the vanity of each nation peting the cause of toleration writ large and decrying the evils of judging things only through its own eyes. Voltaire, in his Histoire intolerance. Human beings should be free of the oppression of universelle (1753), did not begin with the Ancient Near East or the civil and religious power. In the civil sphere, it was slavery that Greeks, but with China. He presented the Chinese empire as the embodied the worst of a failure to understand the evil of not first great civilization, attributing to them, before the Christian era, treating individuals as one’s fellow creatures. In Candide (1759), minted currency, fine fabric, the invention of paper, printing, porce- the hero and Cacambo meet a miserable, ill-clothed slave whose lain, clocks, gunpowder, distance navigation, and astronomical grinding work left him with only one arm and one leg. Voltaire, instruments, which he noted they developed a thousand years through him, spoke to his readers: “This is the price paid for the before Julius Caesar lived. (He attributed the Chinese decline vis-à- sugar you eat in Europe.” In his Traité de tolerance (Treatise on vis Europe to excessive devotion to tradition and to the complexity Toleration,1763), he portrayed the horror of judicial murder due to of their written language.) Diderot, in his Supplément au Voyage religious intolerance and argued that it would be insufficient sim- de Bougainville (Supplement to Bougainville’s Voyage, 1772), cre- ply to claim that all Christians should cease their disputes and love ated a fictionalized Tahitian sage who, as the islanders bid farewell each other. “I, however, am going further: I say that we should to the first French to land there, bemoaned the fate that awaited regard all men as our brothers. What? The Turk my brother? The Tahiti. The Europeans would return, he warned, to impose their Chinaman my brother? The Jew? The Siamese? Yes, without religion, to make the Tahitians feel guilty and criminal about their doubt.” When the innocent are victims of “error, passion, or natural sexual practices, and to tyrannize them. With the advent of fanaticism,” and when those who administer the law “can slay the Enlightenment, the West began to engage the rest of the with impunity by a legal decree,” then the public can see “that no world in other than missionary terms. man’s life is safe.” When Salman Rushdie, under sentence of In Voltaire’s Philosophical Letters, it was England that provided death for supposedly mocking Islam, emerged from hiding at his

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first press conference and was asked what he had done during Such debate accelerated at what were the boundaries of the that year, he said that he had been reading a great deal of Mon- Enlightenment, the categorical naturalism of the late French tesquieu and Voltaire. Enlightenment materialists and atheists, who included Julien Offray The formula in Enlightenment thought, which remains of such de La Mettrie, the Baron d’Holbach, Jacques-André Naigeon, and, great relevance to current debates around the world, was that if most famously, Denis Diderot. Although in practice orthodox eigh- the pursuit of happiness and the reduction of pain were indeed teenth-century thinkers disfavored spiritualist or supernatural the essential human motivations, then the only justification of the explanations of natural phenomena, they remained wedded, in state, a creation of culture, was an implicit social contract to limit fundamental philosophy, to the view that matter, passive and inert, power to that end. There are moments in intellectual history when had acquired motion from an immaterial being (God) and that the a book’s remarkable success arises from a culture’s recognition of source of its spontaneous motion (as in plant growth, animal what it has come to believe and to reject. In 1764, Cesare Beccaria behavior, or the voluntary movements of human beings) could only published Dei delitti e delle pene (On Crimes and Punishments). It be immaterial (vegetable, animal, and human souls). In the case of was quickly translated into French and English (and other major vegetables and animals, spiritualist explanations of specific physical European languages) and became an international best-seller. For behavior increasingly came to be seen as an admission of igno- Beccaria, a deep admirer of Montesquieu, Voltaire, and other rance. In the case of human nature and behavior, however, almost French Enlightenment authors, the only model of both govern- all thinkers refused to extend any model of plant and animal ment and society consistent with our knowledge of human nature behavior to human beings and, above all, to their essential behav- was that they were formed by individuals sacrificing the least pos- iors of consciousness, knowledge, and choice. We had a soul. In sible portion of their natural liberty in exchange for the beneficial the work of the French materialists, spiritualist explanations of any security of a state that repressed crime and let them live in safety. human behavior were deemed a dead end, simply an admission of From this followed a clear understanding of the legitimate ends and limits of government: the greatest happiness of the greatest number con- sistent with a minimal loss of individual liberty (a liberty itself essential to the pursuit of happiness). All law and power, then, must justify itself by demonstrating that it secured the greatest happiness at the least cost of individual liberty. “When Salman Rushdie, under sentence of death If laws did not secure that, they were unjust. for supposedly mocking Islam, emerged from hiding at With such a model, Beccaria sought to strip his first press conference and was asked what he had criminal codes of much of what dominated them in the eighteenth century, and in so doing done during that year, he said that he had been reading he began a project of reform that, for many, is a great deal of Montesquieu and Voltaire.” ongoing today. From such a wholly secular and natural understanding of society, there could be no victimless crimes, no religious crimes, and no penalties beyond the minimum punish- ment necessary to deter real crimes. Anything else was tyranny and cruelty. With vivid rheto- ric, he sought the categorical elimination of theology and religion ignorance. When we truly knew causes, we had natural, material from the law (in the definition of crime and its severity, and in the explanations. When we did not know causes, we attributed them determination of any punishment). All punishment, to be just, to God or spirits. As d’Holbach put it in works from 1770 onward, must be minimal and purposeful, which for Beccaria and so many theology was nothing but “the ignorance of natural causes of his Enlightenment readers eliminated torture in both interroga- reduced to a system.” tion and penalties, and the death penalty, since swift, fair, and cer- In that sense, for the materialist atheists, spiritualism was a tain justice was a far more effective deterrent than death. Because confession of helplessness and an abandonment of inquiry. all citizens entered society to secure, not lose, their freedom to Materialism alone removed the barriers to knowledge and mas- pursue happiness, the protection of the accused had categorical tery. It was an invitation to human exploration of the human phe- primacy. Because all citizens had sacrificed the same portion of nomenon and a tearing down of boundaries to science. Indeed, natural liberty, there must be the strictest equality before the law. they ultimately justified their materialism not on philosophical That agenda, of course, remains a work in progress. By naturaliz- grounds but as a strategy of human knowledge, adaptation, inter- ing and secularizing moral and political values, the Enlightenment action with nature, and survival. opened the door to distinctly modern debate. We were not two beings, they argued, with the soul or mind

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not categorically distinct, and that the transition from other ani- mals to man was gradual and founded upon observable physical differences of constitution, such as what was knowable from the evidence of comparative embryology and anatomy. The more com- plex the brain and central nervous system were, the more complex the cognitive and volitional capacity of any species. Animals, as any farmer or pet owner knew, they argued, engaged in ethical behav- iors. What we named “soul” was the effect, not the cause, of the body’s behaviors, and nature had made us organisms who were capable of thought and capable of studying ourselves as a part of nature. In short, before such disciplines were even possible, they invited the creation of the sciences of physiological psychology, neuroscience, and comparative ethology. They invited the creation of a science of the human species without any limits set by theol- ogy or religion, indeed, without any limits set by anything but the desire for enhanced well-being and a reduction of suffering. This desire for a wholly naturalistic science was most pro- nounced in the speculative (and posthumously published) works of Diderot. All matter—all nature—was potentially alive, moving between the “sensitive” and “insensitive” (what we would term the organic and the inorganic) by wholly natural and material agencies and catalysts, given time. Minerals became brain cells, and brain cells returned to being minerals. Physical forms and behaviors depended upon physical organization and catalysts. Life and death were two modes, two different organizations, of the same matter. For the French materialists, the hypothesis of God in Voltaire science explained nothing, confused much, and was unnecessary.

n Le rêve de d’Alembert (D’Alembert’s Dream)— Iwritten in 1769, discussed among his friends, but unpublished until 1830—Diderot engaged in “. . . The Enlightenment should not be understood in proto-evolutionary speculations, arguing that all species had emerged from prior forms in the terms of the particulars of twenty-first century course of periods of time almost immeasurably agendas. Rather, it bequeathed values, ways of thinking, greater than that granted by Scripture, and, and criteria whose potential would only be actualized indeed, that all species would be ephemeral. The survival of a species, he and his friend Naigeon by later phenomena and are being actualized still.” would write, depended upon its ability to “coexist” with an ever-changing nature. As d’Holbach urged in the Système de la nature (The System of Nature,1770), mankind wished to see itself as the king of nature, but let one atom displace itself distinct from the body. Rather, what we termed the soul was sim- somewhere in the universe and it could set off a ply a behavior of the body. They noted the effect of illness, opiates, chain of determined events that would eliminate mankind from the sexuality, the circulation of the blood, temperature, and age upon universe entirely. Thus, our survival, for the atheistic materialists, our cognitive and volitional capacities—something inexplicable, depended upon successful adaptation to a changing natural envi- they argued, if soul and body were distinct but wholly comprehen- ronment, and that was the only and ultimate natural source of nor- sible as a matter of physiology, including the physiology of the mative values. There was an ethic, then, to scientific truth itself: If brain and nervous system. They insisted that human beings were we deluded ourselves, we betrayed not only our happiness but our

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lives. In his Additions aux pensées philosophiques (Additions to the spontaneous, that is, undesigned order that Charles Darwin could Philosophical Thoughts, 1770), Diderot wrote about us as trying to offer to unbelief. Rather, it turned its attention, above all else, to find our way in a dark forest with only the small lantern of reason what it saw as the moral arguments and imperatives of under- to guide us. Along comes a stranger, he wrote, who tells us that it standing nature without recourse to a supreme being. is so dark that we should blow out the lantern. That man, Diderot concluded, is a theologian. he particulars of the Enlightenment should not be understood For d’Holbach, human life was a production of nature and Tin terms of the particulars of twenty-first century agendas. wholly subject to its laws. Ignorant of those laws and desperate to Rather, it bequeathed values, ways of thinking, and criteria whose preserve himself from pain and fear, man had invented illusory potential would only be actualized by later phenomena and are realities apart from nature, illusions on which he convinced him- being actualized still. Did Jefferson, for example, believe in the self that his well-being or suffering depended. This strategy, so to equality of races and of the sexes? No. He was deeply a man of speak, had been profoundly dysfunctional for humankind. First, it his particular time and place. He urged, however, as “self-evident” had led us away from efforts to understand nature on its own real that the then generic “man” was endowed with unalienable terms, which alone could put experience and knowledge in the rights to “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness,” and that gov- service of the heart’s desire for ease from pain. We were forfeiting ernments existed precisely to secure those preexistent rights. That is the very possibility of that happiness or diminution of suffering what Locke believed, and it is what most deists believed. The histor- that we were seeking through religion and supernaturalism. ical resonance of that belief, which Enlightenment thinkers pro- Second, the turn away from nature, in addition to leaving us igno- claimed to be universal—whatever its authors thought to be its rant of real causes, had led us to create gods, superstitions, and application in their lifetimes—has inspired virtually every movement myths as would-be routes to well-being, which, history taught us, for human legal equality and dignity. Did French Enlightenment had only increased our misery. Fearful and helpless, we turned to authors—living in an age when more than four out of five of their authorities that we believed could control the forces above nature, countrymen were needed to work the land and most could not read when it was our mastery of nature itself upon which our well- a published book—believe in equal opportunity? No. They identified being depended. The only means of redressing the human condi- despotism as an ultimate horror, however, and embraced the view tion was to see and study nature as the sole cause and site of all that society was a voluntary association of equal individuals. They that concerned or affected us. rejected the presumptive authority of the past and invited posterity The foundation of morality, then, in this wholly naturalistic to work for a fairer, less cruel, and more humane future. They set worldview, was the human desire for survival, pleasure, and social loose in the world the secular values according to which all individu- existence. The words virtue and vice, our moral language, only als should enhance their lives and reduce their suffering. had meaning with reference to efforts to elicit behavior that The seeds of a new way of viewing nature and our place in it served that desire and to suppress behavior that betrayed it. In Le and of proceeding toward human mastery of the natural causes rêve de d’Alembert, Diderot derived from this what he presented of well-being or pain were now in the world. They announced a as the only two moral criteria: the useful and the pleasurable. If an set of goals that changed the possibilities and, at times, the course act served both, as in procreation, with its pleasure and its bene- of history: not only life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, but fit to society, all the better; but if something were useful without legal equality, a free science, a secular society within which reli- causing pain, or pleasurable without causing social harm, it was gion is a matter of private and voluntary life, religious toleration, wholly moral. This elicited Diderot’s explicit philosophical defense and a belief that government is the servant not the master of its of masturbation and homosexuality. All things were natural, and citizens. The Enlightenment also bequeathed to us the freedom to they were to be judged by the pain or pleasure they caused and disagree. In its wake, the debates of the modern age began in all by the harm or benefit to society and the species. Nature was in of their intensity. For many of us, the Enlightenment also unloosed constant flux, and it could not be understood in terms of fixed the great potential of natural humanity in the natural world. essences. Homosexuality might be far less common than hetero- sexuality, but it was wholly as natural as that which was more fre- quent a phenomenon. It brought pleasure, and it caused no harm. That, for Diderot, settled the ethical argument. Alan Charles Kors is the Henry Charles Lea Professor of History at the In Le rêve de d’Alembert, Diderot suggested that the implica- University of Pennsylvania, where he teaches the intellectual history of tions of atheism and naturalistic materialism for human beings the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. He is a recipient of the 2005 were self-acceptance within the limits of possible change and self- National Humanities Medal. He is the editor of The Encyclopedia of the improvement within the limits offered by knowledge of causes. Enlightenment (2002) and author of Atheism in France, 1650–1729: Enlightenment atheism was unable to offer the explanations of The Orthodox Sources of Disbelief (1990).

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The Basis of Paul’s Ideas of Christ

George A. Wells

n my previous FREE INQUIRY article, “Jesus: What’s the Evidence?” amazement at this speedy development. In his How on Earth Did (August/September 2011), I noted that the Jesus of the earliest Jesus Become a God?, he repeatedly calls it not merely remarkable Iextant Christian literature is fundamentally a supernatural per- but “astonishing,” “amazing,” and “extraordinary.” sonage. By “the earliest extant Christian literature,” I mean the It seems to me, as it has to others, easier to believe that the early Epistles, including those most scholars accept as authentically two Jesus figures were originally quite distinct—and that an orig- Pauline (that is, written by Paul himself). In these documents, Jesus inal personage, supposedly supernatural, was in due course pro- is portrayed as “the power of God and the wisdom of God” who vided with a detailed biography (as happened with the gods of had assisted God in the creation of all things (1 Cor. 1:24; 8:6). Greece) and in this way was identified with a real human being God sent him as his own son to die by crucifixion as a sacrifice for who had preached in Galilee in the early first century. This article sin “in the likeness of sinful flesh” (Rom. 8:3). Where and when hints at how this identification of the two figures could have come Jesus lived and died in this likeness is not indicated in these docu- about, but it is more concerned with explaining on what basis Paul ments, which in no way suggests that he was a contemporary or and other early Christians worshipped as their redeemer a super- near-contemporary of their authors. natural figure whom they believed to have been crucified on Earth Paul had written his Epistles by the year 60 CE. The Gospels of well before their own lifetimes. Matthew, Mark, and Luke, all composed between 70 and 100 CE, depict a Jesus who had been crucified ca. 30 CE and whom Rowan he religion of one day is often largely a reshuffling of ideas of Williams, archbishop of Canterbury, characterizes as “a skilled arti- Tyesterday; and so we may appropriately scrutinize the religious san from a not very distinguished town in a backwater province ideas of earliest Christianity’s Hellenistic environment. The pagan mystery religions prominent there have often been held to supply significant parallels. John M. Court noted that the cultic drama of these “It seems to me ... easier to believe that the two Jesus mysteries was often an enactment of the fate figures were originally quite distinct—and that an original of the relevant deity—of his dying and in some cases of his rising again. Such ideas, he says, personage, supposedly supernatural, was in due course may well have exerted influence on many an provided with a detailed biography ... and in this way infant Christian community, as when Paul identified with a real human being who had preached in speaks of “baptism into Christ as incorporation into his death and resurrection” (Rom. 6:2–7). Galilee in the early first century.” However, Christianity originated as a Jewish sect, and so it is within Judaism that one must look for the most significant antecedents. Here the Jewish Wisdom literature is particularly rele- occupied by foreign armies” (in fact there were no Roman forces vant. It is extremely varied. In some passages, Wisdom figures as a then in Galilee, although Romans ruled in Jerusalem), and hence primordial being who, as in the Wisdom of Solomon from the Old something like an ancient equivalent to “a car mechanic from Testament apocrypha, sits beside God’s throne as his consort (9:4) somewhere near Basra.” Nevertheless, the archbishop regards and, according to Proverbs 8: 22–31, participates with him in the cre- him—as do Christians generally—as one and the same person as ation of the world. When Wisdom sought an abode on Earth, the Jesus of the early Epistles; so we must suppose that Jesus came mankind refused to accept her, whereupon she returned in despair to be venerated as almost divine “well within the lifetime and the to heaven (1 Enoch 42:1f). Tuckett notes that these ideas were neighbourhood of those who had known him intimately.” “heavily exploited in early Christianity, where the texts concerned The Christian case, then, is—as the New Testament scholar were applied to Jesus.” The article “Jesus Christ” in the 1993 Oxford Christopher Tuckett admits—that by the time of Paul a surprisingly Companion to the Bible (Bruce M. Metzger and Michael David “enormous amount of christological development” had taken Coogan, editors) states that a “Christology of pre-existence and place. According to Tuckett’s colleague the late Martin Hengel, incarnation,” according to which Christ existed in heaven before his more happened in this regard within this period of barely two birth on Earth, is “generally agreed” to “have developed from the decades than in the whole of the next seven centuries. Larry identification of Jesus with the wisdom of God.” In the Pauline and Hurtado, another New Testament scholar, can barely contain his deutero-Pauline letters (early Epistles whose authorship remains dis-

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puted), we find that Jewish statements about Wisdom are made after execution by other means, as it often was. Both periods of about Jesus. I have already quoted 1 Cor. 1:24 and 8:6. And Col. 2:3 persecution are alluded to in Jewish religious literature (for instance claims that “in Christ are hid all the treasures of wisdom and knowl- in the Dead Sea Scrolls), and Jannaeus’s crucifixion of eight hun- edge.” The previous chapter of Colossians (1:15–20) spells out these dred Pharisees left a strong impression on the Jewish world. Such ideas. Like the Jewish Wisdom figure, Christ sought acceptance on knowledge could well have seemed to Paul to confirm what he Earth but was rejected and returned to heaven. supposed the Wisdom traditions were telling him—namely that a Admittedly, the Jewish Wisdom literature does not state that preexistent personage had come to Earth in human form to suffer Wisdom lived on Earth as a historical personage and assumed a shameful death there. His musings on the Old Testament could human flesh in order to do so. However, commentators have shown also have suggested similar ideas. He does say that “the mystery,” how easy it would be for readers to suppose that, when the texts long hidden, is “now disclosed, and through the prophetic writings spoke of Wisdom “setting up tent” on Earth (e.g., Eccles. 24:8), the is made known to all nations” (Rom. 16:25–26). meaning was that Wisdom lived a human life, because “house of In Paul’s environment, then, he would have known that pious the tent” or simply “tent” is used (even by Paul, 2 Cor. 5:1 and 4) Jews had earlier been crucified, although dates and circumstances in the sense of man’s earthly existence. We may recall 2 Peter 1:14, would have been known by many only vaguely if at all. Of course in which Peter is represented as foretelling his own martyrdom with Christianity could not have been based on vague historical remi- the words: “I know that the striking of my tent will come soon.” niscence. The earliest documents show that it was based on emo- From the tradition that Wisdom was active in creation and sought a tional needs, on mystical beliefs and contagious delusions by peo- dwelling-place with humanity, it is, as Martin Scott observes, “only ple who were expecting the end of the world to come upon them. one final logical step” to “Wisdom became flesh”—a natural draw- It was molded in the meetings of the congregations under the ing out of the process of Wisdom’s “development as an active force influence of preachings, prophesyings, and speaking in tongues. involved in the affairs of the world.” Another aspect of the pre-Christian Jewish Wisdom literature was the genre known as the “wisdom tale” according to which the righteous man—no particular person is meant—will be per- “That Wisdom traditions, however different in kind, secuted but vindicated postmortem. In the underlie the portraits of both the Pauline and the Gospel Wisdom of Solomon, his enemies have him con- demned to “a shameful death” (2:20), but he Jesus may well have facilitated giving to the former the then confronts them as their judge in heaven, kind of human biography characteristic of the latter.” where he is “counted among the sons of God.” Cognate is the martyrological book 2 Maccabees, with its belief in the resurrection of the faithful. Meanwhile, 4 Maccabees adds to this the idea that someone steadfast in the faith unto martyrdom can benefit Early Christianity was certainly a charismatic movement in which others because God will regard his death as a “ransom” for their ecstatic experiences were, as Heikki Räisänen has said, “daily lives, as an expiation for their sins (6:28–29; 17:21–22). bread.” Paul and his fellow Christians were convinced that they Wisdom traditions also underlie the Gospels’ story of a were receiving messages from the risen Jesus. They possessed Galilean Jesus; both he and John the Baptist are represented as “the Spirit of Christ” (Rom. 8:9), and at their gatherings this spirit messengers sent by Wisdom (Luke 7:33–35) to preach the need prompted them to speak words of “wisdom” or “knowledge” or for repentance before an imminent and final judgment. That to utter “prophecy” (1 Cor. 12:7–10). Through the Spirit, God had Wisdom traditions, however different in kind, underlie the por- revealed to them “what no eye had seen, nor ear heard, nor the traits of both the Pauline and the Gospel Jesus may well have facil- heart of man conceived” (1 Cor. 2:9–10)—in short, the “mystery itated giving to the former the kind of human biography charac- of Christ,” not known to earlier generations but “now revealed to teristic of the latter. his holy apostles and prophets” (Ephes. 3:3–5). That a martyr’s death could function as an atoning sacrifice, to An element in this mystery was that Christ “died to sin” on the be followed by his immortality, was, then, a not unfamiliar idea in cross and that believers similarly die to sin when they reenact his Paul’s Hellenistic environment. A “shameful death” could be envis- death, burial, and resurrection at their baptism: into the water repre- aged, allowing the idea of death by crucifixion; and Paul and his sents death, under the water represents burial, and out of the water contemporaries would have known of crucifixions of holy men that represents resurrection. Thus those who have been “baptized into had occurred well before their own lifetimes. Josephus tells that Christ Jesus” were “baptized into his death” and so must consider Antiochus Epiphanes, king of Syria in the second century BCE, and themselves “dead to sin and alive to God in Christ Jesus” (Rom. the Hasmonean ruler Alexander Jannaeus of the first century BCE 6:2–11; cf. Coloss. 2:12). Hence Paul can say: “It is no longer I who both caused living Jews to be crucified in Jerusalem. He expressly live, but Christ who lives in me” for “I have been crucified with notes that in these cases this punishment was not inflicted only Christ” (Gal. 2:20). Christians have been transferred from one lord-

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ship (that of sin) to another (that of God), and the transfer has been but it can be reconstructed from the material common to the effected by their participation in Christ’s death. David Seeley com- Gospels of Matthew and Luke that they did not draw from the ments that when Paul speaks in this way of dying with Christ, he Gospel of Mark (their other major source). In a 1992 article in New seems to think of Christ’s death not as merely a past occurrence but Testament Studies, Seeley observed how surprising it is that Q is as “in some sense a mythical event.” He has “mythologized the con- “apparently so indifferent” to Jesus’s death when this event is so cept of death” so that it means to “leave the dominion of sin.” The important in the extant canonical books. The author of Mark may individual who emerges from dying with Christ is still in some sense not have known Q, but he certainly knew Q-type material. (For his or her former self, but Paul “emphasized the fissure between old instance, both Mark and Q speak independently of John the Baptist and new very strongly.” Seeley adds that, unsurprisingly, precisely and his relationship to Jesus.) And it was Mark who first combined how Paul conceived all this “is not spelled out in his letters.” Tuckett Q-type Jesus material with Pauline-type traditions of a Christ who observes in his 2001 book that “at times Paul seems to assume died by crucifixion. In my previous article, I noted Bultmann’s statement to this effect, and other New Testament scholars have since followed his lead. Thus Seeley gives the following approving summary of Burton L. Mack’s view: “Mark “Mark ... gave Jesus’s death a date and a decided to combine the ‘Jesus tradition,’ setting consonant with what was known of whose interest lay in recounting the words and deeds of Jesus’ ministry, with the ‘Christ cult,’ the Galilean preacher, thus transforming the mystical known to us through Paul’s writings.” In effect- Pauline Christ into a recognizable historical figure.” ing this combination, Mark naturally gave Jesus’s death a date and a setting consonant with what was known of the Galilean preacher, thus transforming the mystical Pauline Christ that the person of Jesus is some kind of macro-entity enveloping into a recognizable historical figure. This is the case I have argued and encompassing all Christians so that they are ‘in’ him.” Hence in detail elsewhere—most recently in my 2009 book, Cutting Jesus he can say that “there is no condemnation for those who are in Down to Size (Open Court). Whether or not I am right, it remains Christ Jesus” (Rom. 8:1). true that the Pauline-type and the Gospel-type traditions do not In Paul’s thinking, Christ’s death by crucifixion is a particularly fit together and that it is not plausible to align them by positing appropriate form of the requisite “shameful death” because he an “amazing” christological development in the brief period that thereby became accursed. Paul quotes Deuteronomy: “Christ separates them. redeemed us—having become a curse for us—for it is written: ‘Cursed be every one who hangs on a tree’” (Gal. 3:13). Bart Further Reading Ehrmann explains what Paul had in mind: yes, Christ was cursed, Court, John M., and D. Cohn-Sherbok, eds. 2001. Religious Diversity in the Graeco-Roman World. Sheffield, U.K.: Sheffield Academic Press. but not for any unrighteous acts of his own but for those of oth- Ehrmann, Bart. 2006. Peter, Paul and Mary Magdalene. Oxford, U.K.: ers. Sin entails punishment from God, and Christ suffered the req- Oxford University Press. uisite punishment on mankind’s behalf. He “suffered for the sake Hurtado, Larry. 2005. How on Earth Did Jesus Become a God? Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans. of others who had violated God’s will and stood under his wrath.” Räisänen, Heikki. 1987. Paul and the Law, 2nd ed. Tübingen, Germany: He died “so that they themselves would not have to pay the price Mohr. for their own sins.” Räisänen, Heikki. 2010. The Rise of Christian Beliefs. Minneapolis, Minn.: Fortress. Räisänen notes that by the time Christianity originated, there Scott, Martin. 1992. Sophia and the Johannine Jesus. Sheffield, U.K.: was an increasing tendency to emphasize the role of transcendent Sheffield Academic Press. heavenly figures in the end-time events expected and that this Seeley, David. 1994. Deconstructing the New Testament. Leiden, Germany: Brill. may well “reflect a certain disillusionment with human Messiahs, ———. 1990. The Noble Death. Sheffield, U.K.: JSOT Press. and consequently a desire to diminish politically dangerous mes- Tuckett, Christopher. 2001. Christology and the New Testament. Edin - sianism.” This would have allowed the development of the idea burgh, Scotland: Edinburgh University Press. Tuckett, Christopher. 1996. Q and the History of Early Christianity. that a supernatural personage came to Earth and suffered in Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson. weakness for others, instead of fighting in strength for them. Williams, Rowan. 2007. Tokens of Trust. An Introduction to Christian Paul’s Jesus was “crucified in weakness,” but his “power is made Belief. Norwich, U.K.: Canterbury Press. perfect in weakness” (2 Cor. 12:9; 13:4). In sum, what Paul says of Christ’s crucifixion is the sheerest mys- ticism and has no obvious connection with the supposedly historical George A. Wells is emeritus professor of German at the University of execution of a Galilean artisan some twenty years earlier. Indeed the London. He is the author of numerous books and articles on the origins earliest record of this Galilean Jesus has no account at all of his of Christianity and on German intellectual history. He is a laureate of the death. It consists mainly of his sayings and is known as the Sayings International Academy of Humanism. Gospel Q (Quelle, German for “source”). No copy of Q has survived,

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Grog and Zog A Parable for Secular Humanists (and Everyone Else)

Dan Carsen

long time ago, there was a small band of cavepeople trying from religious belief or ancient texts but from a natural process? to survive in a harsh world. The group’s two best hunters, What if this secular humanist teaching aid was a four-paragraph AGrog and Zog, had been tracking prey together for years. story that could be read or told in roughly two minutes, with per- Among the many things Grog and Zog had learned was that haps another minute of explanation if necessary? That additional when they worked together, they were more likely to catch the explanation, by the way, might go something like this. meat that helped feed themselves and their band and to get all Imagine the events in the story of Grog and Zog repeated hun- sorts (yes, all sorts) of adulation and affection as a result. dreds, thousands, millions of times, down through the genera- One morning, Grog and Zog were out hunting when a bear tions, wherever there were people. Which individuals would last ambushed them. Grog knew that if he sprinted away, he’d prob- long enough to reproduce? Which would reproduce more while ably survive, but his trusted friend Zog would be killed. Zog knew alive? And which types of bands were more likely to survive? that if he bolted, he’d be the only reliable hunter left in the band, (Further hints here could include the words strength, intelligence, the thought of which saddened and terrified him. Whether they imagination, cooperation, nurturing, and trust, as in trust in your realized it or not, there was a good chance they would both sur- teammates in the game of survival.) vive if they both stayed and fought. For whatever reasons, they stood their ground together, fought off the bear with their spears, Of course, true biblical literalists—the hardcore “Young and lived to hunt again. Earthers”—wouldn’t accept the point of the story because it doesn’t And hunt they did, that very day. They used their imaginations jibe with their archaic conceptions of the age of the universe. But in to “think like a deer,” employing that early form of empathy to this real world of limited time and resources, it’s not the fundamen- track a big buck and eventually kill it. But soon after they hoisted talist “thumping thoughtless” whom we secular humanists should the carcass onto their shoulders, a large man they’d never seen strive to convince of the possibility of our being moral. It’s the rela- appeared on their path. He was just one man, but he looked tively reachable and reasonable middle—the thoughtful people of strong, and he had a club. With the bear incident fresh in their faith who sometimes ponder morality on a level deeper than “God minds, Grog and Zog decided to play it safe, stick together, and says x” or “The Bible says y.” To believers or nonbelievers who’ve kill the man before he could hurt them. kept up with recent science on genetic altruism and the like, and to As night fell, Grog and Zog returned to the cave to much drool- people with the most basic grasp of human history, it’s clear that ing and cheering. The two hunters relayed the story of that event- small bands of weak, slow, tiny-toothed, nearly clawless early ful day while the others shouted and danced with abandon. humans couldn’t have survived and thrived in an indifferent world Everyone ate as much as possible while the food was available. The without working together. And the parable of Grog and Zog—a sim- old man of the clan, perhaps feeling left out of the hunt, warned plified fusion of relevant events that must have happened to our the others not to get too happy because The Spirits could take ancestors countless times—offers a snapshot of how. But in this everything away. After all, that had happened to a less-cooperative case, the snapshot comes before the bulb flashes: once a reader or clan in the next valley: their single best hunter had been hit by listener understands that cooperation and altruism (not just fear, lightning, and the little band had perished the following winter. aggression, and greed) have worked for us through the ages, it’s a tiny leap to grasping how, over time, basic human morality came * * * about through a natural process independent of religion. It evolved, And now back to modernity. even if that “e-word” is something to avoid with certain audiences. Polls show that most Americans are people of faith and that An understanding that morality has natural roots would those who aren’t comprise the least-trusted group in the nation. undercut the no-religion-means-no-morals equation. It would also Among people of faith, the most persistent obstacle to entertain- help chip away at one of humanity’s most persistent sources of ing the possibility that a moral nonbeliever might exist is the wide- division, erode belief systems that undoubtedly contain lots of wis- spread intuitive assumption that nonreligious equals nonmoral. (If dom (which can be retained) and lots of nonsense, and wear experience or careful thought hasn’t yet brought you to this con- down mindsets that cause many humans to shirk ultimate respon- clusion about our faithful friends, take it from a writer who lives sibility for what happens here on Earth. in Alabama.) More specifically and locally, the knowledge that morality has Given this reality, wouldn’t it be useful to have a simple, repro- natural roots would counteract the self-fulfilling and institution- ducible way to explain how and why human morality stems not serving notion that a newborn baby is a somehow a “sinner”—a

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sick, damaging concept that persists despite a growing body of metaphysical arguments about the universe. So we have to research that shows humans are born with an urge to help others. address the questions “How would I live without my faith?” and As freethinkers around the world know consciously or intu- “What would be my guide?” itively, and as the parable of Grog and Zog demonstrates, basic Luckily, stories have power (see the Bible), and a simple tale morality is human, not Christian, Jewish, Muslim, Hindu, or that shows how natural processes account for the roots of human Buddhist. This is not to say that religious belief hasn’t been bene- morality is no exception. The parable even illustrates how seem- ficial to humanity and therefore bred into us also (there is such a ingly opposite traits—productive and counterproductive aspects thing as a helpful misconception), only that human morality— of human nature—arose from the same process. After all, some of which of course is shaped, molded, undercut, or bolstered by our what worked for us a long time ago (say, preemptive aggression physical and cultural environment—evolved long before the faiths with spears) is generally unhelpful today. It’s a simple and elegant we know today. It’s sad that the idea that morality evolved is so explanation that has the added bonus of being true. There’s no out of left field, so alien to most believers. Sadly, it makes perfect need for a God as interpreted by fallible primates in order to sense that many believers would see things that way, given that explain the origin of morality, or for God’s horned opposite— they’ve been taught since toddlerhood that God/Jesus/Allah/etc. is tellingly, often a symbol of nature—in order to explain our worst what makes you (and life) good or provides even the possibility of behavior. There’s also no need for the futile mental gymnastics goodness. The lack of the knowledge that morality evolved—and required to rationalize a moral, omniscient, and omnipotent God is therefore shared—is the main barrier to a less superstitious view currently allowing, say, a starving little girl to be raped and of the world and to a less judgmental view of people who don’t butchered by drug-addicted child soldiers. (One’s revulsion at that buy into a particular orthodoxy or believe in a warden in the sky. has nothing to do with faith. It has to do with being a human who The assumption that the good in humans comes exclusively from hasn’t been made into a killing machine by horrendous external God (and the bad from nature) will always trump antireligious factors and/or abnormal wiring.) The believer’s problem of evil is sidestepped, its burden made moot by basic and increasingly ver- ifiable knowledge of ourselves. Nature has long been blamed for the Hobbesian “nasty, Stephen Law and Daniel Dennett brutish, and short” aspects of human existence, but it is only recently getting the credit for other traits that have made us Receive Forkosch Awards human, not to mention humane. Our natural heritage is complex, and it’s our job—our job—now to decide which traits to try to per- The Council for Secular Humanism honored the recipients of petuate and reinforce (cooperation, empathy, altruism, curiosity?) the 2011 Forkosch Awards at the “Moving Secularism and which traits to try to mitigate or outgrow (aggression, preju- Forward” joint conference of The Council and the Center for dice, fear of the other, gluttony?). It turns out that the big ethical Inquiry held March 1–4, 2012, at the Hyatt Regency Orlando question isn’t “Which faith must win out for us to live in peace?” International Airport in Orlando, Florida. Established in 1988, but, “Which human traits are still desirable and which are now the Morris D. Forkosch Award recognizes the best humanist counterproductive?” I think most people would even agree on the book of the year and carries an honorarium of $1,000. The answers, once the right question is asked. Selma V. Forkosch Award recognizes the year’s outstanding Imagine a world where the vast majority of people—religious article in FREE INQUIRY magazine, the Council’s flagship journal, and otherwise—understood that the baseline, if not the particu- and carries a prize of $250. lars, of morality itself was something that grew out of our long The Morris D. Forkosch Award for Best Book of 2011 went history of working together; that it was something shared to U.K. philosopher Stephen Law for his book Humanism: A throughout humanity. That’s not an antireligion idea. It’s a unify- Very Short Introduction (Oxford University Press, 2011). Dr. ing, prohuman concept regardless of one’s faith or lack thereof. Law is editor of Think, the journal of the Royal Institute Of So with that in mind, go forth, my brothers and sisters. Spread Philosophy, and secretary of the International Academy of the word. Tell it. Copy it. Paste it. Post it. E-mail it. Snail-mail it. Humanism. Dr. Law was in attendance to accept the award. Inject it in one form or another into the body societal. Make it a The Selma V. Forkosch Award for Best Article of 2011 meme. Make it a vaccine against the insidious equation. Plant a went to Gregory Paul, Daniel C. Dennett, Darren Sherkat, and seed of self-knowledge that sprouts up through the orthodoxies Linda LaScola for their article “Stop Dumping on Atheists.” that seal off otherwise fertile minds. Go forth, fellow secular Coauthor Daniel C. Dennett, author of Breaking the Spell, humanists, and spread the gospel of Grog and Zog. Given a wide Darwin’s Dangerous Idea, and other well-known books, was audience and time, it could help us all. in attendance to accept the award. The presentation of the Forkosch Awards took place dur- ing the Conference banquet on the evening of Saturday, Dan Carsen has been a teacher, a reporter, a radio commentator, an editor, March 3, 2012. and a stay-at-home dad. He has pondered the big questions since he was four and hopes that someday most people will come to realize that “born —The Editors sinners” are the rare biological exception and not the specieswide rule.

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Tom Flynn Why Seculars Don’t Sing continued from p. 11

to imagine how important such exercises in Even the individual dying of a now- promotes a false sense of well-being—but (let’s be blunt) group self-deception might incurable disease may draw some comfort secular humanists prefer reality. It fosters have been in warding off despair for people and hope from knowing that researchers deep bonding within small groups—but of the past. For them, natural disasters around the globe are on its trail and that secular humanists are more concerned were essentially incomprehensible; survival future medical advances may equip their with planetary solidarity than with helping could depend on agricultural output over children or grandchildren to resist the fifty people in a small room (or ten thou- which communities had little control; dis- same killer. sand in an auditorium) feel more vividly ease was mysterious and frequently incur- While remaining realistic about the that “it’s us against the world.” able. How differently we (in the first and limits of human knowledge and the very As a secular humanist, when I get to- second worlds, at least) live today! Con - real dangers of human technology’s unin- gether with others of like mind, I am gath- sider a single variable: how profoundly it tended consequences, contemporary men ering with, yes, outliers—people who are changes the emotional register of human and women can nonetheless confront exceptional precisely in their heightened life that moderns can expect most of their life’s trials from a position of comprehen- regard for reason, their uncommon enthu- children to live, whereas even two centuries sion and relative mastery that their long- siasm for reality unfiltered. Why would folks ago it was the norm for most of one’s issue ago counterparts could only dream of. like us yearn to indulge in group practices to die in infancy or childhood. Given all of that, doesn’t it make sense whose well-proven effect is to mute the We moderns may still be largely help- that people today should have less need to promptings of reason, to blur the inconven- less in the face of natural disasters from indulge in communal self-deception? In - ient hard edges of reality, to blunt our hurricanes to drought, but we have learn - deed, shouldn’t moderns exult precisely appreciation for life’s true colors by fitting ed to mitigate their toll.Technological fixes because human intellectual, cultural, and us all with the proverbial rose-colored like early warning systems and quake-and scientific development has reached a point glasses? Quite the contrary, when we storm-resistant design have drastically where we no longer require such powerful understand what collective ritual practice lessened loss of life from acute events like but deceptive psychological tricks to make consists of and how it has served religious quakes, tsunamis, hurricanes, and torna- our way in the world? communities throughout history, we see does. When disaster does strike, aid is At root, this is why I suspect that that it’s just the sort of thing we as secular hours or days away and may come from staunch secular humanists view collec- humanists should be eager to avoid. If any- far across the world. Even where mitiga- tive ritual practice with suspicion. Not thing, when we gather, part of what we tion remains impossible—think of farmers because it doesn’t work, but because it ought to be up to is celebrating humanity’s or ranchers ruined by drought—how pro- does—be cause it offers psychologically relatively recent achievement in lessening foundly it must change the tenor of victims’ effective mechanisms for accomplishing the need for such practices. experience simply to know that their suffer- things that secular humanists qua secu- ing results not from the capricious handi- lar humanists are no longer particularly Does Collective Ritual Practice Denigrate work of gods but from natural processes interested in ac complishing. the Autonomy of the Individual? whose mechanisms are broadly understood. Collective ritual practice effectively This question all but answers itself. To the

Greta Christina Why Atheism Demands Social Justice continued from p. 12

reaching it, or even what the concept for specific political stances—fervently and the financial industry, or an end to govern- means. We don’t have to march in political many times over—but I don’t think any of ment support of corrupt dictatorships. I’m lockstep. Two of the best things about them are automatically demanded by not not saying that when it comes to social atheism, freethought, humanism, or what- believing in God. I’m not arguing—here, justice, atheists need to do any one partic- ever you want to call it are that we value anyway—for the repeal of corporate per- ular thing. lively dissent and that we don’t have any sonhood, an end to the drug war, same- I’m saying that we need to do some- dogma that we’re all expected to agree sex marriage, an end to racist policing thing. upon. practices, globally enforced So I’m not arguing for any dogma or child labor laws, greater eq - Greta Christina blogs at freethoughtblogs.com on atheism, for any specific political stance. Not here, uity in funding for educa- sex, and politics. anyway. I’ve certainly argued elsewhere tion, restored regulation of

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de gree it is efficacious, collective ritual cise term, we might call these folks “reli- fort” of believing that all the injustices we prac tice inevitably taps the power of group- gious humanists.” As I’ve written before, suffered during life will be made up to us think. It functions by submerging the indi- the religious humanist camp apparently after we die. There’s a hardiness, a deep vidual, at least subjectively, into a synthetic encompasses two distinct communities. courage, in facing life as it is—and a justi- unity of the whole. Yet secular humanists One continues to favor collective ritual fiable pride in belonging to a pioneer gen- are not only rationalists, we also champion practice and thus tends to duplicate within eration for which so radically unembell- the radical individualism that burns at the its humanist activities many of the struc- ished a worldview can be a living option heart of the Enlightenment program. We tures of congregational life. The other, for so many, if not yet for most—that goes justifiably distrust communal exercises that possibly smaller, community of religious far to define the affective core of what it invite us to surrender individual identity. humanists includes those whose human- means to be a secular humanist. And we raise reasonable objections based ism involves intellectual assent to proposi- In a more crassly political sense, I sup- on the destructive uses to which such meth- tions justifiable only by faith, whether a pose this difference in viewpoints goes far ods have been put through history, both vestigial belief in some sort of cosmic to explain why secular humanist and reli- inside and outside of the churches. The feel- force, utopianisms such as Marx ism, or gious humanist organizations continue to good megachurch sing-along and the counterfactual convictions about near- exist independently—and why, despite Nuremberg Rally have more in common, term human perfectibility. One who some overlap in membership, they con- psychologically speaking, than first appear- declares with William Faulkner that “man tinue to attract core constituents who differ ances might suggest. will not merely endure; he will prevail”— profoundly about things like the desirability For all these reasons, I think secular and takes it seriously—is a religious of collective ritual practice.* If nothing else, humanists are more than justified in spurn- humanist of this lattermost sort. I hope that the articulation of these matters ing the nonetheless-powerful seductions Still, Andy Norman is right. Compared I offer here will help both secular and reli- of collective ritual practice. I’d rather cele- to the American mainstream, we secular gious humanists to understand their differ- brate my rationality than set it aside for a humanists are more conspicuous outliers ences—as well as the things they hold in fuzzily agreeable delusion that everything than religious humanists, whether by that common—more acutely. will be all right. I’d rather be myself than term we mean enthusiasts for congrega- surrender my autonomy to a group—or to tional practice or those who have not bro- *Another division point between secular and religious humanists is their opposing views on a mob. And I’m far from alone in that. ken fully with mysticism. Our disdain for the appropriateness of humanist chaplains in I hasten to note that not all humanists group ritual practice and for worldviews the military. See my “Humanist Chaplains in the feel this way. Indeed, attitudes toward col- that violate the boundaries of philosophical Military: A Bridge Too Close?” (FI, October/ lective ritual practice may be one of the naturalism compounds our outlier status. November 2011). signal distinctions between truly secular But this is nothing to lament, humanists and another large category of any more than staunch secu- Tom Flynn is the editor of FREE INQUIRY and the executive direc- people whose humanist credentials are lar humanists regret having tor of the Council for Secular Humanism. nonetheless secure. For lack of a more pre- denied ourselves the “com-

Ophelia Benson The Trouble with Gods continued from p. 15

immunize this claim from skepticism, but “God is mysterious and we don’t under- hidden, it has to give up the authoritative it is indistinguishable from a fraud set up stand so we must obey the priests and role. It can’t do both and still claim to be by a dynasty of tyrants, which makes it mullahs on faith,” because that simply supremely good. An out-of-contact boss impossible to see it as genuinely “good.” negates the only faculty we have for eval- god just hands us over to arbitrary human A good (benevolent, loving, helpful) uating morality, which is our shared cumu- power; it’s the sanctification of human deity simply wouldn’t arrange things this lative interactive judgment. thuggery. way. A good deity would not consider It seems to me that “God” has a stark It’s long past time for human beings to obedience to an all-powerful absent dicta- choice. If it wants to be an authoritative or recognize that. tor a virtue—or if it would, if that is what even just a helpful guide, it has to stay in such a deity means by “good,” then it’s contact—real contact, not Ophelia Benson is the editor of the website Butterflies and better to be bad. pretend contact through Wheels and the coauthor (with Jeremy Stangroom) of Why Truth We have to judge the good according other humans who simply Matters and The Dictionary of Fashionable Nonsense (both to our own terms because we don’t have say they know what God Continuum, 2006). access to any others. It’s no use saying wants. Or, if it wants to stay

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Russell Blackford Who’s Afraid of Scientism? continued from p. 14

s we consider both the power of science ourselves. Without science, we are con- teric debates about whether mathematics Aand what limits it might have, it’s well to fined to knowledge of a sort of middle is a branch of science or something else, reflect on the intellectual revolution that world that is in scale with ourselves, and whether there are objective (yet nonscien- began in Europe during the sixteenth and even here the methods developed by sci- tific) moral facts, and how we should seventeenth centuries and was associated entists have become helpful in a multitude regard meta-level philosophical claims with such figures as Coperni cus, Galileo, of ways. about how to discover truth. These are all Kepler, Descartes, Leeuwen hoek, Boyle, and Science continues to investigate ques- controversial fields of inquiry perhaps wor- Newton. As it continued, this revolution tions that long resisted the best efforts of thy of address on other occasions, but for produced a new breed of empirical investi- scholars and philosophers. There’s a great our present purposes it doesn’t matter gators—the breed who eventually, in the story to tell about how it does that and how whether or not we agree with Ruse. Either nineteenth century, came to be known as it developed the appropriate techniques. On way, there are many clear-cut examples of “scientists.” They developed a range of the other hand, we are not dishonoring sci- humanist scholarship discovering perfectly techniques and took them to unprece- ence if we also give an honored place to the good facts about, say, historical events or dented levels of precision and sophistica- humanities and worry about their public the provenance and likely meanings of tion. They refined the use of hypothetico- support in the future. Nor do we dishonor ancient texts. No atheist, however outspo- deductive reasoning. They used converging science if we acknowledge that there are ken, need deny any of this. inductions from more or less independent questions that we can sometimes answer Rather, what we should understand is lines of inquiry. They utilized mathematical pretty well without needing to act like scien- that the sciences and the humanities are modeling, carefully controlled experimental tists. Indeed, our ancestors were not totally continuous with each other and can draw setups, and new instruments that extended helpless in figuring out the world before the on each other. For example, literary schol- the human senses. scientific revolution. ars can use computers to analyze texts and In a sense, Barash is right. As science Our forebears did have many miscon- help determine their authorship; archeolo- advanced, its practitioners discovered and ceptions, and the reliable knowledge they gists and historians can use scientific tech- examined phenomena that had previously did possess was confined to the middle niques to date artifacts and locate hidden eluded all human efforts to study them. world. All the same, they observed events ruins. The possibilities are endless. We can These included very distant or vastly out- around them, often understood how identify the different historical roles played of-scale phenomena; very small phenom- other people felt about them, kept histor- by humanistic inquiry and science, and we ena; and phenomena from deep in time, ical records, translated texts from foreign can distinguish the sciences and humani- before human-made structures and writ- languages, and developed some impres- ties for good practical purposes (particu- ten records. Science developed a radically sive mathematics. Humanist scholars per- larly pedagogical ones) that should not new and increasingly compelling descrip- formed staggering intellectual feats in simply be brushed aside. However, they tion of the cosmos, our place within it, fields such as legal theory, history, and lit- have influenced each other and are not and humankind. In that sense, it really has erary interpretation. Recognizing this does totally alien to each other—where we put become our best and indeed only guide to not dishonor science in any way. the boundary between them is, to some the overall reality within which we find We don’t need to engage Ruse in eso- extent, arbitrary.

Nat Hentoff Schools Show ‘Zero Tolerance’ . . . of the Constitution continued from p. 16

Whitehead tells it like it is: “We have where cruel—but usual—practices are the protect American values in this age of moved into a new paradigm in America rule, do any teachers somewhat familiar rampant terrorism being nurtured by law- where young people are increasingly viewed with our founding document’s Bill of less nations? as suspects and treated as criminals by Rights speak to their classes about where school officials and law enforcement alike. in the Constitution they To then be denied justice by the courts only can find the brutish clauses Nat Hentoff is a Uclick (Universal) syndicated columnist, a senior adds to the wrongs being perpetrated these dangerous students fellow at the Cato Institute, and the author of, among other against young people today.” are being assaulted with? books, Living the Bill of Rights (University of California Press, As zero tolerance abounds in public Has a single senator or 1999) and The War on the Bill of Rights and the Gathering schools around the country, young citizens congressman spoken about Resistance (Seven Stories Press, 2004). His latest book is At the are being marked and classified as sus- this, instead of chanting Jazz Band Ball: Sixty Years on the Jazz Scene (University of pects and criminals. In these institutions about the crucial need to California Press, 2010).

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et’s return to Haught’s examples of that science can study, but it does not pro- as when textual-historical study of the holy L questions that science supposedly can- vide us with a supernatural source of books casts doubt on their provenance and not answer. How do I know someone knowledge of the world. credibility. loves me? How should I understand a Interpreting works of literature is a dif- We could go deeper into these issues, work of literature? How do I, or how ferent matter. The process will involve but let it suffice to say that religious claims should I, respond to nature? No doubt familiarity with literary tropes and tradi- are not insulated from our rationally ac - people were answering questions like tions of interpretation, and it will also quired knowledge of the world, whether these long before the rise of science, and involve evidence (if the heroine’s dog cow- obtained from the humanities or the sci- we continue to answer them in ways that ers under the table when X walks into the ences. In theory, there might have been a are not especially scientific. But so what? room, X is coded as a villain). Perhaps divinely pre-ordained harmony between reli- No atheist need ever deny any of this. there are no objectively correct interpreta- gion on the one hand and, on the other What we should deny is merely that any- tions of literary texts, binding on all hand, the sciences and humanities. After all, thing spooky is involved. rational beings as simply true, but there the claims of some religion or other might If I know that someone loves me, there are facts about what interpretations are have turned out to be true. Scientists and will be objective evidence that she does. I richer and more coherent than others, at scholars such as historians might have con- don’t need to be a scientist to observe this least given a cultural context or tradition. firmed the religion’s claims and merely evidence—it’s a matter of ordinary human Nothing I have said can be dismissed added color and detail. But that, as it turns experience—but that is not a limitation on as scientistic; in particular, it gives due out, is not the reality we live in. science. It’s not as if your being a scientist credit to the humanities. None of it, how- It’s no use harping on the alleged limi- somehow disqualifies you from experienc- ever, should lead us to think that religion tations of science and frightening us with ing love. Nor is anything spooky involved or any of its distinctive “methods,” such accusations of scientism. We should give when we respond to nature: our senses as mystical experience, provides us with a due credit to ordinary human experience reveal natural phenomena to us in an ordi- special source of knowledge. To be blunt: and the traditions of the humanities, but nary, familiar way, and they doubtless pro- religion does not give us reliable reports of we needn’t concede any intellectual vide us with relevant knowledge (perhaps a transcendent order of things, and science authority to religion. of the immensity of a canyon or the intri- really does undermine religion in numerous cacy of a spider’s web). We may experience and varied ways. The emerging scientific what we perceive as being beautiful, sub- picture of the cosmos often lime, or astonishing, but that is not prim- clashes with religious claims, Russell Blackford is a conjoint lecturer in the School of arily a cognitive experience. It’s just obscu- rendering them less plausi- Humanities and Social Science, University of Newcastle, rantist to characterize this as a conundrum ble even when not outright Australia. He is coeditor of 50 Voices of Disbelief: Why We Are concerning the question, “How should I contradicting them. Indeed, Atheists (2009) and author of Freedom of Religion and the respond to nature?” Human responsive- progress in the humanities Secular State (2012), both from Wiley-Blackwell. ness to nature is a fascinating phenomenon can also undermine religion,

Tom Rees What’s So Smart About Unbelief? continued from p. 18

little, you’ll probably figure out the correct study, when Shenhav compared IQ and innocent bystander. Instead of raw intelli- answer (five cents). So intuitive thinkers intuitive thinking statistically, he found gence, it might be that your thinking style, will tend to give the wrong answer. that deep-thinker status was the most and whether you take the time to ponder What Shenhav discovered was that powerful explanation both for current things thoroughly, is all that matters. these intuitive thinkers were also more atheism and for losing one’s religion. likely than deep thinkers to believe in God These findings might help to explain and immortal souls. Even more intrigu- the apparent link between ingly, deep thinkers were more likely to say atheism and high IQ. It Tom Rees is a medical writer and lifelong humanist. In his blog, that they had lost their belief since child- might be that intelligence is Epiphenom, he writes about the latest research into the psychol- hood. Now, these atheists also had higher not directly connected to ogy and social science of religion and nonbelief. IQs. However, as with Bertsch and Pesta’s atheism but is, instead, an

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Shadia B. Drury Is Freedom of Religion a Mistake? continued from p. 19

beliefs, it allowed everyone to read and secularists, there is nothing in the Con sti - and has rarely passed up an opportunity to interpret the Bible for themselves and live tution that requires the state to be secular. interfere in the affairs of American state, according to the dictates of conscience. The The establishment clause is not an endorse - for example, by endorsing wars and sup- trouble is that conscience can be silenced or ment of secularism but of nonsectarianism. It porting political candidates. Dominion ism corrupted. The Domin ican prosecutors, who merely requires the state to be neutral re - is the current articulation of this quintes- condemned innocent people to death as garding the plurality of Protes tant churches. It sential religious hunger for dominance. But heretics, did not suffer any pangs of con- may be argued that a state cannot hope to the same is also true of the American science. The suicide bombers who kill inno- be neutral unless it is also secular. Even state—it has not managed to resist the cent people in the streets of Kabul, Bagh - though this claim is philosophically con- temptation to use religion for its own pur- dad, Islamabad, and Jerusalem are not vincing, it is historically false as an inter- poses. Indeed, Jefferson was one of the bothered by reproaches of conscience. pretation of the Consti tution. Even the worst offenders. Religious belief allows otherwise decent most avid defenders of the separation of When Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin people to do dreadful things with a clear church and state among the Founding were asked to design a seal for the United conscience. So, the first thing that needs to Fathers never conceived of the possibility States in 1776, these two Enlightenment be done if the freedom of religion is to be of a secular state. rationalists suggested the use of biblical renegotiated is not to grant conscience Thomas Jefferson understood the es - narratives to define the nation. Franklin unfettered sway. The dictates of conscience tab lishment clause as “building a wall of proposed to depict Moses parting the Red must be subordinated to the civil law. This separation between Church and State.” Sea, with the children of Israel escaping means no teenage wives for middle-aged But Jefferson’s wall of separation was a fic- while the chariots of Pharaoh are engulfed Mormon men, no multiple wives for Mus- tion. In reality, it has never been respected by the water as it closes in on them. lims, and no honor killings for anyone. by either church or state. The church has Jefferson suggested depicting the Israe lites Contrary to the fantasy of American never been satisfied with religious freedom guided by a cloud by day and a pillar of fire

Katrina Voss Ready for Prime-Time continued from p. 17

ality-as-a-choice is not afforded legitimate cringe-worthy show (whose plotlines is that (finally) the atheist hero is not a bril- (and legitimizing) airtime in fictional televi- make Hee Haw look like Masterpiece liant but jaded diagnostician nor an sion shows speaks volumes about which Theatre) for its bravery in presenting athe- accomplished but social-skill-lacking foren- “side” enjoys more artistic clout. What’s ist characters who even go so far as to sic anthropologist but a mere teenage boy more, television doesn’t just break taboos; it mock faith. In the episode, a teenage boy’s who, even without the superstition-dulling serves as a taboo thermometer that meas- father is in the hospital in a coma. His tools of science, finds himself on the side of ures the temperature of a society’s accept- glee-club friends offer him and reason. What is more, the boy is not only an ance. According to television, for many sing religious songs, to which the boy, an atheist but a gay atheist who questions how Americans, homosexuality is no longer a sig- atheist, responds valiantly, “I appreciate any gay person could possibly believe in a nificant taboo. The same can be said of your thoughts, but I don’t want your god who would punish people for loving many other “controversial” issues about prayers.” In another scene, the boy the wrong sex. Could it be that television is which television writers never consider pre- thoughtfully explains Russell’s teapot anal- embarking on a new era of nonreligious, senting an opposing view. ogy when his friends confront him about his even antireligious, themes, where the athe- But all is not lost for atheism as a truly nonbelief. When his classmates continue to ist heroes are not cynical PhDs but regular TV-approved “lifestyle.” True, television may use his grief as a ploy to convert him, an folk? Now for that, we atheists-next-door be afraid not to “balance” an atheist theme atheist teacher defends the boy’s world- would certainly owe television a debt of with a theist counterpart. Still, the bottom view: “Asking someone to believe in a fan- gratitude. line is that television is managing to repre- tasy, however comforting, is sent atheism favorably at a riskier and riskier an immoral thing to do. It’s Katrina Voss worked for ten years as a bilingual meterologist at pace. In late 2010, an episode called cruel.” Weather Channel Latin America and AccuWeather. She is now a “Grilled Cheezus” on the musical sitcom What makes this in - science and research writer at Penn State’s Eberly College of Glee caused a flutter of online com mentary stance of prime-time athe- Science. among atheists. Many praised the often ism most inspiring, however,

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by night.* Luckily, cooler heads prevailed, laration, Annuit Coeptis—“He has favored sides must respect the wall of separation. and the eagle clutching thirteen arrows in our undertaking.” In short, American self- The wall of separation must be understood one claw and an olive branch in the other understanding has never been secular— as a pact of mutual forbearance and non- was chosen—it appears on the back of the America is a country distinguished by a civil interference that goes both ways. The state one-dollar bill. However, faith in America’s religion that defines its very being. It has offers the churches freedom, but in special status in the eyes of God was never always believed itself to be the apple of exchange, the churches must mind their abandoned. It made its appearance on the God’s eye and its ventures inseparable own business where political affairs are back of the seal, which also appears on the from God’s own plans for the world. In this concerned. At the same time, the state back of the dollar bill. It features an incom- way, the American state has used religion must also refrain from debasing religion by plete pyramid signifying America’s yet to promote its wars, its conquests, and its politicizing it or using it as a vehicle to pro- incomplete project with 1776 in Roman self-aggrandizement as the Zion that will mote its own agenda. But in view of the numerals indicating the start of the Novo light up the world. As G. K. Chesterton history of the nation and its pretensions Ordo Seclorum—the new order of the once remarked, “America is a nation with about its divine mission or its world-histor- ages. At the top of the unfinished pyramid the heart of a church.” ical destiny, chances are that the wall of is the eye of God, with the confident dec- Faith in America’s election was not re - separation will continue to be a fiction, stricted to radical Puritans or supposedly and religion will continue to radicalize *Conrad Cherry, ed., God’s New Israel: Reli gious enlightened Founding Fathers. It is still ram- Amer ican politics. pant among the staunchest Interpretations of American Destiny (Chapel Hill, Shadia B. Drury is Canada Research Chair at the University of N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1971, of Amer ican atheists. So, if Regina in Canada. Her most recent book is Aquinas and Modernity: 1998). See also http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ the freedom of religion is to Great_Seal_of_the_United_States; search for the The Lost Promise of Natural Law (Rowman and Littlefield, 2008). subhead “First committee.” be renegotiated, then both

Arthur L. Caplan Let’s Be Mean to Deen continued from p. 20

arms of viewers to eat it? Hardly.” skill at risk assessment, hate facing the salt, and sugar. Choosing not to go through So in the minds of many, the problem is truth, and love following the crowd in the drive-through window for that Carl’s Jr. not Paula Deen or whoever is selling things whatever they do. As the keen student of Bacon Cheese Six Dollar Burger or the Jack to you and your family that are unhealthy. human autonomy P.T. Barnum is said to in the Box Sausage, Egg & Cheese Biscuit It is your fault for not exercising your will have noted succinctly, “there’s a sucker sounds easy, but it’s not if you are short on and indulging only occasionally. If you do born every minute.” time and cash and have that jingle rattling anything less, you are an “idiot.” The defenders of Paula Deen are living around in your advertising-addled brain. What we have illustrated in the effort in an Ayn Randian dream-world of self- Shame on Paula Deen and her ilk for to exculpate Deen is delusion. Who aware, self-determining humans. You and shilling unhealthy food. And phooey to amongst us is not influenced, lulled, I are not going to be capable of modera- those who say willpower is the key to con- duped, misled, and flamboozled into tion if we allow ourselves and our kids trolling obesity in this country. The adver- behavior that is not in our self-interest by to be sandbagged 24/7, 365 days a year tising industry that spends ten billion dol- slick ads, clever marketing, and promo- with advertising, marketing, commercials, lars per year just on marketing lousy food tional lying? If our only defense against an hype, and nonsense about food. If we are to children appreciates your support of ocean of advertising for lousy high-calorie to have any chance of putting down that moderation as the solution to our waist- food is our willpower, then the obesity donut or giving up sugary soda, we need line woes. epidemic will never end. You don’t need a relief from the relentless selling of crummy degree in cognitive psychology or behav- chow. Moderation is a virtue, ioral economics to know that humans precisely because it is so diffi- Arthur L. Caplan is the Sidney D. Caplan Professor of Bioethics often act irrationally, are skilled at self- cult to be moderate when and the director of the Center for Bioethics at the University of deception, find it hard to forgo short-term those selling the food know Pennsylvania in Philadelphia. rewards for long-term benefits, have little the addictive power of fat,

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Edward Tabash We Grieve for His Silenced Voice; We Rejoice in His Memory: Honoring Christopher Hitchens continued from p. 22

ple was his description of the Catholic hier- a double challenge. We not only have to lectuals as it is attentive to such an archy’s over all leniency toward its priests make our arguments in public, we have to endorsement by arch-fundamentalists? who abused children. In God Is Not Great, first persuade society that it is socially This alone shows what a very long way we Hitch described that policy as “No child’s acceptable—and in some cases that it have to go in order to achieve any degree behind left.” should even be legal—for us to publicly of social parity with religion. In order to take the cause of natural- present them. Our society suffers from an Religious dogma is also burgeoning ism versus supernaturalism to society at unexamined default idea that religious throughout the world. The ultra-Orthodox large, secular humanists must present claims should be the only beliefs that enjoy in Israel want women to be forced to sit in arguments that cover a wide array of dis- special exemption from critical examination, the back of public buses. Saudi Arabia ciplines. Biology, philosophy, and physics doubt, and ridicule. Hitch was a leader in recently beheaded a woman for suppos- are among the areas of study that must be providing nonstop reminders that the extent edly practicing sorcery. Hitchens was invoked in making the overall case that no to which a belief is revered is irrelevant to unceasingly vigilant in recounting ongoing supernatural force created or sustains our the right of anyone to take a contrary posi- worldwide religious depredations. He kept world. Hitchens appreciated this as he tion, even if in a bitingly, slashing manner. us continuously apprised of incessant sought to discredit the argument that It is unrealistic to think that religion is developments in theologically motivated some benevolent all-powerful being was in the twilight of its power. Sadly, it’s still tyranny. the author of the universe. He pointed out going strong. All one has to do is look at that the Andromeda galaxy is headed the ubiquitous religious fundamentalist e atheists know that death is the toward ours on a collision course. Even if pandering by major presidential candi- Wutter obliteration of each individual the actual impact will not occur for five bil- dates in the current election year to see human being. The years after our deaths lion more years, such a span is insignifi- that militantly religious Americans are still are no different than the years prior to our cant in cosmic time. This inevitable colli- deemed to hold the balance of power in births. As realists, we know that Hitch is sion of galaxies erodes the notion of fine- national elections. The voters these candi- physically gone forever. tuning. dates seek to appease are not just the per- This is not the first time that a great Formal public debates on the existence sonally devout. They are voters who want orator against the bogus claims of religion of God are crucial to promoting the athe- assurances that their preferred presidential has died. At the close of the nineteenth istic viewpoint, and Hitchens made valiant candidate will be eager to impose their pet century, Robert Green Ingersoll breathed forays into this arena of verbal combat. His religious doctrines on everyone through his last. There are some who keep Inger - encounters drew much attention. As a force of law. In January of this year, a top soll’s memory and his work relevant to our result, atheist arguments received wider national news story for an entire day was contemporary efforts. The overwhelming exposure than they would have otherwise about a group of some of the nation’s majority of people, though, have never achieved. most extreme evangelical fundamentalist even heard of him; and if they did, most An integral component of the attempt leaders endorsing their preferred candi- would be shocked by what he said. to broaden the acceptance of the natural date for president. Will any of us ever see Now, the task falls to those of us free- versus supernatural worldview is to till the a time when our country will be as fo - thinkers who are still living. What will we soil of public opinion to be more receptive cused on the endorsement of a presiden- do to make sure that Hitchens’s achieve- to hearing our arguments. We atheists have tial candidate by a group of atheist intel- ments, and those of people like Ingersoll,

Andy Norman CFI’s Celebration of Daniel Dennett’s Breaking the Spell continued from p. 21

growth. He also pointed to strong correla- science, about one hundred billion humans god, asked Paul, would allow such a holo- tions between religiosity and societal dys- have lived on our planet, and about half of caust of suffering? function. Religions thrive when and where them died in childhood. Believers in a Daniel Dennett concluded the confer- anxiety caused by economic in equality, benevolent god, Paul argued, should be ence with an admirably compassionate injustice, and insecurity runs high. The way confronted with the fact that at least fifty Darwinian analysis of the plight of ministers to move beyond religion, he argued, is to billion children have died, many of them who have lost their belief in God. Just as a build just societies. Not content to let the horribly, of diseases God presumably cre- biological cell must capture energy and pro- slow arc of justice do all the work, Paul ated without ever encountering Christian tect its inner workings from disruption, went on to develop a novel twist on the teachings or having the option of choosing long-lived social institutions—or “social age-old argument from evil. According to Jesus Christ as their savior. What kind of cells”—must harvest participants (money,

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will become part of the building blocks of What magnifies our grief over the loss will brave even the most egregious mani- a greater expansion of (1) the rights and of Hitchens is that there are so few people festations of bigotry in order to chip away social respectability of nonbelievers and (2) like him devoted to constructing effective at the monolithic power of religion. the dissemination throughout society of challenges to belief in God. His enormous Before his assassination, Senator Ken - the arguments for the truth of naturalism talents may not be easily duplicated in one nedy also said: “Our future may lie beyond over supernaturalism? person. We can’t, though, let this stymie our vision, but it is not completely beyond We begin by recognizing that we are a our efforts. Perhaps many of us, in ever- our control. It is the shaping impulse that small and beleaguered group. In fact, we increasing numbers, can pool our talents neither fate nor nature nor the irresistible atheists are the most unjustly despised to confront religion with as formidable an tides of history, but the work of our own minority in the United States today. Only arsenal of challenges as Hitchens did. hands, matched to reason and principle, the Supreme Court—which still retains a It is a daunting task to devote a sub- will determine our destiny.” majority of five members who will not stantial portion of one’s life to taking on We have it within our power to enlarge allow any branch of government to openly the most powerfully entrenched source of upon Hitchens’s work. Future generations discriminate against us—currently keeps societal control. Religion has solidified its will also have the ability to build upon us from being officially relegated to the domination of much of human life to a what he and we started. Standing on the status of second-class citizens. degree that can be demoralizing for those shoulders of this great man and his master- Only a very few of us might ever attain of us who recognize its true fraudulent ful use of language, we can continue the the exposure for our ideas that Hitchens nature. However, each of us must con- battle against the ancient dogmas that still achieved for his, at least in the immediate tribute in some way to the effort of dis- thwart much of civilized progress. future. We should all, then, assess our mantling the stranglehold that religion has Whether it will take decades or cen- own talents so that everyone in our move- on much of our world. Ultimately, we turies, we celebrate the life of Christopher ment can identify what they can most honor what Hitchens accomplished by our Hitchens by embarking on an unrelenting capably contribute to the cause. Some of commitment to carry on his work. effort to finally liberate humanity from the us can speak, debate, and write. Some of In June of 1966, just two years before enslavement of superstitious beliefs and us possess organizational skills. Others are his own assassination, Senator Robert religious tyranny. capable of giving money, raising it, or Kennedy said: “Few are willing to brave both. There will also be those who have the disapproval of others, the censure of the skills to assist us in utilizing the latest their colleagues, the wrath of their society. technology. Moral cour age is a rarer commodity than Our philosophers and scientists will even bravery in battle or continue to develop improved and some- great intelligence. Yet it is Edward Tabash is a constitutional lawyer in the Los Angeles times even new arguments and theories to the one essential, vital qual- area. He serves on the boards of the Center for Inquiry and the help discredit supernatural claims. We ity for those who seek to Council for Secular Humanism and chairs the Council’s First must be ready to assist in the dissemina- change a world which yields Amendment Task Force. He has represented the atheist position tion of such work in a way that is techni- most painfully to change.” It in university debates against such noted religious philosophers cally competent and that can also be tai- is hoped that there will as William Lane Craig and Richard Swinburne. lored for popular consumption. always be those of us who

resources) from their environments and sus- they will not share those doubts lest they thought-provoking . . . enough to warrant a tain permeable “membranes” to keep out undermine the faith of others. How wide- ten-year retrospective on Dennett’s book in disruptive entities. The Internet, however, is spread is the phenomenon of disbelieving 2016! making it nearly impossible for churches to clergy? How widespread will it become? Can keep faith-undermining information from an anonymity-preserving on line meeting the priests they recruit. Collaborator Linda place for nonbelieving clergy LaScola has been interviewing closet athe- help to ease their isolation? Andy Norman teaches philosophy at Carnegie Mellon University. ists from various ministries, well-inten- All told, this was a fine His work focuses on the philosophical foundations of humanism, tioned men honest enough to admit their con ference. The talks were and he speaks frequently on the foundation of ethics, the nature doubts but trapped by the expectation that en gaging, informative, and of reason, and the teaching of wisdom.

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Church-State Update

Whose Freedom of Religion and Conscience? Edd Doerr

n January 20, 2012, Health and hood and apple pie. has approved the use of condoms “in Human Services (HHS) Secretary Archbishop and cardinal-designate the intention of reducing the risk of Kath leen Sebelius (a Catholic) issued Timothy Dolan, president of the U.S. infection.” That concession logically O ended the taboo on condoms since it regulations, effective next year, that would Conference of Catholic Bishops, got a lot said health care concerns can require require church-related institutions such as of play in the media. I found this amusing, the use of condoms. hospitals, universities, and social service as Dolan is not exactly an exemplary reli- The bishops’ claim that their reli- agencies to provide coverage for birth con- gious leader. In the February 3–16, 2012, gious freedom is threatened is bo - trol in their employee health-insurance issue of the respected National Catholic gus. The threat is to the religious freedom of their employees and to plans and without a co-payment. Reporter, Catholic journalist Jason Berry the conscientious freedom of the The new HHS regulations were recom- wrote that when Dolan was archbishop of diverse public they serve in their tax- mended by the Institute for Medicine, which Milwaukee a decade ago, he shifted around supported institutions. the Obama administration commissioned to $40 million or so in church funds to avoid To which I say, way to go, bro. come up with a list of preventive services having to use any of it to compensate the Catholic congresswoman Rosa De Lauro needed for women to remain healthy. The victims of clergy sexual abuse. (D-CT) said pretty much the same thing in list included increased access to birth con- But reason and common sense came an op-ed piece in . She trol. The Institute found the following: out on the other side. noted that the average cost of contracep- Jon O’Brien, president of Catholics for • About half of all pregnancies in the Un - tion comes to $600 per year, or $18,000 Choice, wrote this in the Washington Post ited States are unplanned, and of these over the thirty years that the average on February 5 in response to a frantic col- about 40 percent end in abortion. Rates of woman uses birth control. DeLauro writes umn by former Bush aide Michael Gerson: unintended pregnancy and abortion fall as that churches, synagogues, and other “Tellingly missing from this analysis: The birth-control use increases. And co-pay- purely religious institutions are exempt profound and beneficial effects on the ments result in lower contraceptive use. from the new rules. As I pointed out in the millions of American women and their fam- • Unintended pregnancies are associated Washing ton Examiner on February 6, “The ilies, Catholic and non-Catholic, Demo - with depression, in creased drinking and Obama administration’s HHS rules are actu- cratic, Republican and independent, whose smoking, delay or neglect of pre-natal care, ally a good compromise.” health-care decisions are too often thwarted and low-birth-weight babies. Too closely Finally, as Cathy Lynn Grossman noted by a small, powerful cadre of men who have spaced births cause similar problems. in USA Today, the February 7 Public Reli - zero credibility with many lay Catholics • Birth-control pills are also used to treat a gion Research Institute poll shows that 55 when it comes to contraception. Churches range of women’s medical problems. percent of Americans want employer across the country are filled with good • Risks and side effects of contraceptive health-care plans to cover birth control at Catholics, the majority of whom use con- use are “minimal,” and death rates from no cost, a view held by 58 percent of traception and have no objection to it.” contraceptive use are lower than from Catholics, 50 percent of white mainline Catholic theologian Daniel Maguire continuing pregnancies to term. Protestants, and 61 percent of the reli- had this to say in the February 6 New York giously unaffiliated. Times: Excreta Hit the Fan On February 10, President Obama an - As expected, the Obama administration’s An accurate look at Catholic teach- nounced that the rules had been tweaked birth-control regulations loosed a tsunami ing on contraception today shows slightly, a compromise that was accepted by strong support for the position that the Catholic Health Associa tion and of outrage and abuse from the usual sus- contraception is not only permissible pects. Catholic bishops, Republican presi- but even mandatory in many cases. Catholic Charities. But the bishops re - dential hopefuls, conservative columnists The American bishops are at odds mained adamant. and flacks, and religious Right bloviators with the other bishops in the Catholic I stand with O’Brien and Maguire. flooded the print and electronic media with world, with the vast majority of Claims by the bishops and their counter- Catholic theologians and with 98 per- parts on the evangelical religious Right that overheated invective. President Obama was cent of the Catholic laity who have accused of declaring war on religion, on used contraceptives. They are even at the new HHS regulations violate their reli- Catholics, on decency, and on mother- odds with Pope Benedict XVI, who gious freedom fade to insignificance before

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the freedom-of-religion and conscience Catholic and other church-related hospitals, ernment to help them do so with public claims of the vast number of Catholics and colleges, and social service agencies are funds. These are the guys who have done non-Catholics employed and served by largely funded by taxes extracted from citi- precious little about the epidemic of clergy Catholic hospitals, universities, and social zens of all religious persuasions. sexual abuse in the United States, Canada, service agencies. And few other than We can only marvel at the arrogance— Latin America, Ireland, Spain, and so many Maguire and myself have called attention to yes, arrogance—of the church brass who other countries. the fact that these institutions are gener- not only seek to impose their ously funded by taxpayers of all religious medieval, misogynist views on Edd Doerr is president of Americans for Religious Liberty and a persuasions. Let me repeat for emphasis: everyone but also want gov- past president of the American Humanist Association.

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God on Trial

The Problem of the Parables Robert M. Price

eaders may know that I have estimates of the oh-so-skeptical Jesus all divine powers behind in heaven (cf. argued that exactly none of the Seminar (18 percent of the sayings probably Philippians 2:6–11)? First Corinth ians 1:22 RGospel sayings “of Jesus” stem from authentic to Jesus) as hopelessly optimistic. likewise says that “Jews seek signs [precisely a historical Jesus of Nazareth, and not for Now I find myself noticing Gospel texts as in Mark 8:12] . . . but we preach Christ the simple reason that there was no histor- that come near to admitting the secondary crucified,” which certainly implies that Paul ical Jesus. No, my reasoning on that score character of a lot of the material. It starts knew of no miracles ascribed to Jesus and is is inductive, not deductive. My initial work- with the parables, many of which were first why his letters never mention a single one. ing hypothesis was to assume there had collected as they appear in Mark 4. These My point is that Mark 4:33–34 makes been such a Jesus, an itinerant holy man include the parables of the sower/soils, the the same sort of programmatic statement: active during the tenure of Pontius Pilate. lamp, the seed growing sec retly, and the there were no nonparabolic teachings cir- Following in the seven-league footsteps of mustard seed. Matthew revises and culating in the writer’s day. Sure, we find Rudolf Bultmann and Norman Perrin, I scru- expands the section, as we read it in nonparabolic material elsewhere in Mark, tinized the Gospel sayings, alert for signs of Matthew 13. The new Matthean parables but the same is true about the miracles: anachronism, borrowing from other con- look to me to come from Matthew’s own Mark has plenty, even though he has pre- temporary sources, tendential constructions hand rather than from some preexisting “M served a saying that rules them out, justi- by the early church, prophecies from the source,” and the same is true of the fying the absence of miracle stories in the Risen One through the lips of charismatics uniquely Lukan parables (lost coin, lost time that saying originated. And this all in and apostles, and anything else that might sheep, prodigal son, good Samaritan, dis- turn implies that the nonparabolic teach- imply inauthenticity, that the material origi- honest steward, Phari see and Publican, ing was a subsequent addition aimed at nated post-Jesus. But at length, I found so unjust judge, etc.), which all share similar filling the perceived gap—just like the mir- much of it to be fatally problematical on narrative features; in other words, no “L acle stories. these criteria that I wound up regarding the source.” It occurred to me also that one must But back to Mark. Mark 4:33–34 says, look again at the parables and ask if it is “And in many such parables he spoke the really plausible that people came in droves word to them, as much as they were able to listen to this stuff. The narrator himself to grasp. And unless he had a parable he tells us what the history of parable inter- did not speak to them, but in private to his pretation makes abundantly clear: there is own disciples he explained everything.” It no clear point to any of these parables. No “The narrator himself tells suddenly occurs to me that this statement one could have taken away enough mean- us what the history of parable implies that whoever said it did not know ing to keep him coming back for more. interpretation makes abundantly of other, nonparabolic teaching of Jesus, They are not like Aesop’s Fables. Com - which nonetheless abounds elsewhere in mentaries on Mark and tomes on the para- clear: there is no clear point to this Gospel and all others: aphorisms, apoc- bles (and there are very many of both) offer any of these parables. No one alyptic sayings, straightforward ad moni- endless possible interpretations of the could have taken away enough tions, etc. The impact of this incongruous parables, all of which make the parables’ statement is comparable to the astonishing meaning dependent upon some larger the- meaning to keep him coming statement in Mark 8:11–12: “The Pharisees ological system extrapolated from the back for more.” came and began to argue with him, seek- Gospel as a whole or from a life of Jesus ing from him a sign from heaven, to test construct as a whole. Such a framework him. And he sighed deeply in his spirit and for interpretation is a chain of weak links. said, ‘Why does this generation seek a sign? And the recent readings of the parables Truly I say to you, no sign shall be given to by Dan O. Via, Bernard Brandon Scott, and this generation.’” Mustn’t that verse stem Charles W. Hedrick strike me as so oversub- from a time when people believed the incar- tle and counterintuitive that only fellow spe- nation was so complete that Jesus had left cialists playing the same exegetical game

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could possibly find their interpretations even controversy stories in which “Jesus” plausible, much less convincing. In short, I reduces his opponents to silence with his You can make a can imagine Jesus getting and keeping an clever retorts? lasting impact on audience with this lame material as easily Nor let us forget Matthew 10:27 (a the future of as I can imagine anyone memorizing the saying from the Q source, shared with Luke secular humanism . . . whole of the Sermon on the Mount after 12:23, where, however, it is made to have when you provide hearing it once. Just take your head out of a very different point): “What I tell you in the text and out of the scholarly game, the dark, utter in the light, and what you for FREE INQUIRY and you’ll agree with me. hear whispered, proclaim upon the house- in your will. So Jesus taught only in parables, tops.” Remember how the Gospels some- which disallows everything else. But then times rationalize the late appearance (thus The Council for Secular Humanism and he could not have taught with these para- secondary character) of certain stories like FREE INQUIRY are leading voices of dissent bles either. It all reinforces the conclusion the transfiguration and the empty tomb by and discussion in fields ranging from religion to church-state that there was originally no such figure as claiming that the Jesus-era hearers either separation, civil rights, and ethical liv- “Jesus the teacher” or Rabbi Jesus. Maybe were warned to delay reporting it (Mark ing. You can take an enduring step to this is why the Pauline Epistles never 9:9–10) or just failed to report it (Mark preserve their vitality when you provide appeal to any sayings ascribed to Jesus 18:8)? That’s why you’re hearing about it for FREE INQUIRY in your will. either. There weren’t any yet. That would only now—yeah, that’s the ticket! Doesn’t Your bequest to the Council for Secular come later, and not from Jesus. it make sense that Matthew 10:27 should Humanism, Inc., will help to provide for And remember Mark 13:11? “And denote the same thing? That those who the future of secular humanism as it helps to keep FREE INQUIRY when they lead you before the authorities, later credited their own preachments to financially secure. Depending on your do not bother formulating beforehand Jesus in order to give them added clout tax situation, a charitable bequest to the what you will say, but whatever comes to “ex plained” why no one had heard them Council may have little impact on the net you on the spot, say it. For you are not the before by claiming they had first been told size of your estate—or may even result speakers, but the Holy Spirit.” I draw the in secret? That is a classic Gnostic ploy, to in a greater amount being available to your beneficiaries. same inference from it that Luke did in his maintain that Jesus had taught their new- We would be happy to work with you rewrite: “I will give you a mouth and wis- fangled teachings to the apostles all right, and your attorney in the development dom that none of your adversaries will be but in secret, which is why riffraff like you of a will or estate plan that meets able to withstand or refute” (Luke 21:15; never heard of them till now! Again, this, I your wishes. cf John 16:12–15: “I have many more think, is a signal within the Gospels that A variety of arrangements are possible, things to tell you, but they would be too their material is spurious. including: gifts of a fixed amount or a percentage of your estate; living trusts much for you to deal with now. But when Another comes in Luke’s version of a Q or gift annuities, which provide you with that one comes, the Spirit of Truth, he will saying. Where Matthew had “Whoever a lifetime income; or a contingent guide you into all the rest of the truth. For welcomes you welcomes me” (Matthew bequest that provides for FREE INQUIRY he will not speak his own opinions, but he 10:40), Luke (10:16) has added “Whoever only if your primary beneficiaries do not will relay what he hears, and he will an - hears you hears me.” This might easily survive you. nounce future events to you. He will glo- mean the same thing, but one must won- For more information, contact rify me, because he will receive revelation der whether Luke’s version was under- Jason Gross, from my treasury and announce it to stood (and was intended) as a license to Acting Director of Planning you”). In the heat of argument, don’t speak (fabricate) new words of the and Development, worry: Jesus will supply the words—which ascended Jesus. at 716-636-7571, ext. 428. then must have been simply ascribed All inquiries are held in the to him, with no concern strictest confidence. whether they were spoken Robert M. Price is professor of theology and scriptural studies by an earthly, historical Jesus at Colemon Theological Seminary and a research fellow at the or by a post-Jesus Christian Center for Inquiry, for which he is hosting the new podcast, The prophet/confessor. Wouldn’t Human Bible. His latest book is Secret Scrolls: Revelations from this be the ideal candidate the Lost Gospels (Wipf and Stock, 2010). for the origin of all those

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Faith and Reason

Watching Intelligent Design Alexander Nussbaum

ow does that creationist parable able and generally produces not optimal find ordinary television not very interesting go—when one finds a watch, one design, but rather design just good because they see flickering lights rather Hassumes a watchmaker? Actually, en ough to survive. Biological evolution is a than the illusion of movement. Japanese-designed robots built by other master of jerry-building, of making do, and For living creatures, energy consumed robots might be more typical watchmakers of overlooking design flaws as long as to support a sensory capacity that does not today, but watches are a product of intelli- reproduction is achieved before the system increase survival decreases overall fitness. It gent design and are often used as an falls apart (that is, dies). This fundamental becomes a handicap to be ruthlessly example of such by creationists in their characteristic has tremendous im plications weeded out. Blind cavefish are the standard beloved—and deeply misleading—anal- for humans, from our endemic back prob- example of this, though hardly the only ogy. In fact, watches are a rather poor ana- lems and the incidence of maternal death one. In contrast, products of intelligent during childbirth (at least in “Edenic design often retain capabilities that exceed times,” before Western man made a muck usefulness, often by great magnitudes. of everything with unnatural drugs and There is no evidence that intelligent procedures), to—not least of all—the func- design exists anywhere but in human arti- tioning of the human brain. For the human facts. (Some argue that the extremely brain, amazing product of evolution basic tools produced by animals, such as though it is—capable of calculus, creating twigs stripped by chimpanzees, also qual- computers, and even of reaching the ify as products of intelligent design. I dis- “Biological evolution is Moon (yes, it really happened, once upon agree.) For my purposes, human artifacts an on-the-cheap artist; a time)—is also a deeply flawed belief are our only available models of intelligent it makes use of what is machine that is unable to shake itself of design. I will focus specifically on watches, delusions like creationism. because they were the subjects of William already available and generally When I teach courses in sensation and Paley’s analogy that just as a watch means produces not optimal design, perception or physiological psychology, I there was a watchmaker, life needed a cre- but rather design just good always point out that animals’ senses ator. In addition, I happen to know some- reflect that which produces fitness advan- thing about watches. enough to survive.” tages in the niche they evolved to fill and at the minimum level needed. Dogs are o, what can watches, as objects of night hunters of often-camouflaged prey. Sintelligent design, tell us about what For them, movement rather than color is intelligent design looks like? Watches important for identification, and light con- often exhibit water-resistance and time- ditions are poor. Thus, the vision of dogs keeping accuracy that far exceed useful- differs from that of humans in predictable ness, and complications that would be ways. By human standards, canine vision is profoundly maladaptive in a living system deficient in many ways. It is estimated that in that they add relatively useless features logue for living systems, as they bear one dogs have only 20/75 vision and do not at great cost and with increased chances characteristic that is common in products see the full range of colors that humans of malfunction. of intelligent design but absent from the do. Yet in order to see at night, dogs need Chronographs (which incorporate a products of biological evolution. Watches only one-quarter the light humans do. stopwatch function) add cost. Moreover, in tend to be engineered for performance far Poorer color vision is the price dogs pay for mechanical watches they are associated beyond what is needed in use. Evolved living this. Dogs have larger visual fields than with high failure rates. They are actually systems never display this kind of overdesign humans, hence better peripheral vision. used by very few watch owners. Granted, a except, arguably, in certain characteristics They pay for this advantage with a nar- few people use the stopwatch function— used for sexual selection. rower area of three-dimensional vision but clearly no one needs the extra dials plus Biological evolution is an on-the-cheap than humans enjoy. Dogs detect move- all the complex and costly additional gear- artist; it makes use of what is already avail- ment better than humans; as a result, they ing to show the phase of the Moon! Radio-

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controlled “atomic watches” are intelli- tion of “shock resistant” watches, able to ence of, much less replace, a competing gently designed to receive time from atomic survive at least a minor fall undamaged. trait that produces higher fitness. In other clocks. Casio, a major maker of atomic Whole new parts with no precursors were words, it is a characteristic of biological watches, advertises them as being accurate added in order to attain a desired result. evolution that once a trait evolves that to one second per million years. Does any- No characteristic of a living system has produces survival benefits in a specific one actually need such accuracy? Ironically, ever evolved in that way. environment, evolution cannot undo it technological advancement has allowed Let us consider one more difference and return to an objectively inferior trait. super-accurate digital watches to sell for a that distinguishes intelligent design from Yet this can—and does—happen in fraction of the cost of far less capable biological evolution. In biological evolu- objects that are intelligently designed. mechanical watches accurate to perhaps tion, a trait that produces lowered fitness Once again, the domain of watches offers two to three minutes a day. I will say more at greater cost cannot thrive in the pres- proof. When quartz watches with digital about this below. It is well known that a minuscule per- centage of so-called dive watches, rated water-resistant to 300, 500, 1,000, and Unintelligent Design in the even 10,000 meters, ever breaks the sur- face of the water. The Bell & Ross World of Watches Hydromax is rated water-resistant to more than 11,100 meters. As such it is purpose- While watchmakers always can redesign from scratch, sometimes they don’t. fully designed to endure a depth just Sometimes they settle for “just good enough” much as evolution does, resulting in greater than the lowest point in the ocean. features akin to the panda’s thumb in the world of watches. Consider what might As the record for scuba-dive depth is 330 be called the “conservation of caliber.” In watchmaking, a “caliber” is a specific meters, 11,100 meters sounds a mite more watch configuration: a particular size and shape with specific features (or “compli- than needed for practical purposes. cations”) in specific locations. In recent years, demand for mechanical watches has Products of intelligent design typically grown strongly. This demand has allowed for many entirely new mechanical watch have capabilities that exceed usefulness pre- calibers to have been “intelligently built” from scratch. Indeed, they had to be, cisely because these can be “intelligently” since after the introduction of quartz digital watches demand for mechanical engineered, not in order to make the prod- watches briefly plummeted. Many manufacturers ceased production of mechanical uct more useful but in order to make it more movements and destroyed the dies for making once-common calibers. When impressive. In biological evolution, by con- demand for mechanical watches rebounded a decade or so ago, among the few trast, “barely good enough” is the highest calibers whose dies were salvaged was one originally designed for pocket watches. level that can be reached, be cause expense Pocket watches of course had been much larger than wristwatches, and they that does not improve overall fitness cannot were oriented sideways—with the crown at the “12” position, while wristwatches be tolerated. The “barely good enough” have the crown at the “3” position. Finally, since pocket watches had occupied only standard is also maintained in biological a tiny niche since World War II, technical advances of the postwar era tended to pass evolution because species characteristics them by. In the case of the pocket-watch caliber whose dies had survived, it still had cannot be redesigned from scratch. Human an old-fashioned small second hand around the “6” rather than a modern sweep bipedalism is far less than perfect—consider second hand. all those endemic back problems! It is clearly Today’s resurgent demand for mechanical watches has also been associated the result of a quadruped design being with a novel demand for huge watches for men. So it made perfect economic sense turned into a biped design rather than hav- to reuse those dies: the caliber was of the desired mechanical design and suited for ing been intelligently designed from scratch. the giant size now preferred for men’s wristwatches. This is exactly the mark of the “blind watch- Adapting this old pocket-watch caliber for an outsized wristwatch brought one maker” of natural evolution. But the non- unintended consequence. When the mechanism is turned ninety degrees—so the blind watchmakers who intelligently design crown is on the “3” as required for a wristwatch, not on the “12” as for a pocket watches can, and do, redesign from scratch. watch—that archaic small second hand winds up at the “9” position. The end The balance staff used in early mechan- result is a huge wristwatch with a mechanical movement and an otherwise myste- ical watches was quite delicate: it would rious small second hand at the “9.” Sure enough, this look—the result of getting break as a result of even a mild fall. Several by with an existing caliber, rather than spending money to create a new one—is different systems were independently sported by some of the most expensive brands around, including Panerai. developed from scratch to remedy this —Alexander Nussbaum shortcoming. One utilized spring-loaded jeweled bearings; another used curved elastic arms. The result was the introduc-

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displays were first introduced, they were and unnecessary cost and even though the still prestigious. Bond wore a quartz extraordinarily accurate and extraordinarily analog dial decreases precision (a digital Seamaster in this movie. But the return of expensive. For a short time it appeared display can read hundredths of a second, a mechanicals allowed—indeed required— that digital watches would supplant ana- feat no sweep second hand can match). In 007 to be issued ever-more expensive log watches—featuring hands that spin countless ways the analog dial is inferior, mechanical Omega watches in subsequent around a dial—in the marketplace. Before but no matter; in the world of intelligent films. This then allowed Omega to “intelli- long, analog displays returned to domi- design, if enough buyers want a watch gently design” new features such as co- nance, even on watches with quartz with an analog dial, it can be designed. axial escapement—which improves long- movements that had no need for it. If you think we have reached the limits term accuracy but still not to the level of of perverse unintended consequences, the cheapest quartz watch—into the stan- think again. Today watchmakers have dard mechanical movements it had been returned to the mass-scale production of using, taking its watches to an ever-higher mechanical watches—not quartz move- price stratosphere. ments with analog dials, but full-on These ultra-expensive watches are mechanicals filled with moving parts and exclusively mechanical, not because that is technically little different than those made better than quartz but precisely because it “For living creatures, energy in the 1940s! How did we arrive at this ret- is an incredibly time-consuming (no pun consumed to support a sensory rograde outcome? intended) and expensive proposition—in capacity that does not increase As noted, when inexpensive quartz common parlance, “impractical”—to get watches more precise than mechanicals a mechanical watch to achieve anything survival decreases overall first reached the market, they almost near a few seconds a day of quartz-move- fitness. It becomes a handicap drove mechanical watches to extinction. ment accuracy.* to be ruthlessly weeded out.... But then quartz movements became un - here does this leave modern-day pur- believably cheap. Once multifunction, all- Wveyors of Paley’s watch analogy? In contrast, products of digital sport watches cluttered discount Well, what exactly do those who claim intelligent design often retain stores at prices below ten dollars, the days that life on Earth shows signs of intelligent capabilities that exceed of a digital watch as a prestige accessory design mean? Do they mean that life, like were over. Thus the cultural trend became watches, shows the signs of specific, care- usefulness, often by great for consumers to want mechanical move- fully thought-out design improvements magnitudes.” ments, which required expensive “exclu- that depend on technological progress, sive” craftsmanship—albeit for less precise the changes characteristic of having many time-keeping—as they seemed more “fit- designers, the whole being molded to the ting” for an upscale watch. No matter whims of cultural style preferences? how precise or reliable quartz movements Not exactly. We all know what they might be, no luxury brand could justify mean by “intelligent design”: that all life charging a hundred or a thousand times came instantly into existence on the word Why? The analog display was intelli- the cost of a cheap quartz watch. But of an omnipotent being who used magic. gently designed back in. Why? Because mechanical movements could continue to But would it not be more fitting for intelli- people preferred it. Why? Because they be sold on the basis that they were all gent-design theorists to investigate who were used to it. Why? Because for cen- about “old world” “Swiss” craftsmanship. the designers were, their technological turies it had been the only way mechanical This transition can clearly be seen in limitations and progress, the tools they watches could display the time. And so one of the barometers of upscale con- used, and the cultural vagaries they were quartz watches that had no need for ana- sumer trends: James Bond movies. When trying to satisfy? log dials were intelligently designed to Omega became Bond’s official watch (for Because, after all, they believe life was incorporate them anyway—even though Pierce Brosnan’s debut in the role in the intelligently designed—just like watches the analog system adds mechanical wheels 1995 GoldenEye), quartz watches were are.

*You may have noticed the similarity of this to sexual selection, and notably to Amotz Zahavi’s handicap principle. This principle was designed to explain phe- Alexander Nussbaum is an adjunct associate professor in the nomena like how male peacocks could evolve their cumbersome tails. According Department of Psychology at St. John’s University. His disser- to this principle, precisely because these tails are cumbersome, they tell females tation topic concerned evolutionary psychology. He is a con- that the male who carries one around is strong and healthy. In the domain of watches, the corresponding idea is that a Rolex possess such a superb movement tributor to a personality textbook and has had a previous arti- that it can keep excellent time despite being mechanical. But of course, isn’t sex- cle in FREE INQUIRY, as well as articles in other publications. ual selection why men wear Rolexes in the first place?

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It’s Only Natural

Celebrating Science John Shook

eligion’s accusation that science meaningful. If science was just a collection to the point where a minuscule part of it strips humanity of all significance of endless stale facts pinned to textbooks could gain some comprehension of the Rcouldn’t be further from the truth. like dead butterflies in a collector’s case, rest? Science should be celebrated by all as an people could excusably be repelled by We should take every opportunity to ennobling achievement of our species. We such a lifeless display. celebrate science—its knowledge of the have nothing to fear from scientific knowl- Fortunately, science itself is a living, world and science’s own journeys to gain edge; only those fearful of reality would dynamic, and exciting thing. that knowledge. More people should distrust science. Friends of pleasing illusions appreciate not only what science has to say and myths are no friends of humanity. but also what science had to go through to For the first time in humanity’s exis- be able to say it. Our cognitive processes tence, we possess solid information about have both rational and emotional aspects. the deepest questions that have long puz- It’s in basic human psychology: we learn zled our species. How did everything come best from narratives, from stories that we to be? What is our place in this universe? “Preferring older myths feel involved with personally. Why does the earth have its features? Presented as both a grand narrative How did the earth’s forms of life arise? enveloped in religious about the world and a magnificent narra- Why is humanity similar yet so different? practices designed more to tive of human adventure, science can What shall determine our destiny? Science enslave than enlighten, entrance, entice, and ennoble us. Great now supplies firm knowledge about most science writing is not hard to come by. of the crucial turning points in our deep billions of people resist When I’m asked, I like to recommend history, the momentous events shaping science. They are books such as Big History: From the Big who we are and what we may become. unprepared to appreciate Bang to the Present by Cynthia Stokes Although science deserves all the Brown; The Greatest Show on Earth: The credit for this abundance of knowledge, a radically new kind of Evidence for Evolution by Richard Daw - much of humanity is not ready to respect story about the world.” kins; and The Edge of Physics: Dispatches it. Preferring older myths enveloped in reli- from the Frontiers of Cosmology by Anil gious practices designed more to enslave Ananthaswamy. than enlighten, billions of people resist sci- The accusation that science strips us of ence. They are unprepared to appreciate a all significance just can’t stick. Only the radically new kind of story about the pleasant dreams of myth and legend now world. No gods, no demons, no mon- linger to humiliate human intelligence. But sters—and worst of all, no special place there’s hope for humanity’s better nature, for humanity—can have a role in science’s Besides science’s story of the universe’s eager for mental empowerment and account. All the same, the story science evolution and our humble place in it, sci- involvement in something much bigger has to tell about the world is incomparably ence has another story to tell, a narrative than itself. Humanity’s curiosity can be more surprising and interesting than any about itself. Let science tell its own story— enlisted in the journey of science, for that mythical tale about some clash of the it is a story of bold exploration, risky ven- journey truly is humanity’s journey. titans or a theological system with a calcu- ture, brave confrontation, and glorious lating creator. victory. Science should not be humble. Does science disenchant the world, Humanity may have no spe- leaving it cold and meaningless? Science cial place in the universe, but John Shook is director of education and a senior research fellow does wake people from pleasant dreams, humanity is truly special for at the Center for Inquiry and associate fellow at the Center for but the real world of science engages our scientifically knowing that. Neurotechnology Studies, Potomac Institute for Policy Studies. entire wakened mind, making life more How did the universe evolve

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Reviews

‘Live All You Can: It’s a Mistake Not To’ Brooke Horvath

n his final column for FREE INQUIRY (February/March 2012), Christopher IHitch ens described himself as “a self- taught amateur writer.” If one were inclined to take this characterization seriously, and if Arguably: Essays, by Christopher Hitchens (New York: Twelve, such faux modesty could be purchased by 2011, ISBN 978-1-4555-0277-6) xix + 788 pp. Cloth, $30.00. the yard, Hitchens delivered enough for Christo to rewrap the Reichstag. Or perhaps amateur wasn’t floated our way as a self- deprecating joke; possibly Hitchens had in mind the original, eighteenth-century sense of the word (just the sort of thing he enjoyed knowing): the amateur as lover of something, as someone who undertakes an revised and thereby improved. lam as well as rebutting “those among us activity primarily for the pleasure it provides. The fourth section, “Offshore Ac - who try to explain them away.” Fair enough, Amateur effort or not, Hitchens’s final counts,” takes up geopolitics and related though defeating a hateful nihilism hardly book, Arguably, gathers 107 columns, concerns—from Afghanistan’s election accounts for all that is on offer here (unless reviews, and essays, all but a few written fiasco to the Israeli lobby, American inter- one finds blowjobs and unfunny women during the past seven years and eighty- ventionism to Benazir Bhutto—whereas detestably meaningless). But then Hitchens seven of which first appeared in Atlantic “Lega cies of Totalitarianism” seeks to dis- did say “practically” every word, justifying Monthly, Slate, and Vanity Fair. The collec- cover what cautionary lessons can be the inclusion of so much literary commen- tion is not exhaustive (none of the columns learned from Russian revolutionary Victor tary, for instance, as explorations into “the written for FI has been included). Loosely Serge, diarist Victor Klemperer, Iranian nov- aspiration for a civilized life” and subjects organized into six sections, Arguably opens elist Iraj Pezeshkzad, and sundry others. “amusing for their own sake” as perhaps with “All American,” which concerns his- “Words’ Worth” concludes the collection; the sin qua non of a society that, in con- torical issues and figures (Jefferson and the its sixteen selections are mostly concerned tradistinction to radical Islam or Christian Barbary War, Lincoln as “misery’s child”); with how much and in what ways words fundamentalism, “knows to keep the American writers; and contemporary con- matter—from the clichéd rhetoric of con- solemn and pious at bay.” Let’s say, then, cerns (the execution of teenagers, the future temporary politics to the upper-class bias that what unifies this collection is that each of Anglo-American influence). “Elective built into the English language, the politics essay was written sub specie civilis soci- Affinities” follows, treating twenty-six non- of biblical translation to the liberal media’s etatis: each asks what threatens civilized American writers (plus Ezra Pound, whose frequent resort to euphemism, the use of society and what can be done about that U.S. citizenship was revoked for unknown like as déclassé quotative to the smarmy threat, applauds those who have enhanced reasons) from Isaac Newton to J. K. Rowling. emoting provoked by the shootings at our “universal eligibility to be noble,” as “Amusements, Annoy ances, and Dis - Virginia Tech. Saul Bellow put it, or demonstrates how the appoint ments” serves as a sort of intermis- In his introduction, Hitchens manfully civilized think, feel, and discriminate. (“It’s sion, its handful of essays asking, among tries to weave through this miscellanea a odd, when you think about it,” Hitchens other things, why women aren’t funny, binding thread. What he comes up with is writes, “that we accuse racists of ‘discrim- when and how blow jobs became the this: “Practically every word I have written, ination.’ That is the very thing of which “American handshake,” why we allow since 2001, has been explicitly or implicitly they are by definition incapable.”) waiters to pour our wine for us, and in what directed at refuting and defeating [the] If you are like me (not that I would wish ways the Ten Commandments might be hateful, nihilistic propositions” of radical Is - this upon anyone), you will find much in

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these pages with which both to agree and that fraternity and equality, as well as lib- is that this is not how madrassas train their to disagree and much that will prompt a erty, were feasible things and could be suicide bombers.” desire to explore an issue or author further. exemplified by real people”; and his read- Lively, extraordinarily widely read, Often written against the clock while Hitch - ing of Upton Sinclair argues that the nov- nobody’s fool or mouthpiece (he left The ens was also busy on Letters to a Young elist might have made a more successful Nation, you may recall, in disagreement Contrarian, biographies of Jefferson and case for socialism had he been a less hon- over that magazine’s stand on Iraq), able to Thomas Paine, God Is Not Great, and his est and accurate realist. write engagingly for a general readership, memoir Hitch-22, not every essay exhibits The positions Hitchens takes are never Christopher Hitchens will be missed. He crystalline prose or the anticipated number mealymouthed: the 2003 Iraq war was a knew as he prepared this collection that he of bons mots. Occasionally, Hitchens errs noble necessity; “only a moral cretin thinks hadn’t much time left and wrote in his (Lionel Trilling was not denied tenure at that anti-Semitism is a threat only to introduction that he finally understood Columbia, as remarked upon at least twice). Jews”; America’s alliance with Pakistan is what was meant by the notion that “a seri- Some essays are a tad dated, and Hitchens “the most diseased and rotten thing in ous person should try to write posthu- may strike some readers as too often an which the United States has ever involved apologist for Anglo-American adventuring. itself.” That military brass have turned a The book reviews are sometimes little more blind eye to the proselytizing by Christian than stylish summaries (ah, but why is the evangelicals of both U.S. military personnel pot criticizing the kettle’s reviews?). Still, and the locals in Iraq and Afghanistan— there is far more beer than foam here. Were thus proving jihadists correct “about the you aware that, before the Civil War, gram- Americans as ‘crusaders’”—Hitchens finds “The positions Hitchens takes mar dictated that one say “the United “as near to mutiny and treason as one could are never mealymouthed: the States are” but that after Gettysburg people hope to sail and still wear the uniform.” 2003 Iraq war was a noble began to say “the United States is”? Did Rereading Vladimir Nabokov, Hitchens you know that Karl Marx admired Lincoln insists that only someone without any liter- necessity; ‘only a moral cretin and wrote in defense of the British conquest ary discernment could “think of employing thinks that anti-Semitism is a of India? That Saul Bellow was “an illegal Lolita for im moral or unsavory purposes,” threat only to Jews’; immigrant from Quebec” and was denied whereas the sundry unsavory ways in which a job with Time magazine for “incor- the United States exhibits third-world America’s alliance with rectly” answering a question about Wil - “banana-ism” could “make a cat laugh.” Pakistan is ‘the most dis- liam Wordsworth posed by Whittaker That laughing cat reminds me: Ar guably eased and rotten thing in Chambers? That the 1993 Supreme Court is often quite funny, and readers should find decision in Herrera v. Collins found that many occasions to seek out their nearest which the United States has “the execution of an innocent person is and dearest with whom to share a particu- ever involved itself.’” not necessarily a violation of federal con- larly choice passage. “Prince Charles’s stitutional protections”? empty sails,” we are informed, “are so As provocateur, Hitchens has few rigged as to be swelled by any passing waft equals, whether describing how he was or breeze of crankiness and cant”; of Hamid hustled off Hardball with Chris Matthews Karsai’s rival Abdullah Abdullah, we are told after offering “nigger” as an example— that he is “so nice they named him twice”; like “Tory,” “suffragette,” “queer”—of an and a summary of the plot of John Updike’s mously,” just as dying had given him “a epithet embraced by those at whom it had novel Terrorist provokes the parenthetical “I more vivid idea of what makes life worth been hurtfully aimed or observing that have just flipped through the book again to living, and defending.” What Hitchens John F. Kennedy was “a physical and prob- be quite certain that I did not make any of admired about the author of Dangling ably mental also-ran for most of his presi- this up” before Hitchens presses on to Man and Herzog was true of himself as dency,” his myriad physical ailments and explain how the novel’s imam instructs well: Bellow’s “pyrotechnic versatility with their treatments (steroids, amphetamines, young Ahmad on the need to fight the infi- English, a ferocious assimilation of learn- testosterone, anti-psychotics, and much dels: the imam “prepares [Ahmad] for ing, and an emphasis on the man of action else) raising the question of how compe- stone-faced single-mindedness with some as well as the man of reflection” (here I tent he had been to serve as president. intricate Koranic hermeneutics, de signed to recall Hitchens being waterboarded so he From such unforgettable facts, Hitchens shake his faith. And guess which example is could know what it felt like, getting beat builds one shrewd, difficult-to-dismiss adduced? The theory of the German up by a gang of thugs on a Beirut street, argument after another: his essay on John Orientalist Christoph Luxenberg, who has and organizing a rally to support Denmark Brown concludes with the assertion that argued that the ‘virgins’ promised to mar- in the face of Islamic threats). Perhaps all “our world might be a good deal worse tyrs in Paradise are actually a mistranslation good writers end up admiring in others’ than it is had not numberless African- for ‘white raisins.’ Bet you never heard that! work the qualities in their own of which Americans . . . taken John Brown as proof My feeling—call it a guess or an intuition— they are most proud. Thus, when Hitchens

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observe of Gore Vidal that he possesses writers have done, that he had wasted most “. . . Arguably is often quite “the rare gift of being amusing about seri- of his time,” Hitchens avers, and again he ous things as well as serious about amus- may have been looking at Johnson but see- funny, and readers should ing ones,” Hitchens is saluting his own ing himself). It is, therefore, poignant to read find many occasions to seek strengths. Such qualities are rare, and rarer in the final essay a self-portrait of the author out their nearest and dearest still in combination, which is why (again) he puttering from room to room, preoccupied will be missed, in these pages as elsewhere. not with how best to live but with how to with whom to share a partic- “Live all you can: It’s a mistake not to” organize and where to store the books ularly choice passage.” reads the epigraph, taken from Henry James, threatening to take over both his apartment that Hitchens chose for his final book. I like and his life. to imagine that Hitchens did, pauses amid his general dismay to admire though I suspect he might Brooke Horvath teaches at Kent State University. He is the the “breathtaking” scope of Updike’s know - not have thought so (Samuel author, most recently, of The Lecture on Dust (poems) and ledge and his inability to write badly, or to John son “felt, as many fine Understanding Nelson Algren.

Invasion of the Soul Snatchers Edd Doerr

ithout doubt, The Good News Club is one of the most important W books to appear this year. In it, investigative reporter Katherine Stewart exposes the staggeringly serious under- The Good News Club: The Christian Right’s Stealth Assault on the-radar tsunami of attacks on American America’s Children, by Katherine Stewart (New York: Public children, public education, and church- Affairs Press, 2012, ISBN-13:978-58648-843-7) 291 pp., state separation. But first, permit me to $25.99. discuss the title that I have given my review of her book. “Invasion of the Soul Snatchers” is the title of two articles I published nearly three decades ago in Voice of Reason, the journal of Americans for Religious Liberty, and The Humanist. In them, I showed that the the Fellowship of Christian Athletes. By the from coast to coast, interviewed “invader” Protestant hegemony in our public schools early 1980s, about 4,500 adult missionaries activists, attended their conferences, and had been broken and that religious freedom from these groups were bootlegging funda- studied their operations. and church-state had been advanced by the mentalist religion into about 10 percent of The 1984 Equal Access Act unleashed Supreme Court in the 1948 McCollum rul- our country’s high schools, according to a the invaders. Good News Clubs (GNCs), ing, the 1962–63 school prayer decisions, report in Education Week. sponsored by the Child Evangelism Fellow - the 1980 Ten Commandments display case, Writing in The Humanist in 1984, I ship (CEF, which should not be confused and the defeat of all attempts in Congress warned that Congress’s then-pending with the other CEF, Citizens for Edu cation to reinstate school-sponsored prayer by “equal access” legislation, pushed by Jerry Freedom, an older outfit dedicated to get- amending the Constitution. Falwell’s misnamed Moral Majority and ting tax support for sectarian private In the wake of these developments, similar forces on the religious Right, would schools and to undermining public educa- evangelical religious Right activists struck pose new threats of unprecedented mag- tion). Behind the GNC movement is the back by infiltrating public schools through nitude. Since the mid-1980s, the malig- “4–14 window” theory, the idea of using such outfits as Young Life, Youth for Christ’s nant invasion of the soul snatchers has after-school “equal access” clubs in public Campus Life, Campus Crusade for Christ’s metastasized. Stewart’s book lays it all out schools to indoctrinate children ages four Student Venture, High School Huddle, and in fine documented detail. She traveled to fourteen and then using them for “peer

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to peer evangelizing” of other children. heart of the largest, most secular city in the This is no peanut-sized operation. United States, one can only imagine where Stewart shows that the budget for the else this invasion is taking place. GNC’s legal advocacy groups dwarfs that But Stewart’s investigation doesn’t end of the American Civil Liberties Union there. She also examines the powerful “Parents need to find out (ACLU). Not only do the GNCs use the lawyers’ shops run by the religious Right to what organizations are after-school clubs to indoctrinate kids, but defend the soul-snatcher invasion; the reli- allowed to use the schools cooperating evangelical congregations are gious Right organizations and individuals encouraged to rent space—for peanuts— behind the invasion; the attempts to get their children attend in public schools for Sunday services in lieu “creationism” into public school science and what the rules are of acquiring separate facilities. Many kids classes; the Texas textbook wars; the use of governing such use.” then come to regard their public school as “biblical literacy” classes and sexuality/ a sort of adjunct to a church. abstinence education to infiltrate public And this is happening not just in the schools; and the relentless school voucher boonies in Alabama; it is happening in and homeschooling movements that are New York City, in Manhattan, only blocks undermining and eroding support for dem- invasion of the soul snatchers is almost from the New York Ethical Society and the ocratic, religiously neutral public education. entirely an effort by the evangelical reli- headquarters of the ACLU. As this column So, what to do? First of all, read this gious Right that should offend the over- is being written, the New York State legisla- book and share it with friends and neigh- whelming majority of Catholics, mainline ture is considering bills to allow churches to bors. Second, do not expect the courts to Protestants, Jews, Unitarians, humanists, hold services in public schools, in response miraculously come to the rescue; the and others. to a June 2011 U.S. Second Circuit Court of Supreme Court pretty much dodged the But the invasion is not unstoppable. Appeals ruling that was forcing the schools issue in the 2001 ruling in Good News Club Parents need to find out what organiza- to close their doors to church use on April v. Milford Central School, written by tions are allowed to use the schools their 12 of this year. If this is happening in the Clarence Thomas. Third, recognize that the children attend and what the rules are governing such use. If there is religious Right activity of any sort going on, parents

should explore and discuss the matter at a neighborhood or parent-teacher organiza- Soorrrry,ryy, memeemeerkat! ee eer rk kat at t! tion meeting, remembering that these in -

Onnlllyy humanshhu um man ans ns canc an n read.re ead ad d. vasions are offensive to most parents across the spectrum of religious persua- (Formerly Humanist in Canada magazine) sions. Then parents of varying persuasions, perhaps augmented by equally concerned ministers, priests, and rabbis, should meet quietly with school officials (principal, superintendent, school board) to discuss action. I have personally been involved in such actions, successfully. We are talking about your children and grandchildren, the public schools your taxes are paying for, and the church-state separa- tion principal that is supposed to guarantee everyone’s religious freedom.

Edd Doerr is president of Americans for 32%R[6WDWLRQ&   2WWDZD21&DQDGD  Religious Liberty and a past president of the .<- American Humanist Asso ciation. His two “Invasion of the Soul Snatchers” articles are available by writing him at Box 6656, Silver Spring, MD 20916. Enclose $2 to cover

48$57(5/<0$*$=,1( costs.

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Renewing Appreciation for a Freethought Figure Tom Flynn

n rare occasions, vanity presses bring forth a noteworthy title. For Ostudents of the history of free - thought, religious humanism, and Mid - John Emerson Roberts: Kansas City’s “Up-to-date” Freethought western intellectual culture, this is one of Preacher, by Ellen Roberts Young (Bloomington, Ind.: Xlibris, 2011, those occasions. Independent scholar Ellen ISBN 978-1-4628-7292-1) 244 pp. Cloth, $29.99. Roberts Young delivers a well-hewn biography of her great-grandfather, John Emer son Roberts (1853–1942), whose name should be better remembered in our community. Roberts started out as a Baptist preach - er, rejected Christian literalism, became a Unitarian minister, and ultimately rejected even the Unitarian tradition. He launched the freethought Church of This World, which met for decades in large rented Kansas City, Missouri, theaters, driven by the dynamism of his preaching. A friend of completely Gilded Age Unitarian radicalism Robert Green Ingersoll who occasionally had rejected Christian orthodoxy and as shared the stage with Clarence Darrow, “Secular humanists stand exemplars of that second variety of religious Roberts preached humanistic sermons that apart from the tradition humanism. “Man is on the way,” Roberts were regularly reprinted in both the national preached in 1906. “He will worship no freethought paper The Truth Seeker and in John Emerson Roberts imagined and unthinkable God. ... If wor- principal Kansas City newspapers. After embodies, but not so much ship he must, he will worship this humanity Ingersoll’s death in 1899, it was widely spec- so that we should not of which he himself is a part . . . pathetic ulated that Roberts would don Ingersoll’s and patient in its long struggle, perfect in its mantle as the nation’s premier freethought appreciate his story possibilities, and in its destiny, divine” (pp. orator, but he never captured the momen- and recognize his 153–54). Passages like this one prompted tum on the national stage that he had frequent brilliance.” early critics of religious humanism to dismiss attained in Kansas City. it, not without justification, as the worship Kansas City is the center of a vibrant of humans in God’s place. Surely its confi- Midwestern freethought tradition (see Fred dence that humanity is “perfect in its possi- Whitehead and Verle Muhrer’s seminal bilities” and “in its destiny, divine” cannot Freethought on the American Frontier [Pro - be accepted within a strict naturalism and metheus Books, 1992], which author Young can be accepted outside of it only with more cites as a major influence on her work). John Today, the term religious humanism has faith than most rationalists will feel comfort- Roberts was a pioneering voice of religious multiple meanings, encompassing both able indulging in. humanism in the Mid west. That tradition philosophically naturalistic humanists who Secular humanists stand apart from the endured: All Souls Unitarian, where Roberts choose to incorporate trappings of congre- tradition John Emerson Roberts em bodies, pastored for a decade before “going inde- gational life in their humanist practice and but not so much so that we should not pendent,” would later call pastors including also those whose worldviews incorporate appreciate his story and recognize his fre- Leon Birkhead and Lester Mondale, signers aspects of the mystical (or at least the non- quent brilliance. Ellen Roberts Young’s new of the original Humanist Manifesto in 1933, provable), an embrace that demands the book brings this influential regional human- and Raymond Bragg (1902–1979), who exercise of faith. It is fascinating to read ist figure vibrantly to life for us again. coordinated that document’s drafting and excerpts from Roberts’s sermons, Tom Flynn is the editor of FREE INQUIRY. pastored All Souls from 1952 to 1973. both as demonstrations of how

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POETRY Literary Changes at FREE INQUIRY Rill by Austin MacRae REE INQUIRY is proud to introduce the newest addition to our editorial team, Before I heard how loggers loosed FAustin MacRae, who will be taking up their logs on down the duties as FI’s new literary editor starting with this issue. MacRae, born in 1979 on mountainside forty acres of family farmland just outside by sluice, constructing miles of Cortland, New York, is a prodigiously tal- flume ented poet who is foremost a lover of along a floor of bowing ferns; poetry—from rigidly structured metered before I grasped how water works forms to more playful free verse. As a with gravity to minimize poet, MacRae has a way of making even his most complex poems accessible to the timber’s heft and haul; before everyone. Such a talent will stand him in I sank a hatchet deep and marveled good stead while selecting poems that all how a body hardens by FI readers—whether or not they are poets unalterable law, themselves—can appreciate. I found a rill MacRae currently resides in Freeville, New FI Literary Editor Austin MacRae murmuring down our hill between New York, and teaches English at Tomp - kins Cortland Community College. His Dos Madres Press of Ohio. the ash, an accidental trill poetry has appeared or is forthcoming in We wish former Literary Editor David in which I placed a leaf and felt such forums as 32 Poems, Atlanta Review, Park Musella well as he moves on to pursue it pull away from my fingertips, other interests. Musella has had a long asso- The Cortland Review, Birmingham Poetry spiraling a little, stuck ciation with FREE INQUIRY, beginning eight Review, and Verse Wisconsin. He has been for a moment, then slipping past a finalist for the Morton Marr Poetry Prize years ago when he was hired as an editorial itself at last, as all things will. and a nominee for a Pushcart Prize. His assistant. He quickly became in valuable for work will soon appear in The Book of his editing abilities and broad base of Villanelles (Everyman’s Library/Random knowledge about a variety of subjects, a House, 2012), and his own full-length great asset for an editorial department that poetry collection, The Organ Builder, has deals with articles on diverse topics. recently been accepted for publication by —The Editors

Guidelines for Poetry Submissions

FREE INQUIRY seeks unpublished, original poetry that is lyrical, enlightening, and com- patible with FREE INQUIRY’s secular humanist focus. We consider poetry of any kind: formal to free-verse, traditional to experimental. Poems should be accessible without being pat, compelling without being preachy, and shortish rather than longish. We generally publish several poems per issue, depending on space. Poems (no more than three per submission) should be sent in the body of an e-mail to [email protected] or hard-copy and accompanied by a PC read- able CD-ROM, thumb drive, or 3½-inch diskette. Please include a brief cover letter and mail to the following address: Austin MacRae, Literary Editor FREE INQUIRY P.O. Box 664 Amherst, NY 14226-0664 —Austin MacRae

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Advertise in

On a trial basis, Free inquiry will accept selected display advertising (minimum one-quarter page) from individuals, organizations, and publishers.

For rates and other information, please write tom Flynn, editor, Free inquiry, P.O. Box 664 Amherst ny 14226-0664 or e-mail [email protected].

Letters continued from p. 13

thing that gives it organization and the abil- The words spirit and spiritual are useful in anything not supported by them no matter ity to locally reverse entropy, which means it rational discourse. It seems from my obser- what I imagine. This is not intentional; it just can somehow suck energy from its environ- vations that spirit is as undeniable as God or is so, and it leads me to suspect that the ten- ment and use it to its own purposes. Mod- colors or motion sickness in the sense that dency to believe ideas not supported by ern science has shown that the special abil- humans create spirit, God, colors, motion awareness and understanding is an unalter- ity of life to organize itself and run biologi- sickness, etc. These are a kind of function of able spiritual trait. (Should I have used the cal reactions comes from the codes used by perception—maybe what some modern sci- word personality instead of spiritual?) life-forms. First was the genetic codes of entists of a certain bent call “emergent phe- Richard Kandarian RNA and DNA and then the nervous system nomena.” There are no spirits absent a Cundiyo, New Mexico codes used to transfer information around human to perceive them, just as there are the body. More recently, we humans have no colors absent a human to perceive them. Tom Flynn replies: been inventing codes to transfer knowledge It once occurred to me that spirituality though gesture, music, art, language, and can denote two closely related things: one’s I sympathize with Rick Ronvik’s misgivings— even computer bits. emotional relationship to the world along at least partway. When drafting the essay I However, the codes of life have no mass with one’s cultivation of that relationship. I considered going with “Stuff happens,” or volume; they only have meaning. So maintain that many people attribute super- because it was less derogatory toward the, knowledge is not matter. It is more like what natural characteristics to spirits or spirituality um, stuff. But I finally decided “Stuff hap- we think of when we use the term spirit. As because their awareness and understand- pens” just didn’t push back hard enough. I thoroughgoing naturalists, we need to be ing are limited, and they will readily can’t think of a stronger way to stress the free to discuss both sides of life without the believe ideas that are not included in their idea that, despite all its glorious and magnif- fear of being insecure in our atheism. Yes, awareness and understanding, a tendency icent awesomeness, the night sky is still shit happens, but there is more to life than shared with the majority of humanity on merely a natural phenomenon than to wink just the material. this planet. I don’t think I am free of limita- wickedly and announce “it’s all just shit, you Gary Wood tions on my awareness and understanding, know.” Charlestown, Maryland but it does seem that I am not led to believe Readers Gary Wood and Richard Kan -

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Letters

darian are to be lauded for telling us what ment in the North, as evidenced by his ical, and the antislavery, free labor, pro-infra- spiritual language means when they use it, remarks alleging that the second Great structure development Republican Party for which I thank them. They associate it Awakening “indulged in bigotry and self- that he represented was hardly dominated with the emergent properties that distin- righteousness in the North,”while noting by evangelicals. Indeed, most Americans, guish living from nonliving things. Well and that Southern evangelicalism “was more North and South, were not evangelical good, but I can’t help thinking we are ask- concerned with individual conversion, and Christians in 1860. The issue of slavery had ing for trouble when we choose to describe its adherents looked with alarm on the mix- been festering for decades, and to state that the qualia of living things in the very lan- ture of religion and politics brewing toxic responsibility for the Civil War can be laid at guage that religious believers use to ascribe potions in the North.” No mention of the the doorstep of evangelical extremism the same phenomena to actual spirits. I nearly four million men, women, and chil- (mainly north of the Mason-Dixon Line) is a think we’re better off avoiding the appear- dren enslaved in the South or how the evan- gross oversimplification. ance of dualism. gelical movement in Dixie was front and Dennis Middlebrooks To borrow Wood’s example, I think center in fervently defending the “peculiar Brooklyn, New York there’s just one side to life. While the institution,” along with secession, on bibli- material realm presents us with emergent cal grounds. David Goldfield replies: phenomena at many levels, from mole- Goldfield further attempts to discredit No slavery, no Civil War. No disagreement cules to life and thought, it’s still just mat- the abolitionist movement by linking it to there. The more interesting issue is why war ter in action. nativist sentiments, declaring “the anti- Catholic and antislavery movements shared erupted over slavery in 1861, as opposed to, some of the same rhetoric” in contrast to say, 1850 or 1845 or 1820. We were, after Obama and Torture those benign Southerners, who failed to all, a slave-holding nation for as long as our “join with Northern evangelicals in the existence. My answer in both the essay and I marvel at Nat Hentoff’s formidable intelli- excoriation of their Catholic and immigrant in my book, America Aflame, is that the gence and his ability to explain difficult legal populations.”Never mind the fact that the infusion of evangelical Protestantism into issues in layman’s language in “Obama’s Catholic and immigrant populations in the the political process rendered compro- Growing Torture Record” (FI, February/March South were minuscule compared to those mise—the essence of democratic govern- 2012). He is absolutely right! Nowhere in in the North or that there was indeed anti- ment—much less likely. the mainstream media have we commoners Catholic bigotry directed against the I focus on Northern evangelicals for two read or heard about President Barack Cajuns in Louisiana and Mexican-Amer - reasons. First, the prevailing interpretation Obama’s ongoing support of Bush’s un - icans in Texas. of the war’s origins casts the North as the apologetic legacy of torture, which runs When discussing the motives for fighting Republic of Virtue and the South as the Evil afoul of International Law and the Geneva the war, Goldfield tells us the North sought Empire. My work, however, demonstrates Convention. “to preserve God’s plan to extend democ- that both sides were to blame for this We who espouse secular humanism are racy and Christianity across an un broken bloody conflict. Second, Northern evangeli- committed to: “Our belief . . . that democ- continent and around the world” (!) cals provided the base for a new political racy is the best guarantee of protecting whereas the South merely “welcomed a war party, the Republican Party, that merged the human rights from the authoritarian elites.” to create a nation more perfect in its fealty to two major evangelical crusades of the era: We must pressure our representatives to God than the one they left.” The North against Roman Catholicism and slavery. sever their silent loyalty to this administra- fought the war to preserve the Union and Evangelicals were never a majority, but they tion’s betrayal of our democratic principles the South fought to war to preserve the were well organized, well financed, and uti- and common decency. The threat of terror- institution of slavery and, indeed, to extend lized technological innovations in printing ists is a legitimate fear, I know—but a far it into the western territories and even north- and communications to influence and worse fear is the specter of no longer hav- ern Mexico, which it planned to annex. invade the political process. ing the protection of law. The issue of Southern slavery is glossed Southern evangelicals were hardly David Quintero over as the major cause of the war, and blameless in this conflict, but, unlike their Monrovia, California Goldfield has no interest in discussing the Northern counterparts, they had not yet abominable treatment of slaves in the ante- captured a major political party. When the Evangelism and the Civil War bellum South and how this was a major fac- war came, both the Union and the Con - tor in the growth of antislavery sentiment in federacy proclaimed that God was on its I came away with the distinct impression the North. There is also no mention of the side and proceeded to slaughter each other that David Goldfield in “The Evangelical huge role freethinkers played in the aboli- in his name. That is really the center of my Or igins of the Civil War” (FI, February/ tionist movement. Indeed, the man whose argument. March 2012) was apportioning blame for election as president in 1860 precipitated I hope readers of the essay and my book the war primarily to the evangelical move- the war, Abra ham Lincoln, was no evangel- will come away asking whether the libera-

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tion of four million slaves and the salvation money in a false myth. Tithing over the Daniel Maguire states that “words . . . can of the Union could have been accom- course of a lifetime can easily amount to get kidnapped.” I would suspect that soci- plished without killing 620,000 men. We $250,000 for an average earner (10 percent olinguistics would also argue that some- can never know the answer to this ques- of $50,000 annual salary over fifty years in times societies are willing to accept new tion, of course. But what we do know is today’s dollars). That money could have definitions to words to correspond to new that 620,000 men gave their lives in a pur- been invested many ways to earn perhaps understandings of cultural norms and ported Holy War, and that African millions in real (i.e., not imaginary) wealth, expectations. Even though I agree that the Americans had precious little to show for which could be used in this life for charity, words sacred, faith, and religion are not this sacrifice for nearly a century after the retirement, to help grandkids, etc. dirty words, since no words are “dirty” war. When Frederick Douglass called the But the loss in time is even greater. when used in the context of effective com- Emancipation Proclamation a “fraud” in a When I was a believer involved in an active munication, I wholeheartedly disagree that speech commemorating its twenty-fifth church life, I spent twelve hours per week human ists suffer “losses” or “marry into a anniversary in 1888, he was not far from worshipping, which included Sunday false ethical methodology” by not using the truth. School, Sunday morning service, Sunday these particular words when other words evening service, choir practice, prayer meet- carry more accurate meanings of under- ings, giving testimonials, reading doctrinal standing in today’s culture. Easter Explained publications, etc. Given that I only had No matter how much Maguire (or mem- about twenty hours per week of leisure bers of other liberal leaning Christian Re “Easter Explained” by Peter W. Sperlich time (i.e., nonworking time above and denominations in our society such as Uni - (FI, February/March 2012): Isn’t the resurrec- beyond chores, errands, child-rearing, tarian Universalists, United Church of Christ, tion tantamount to God having his prover- sleep, health maintenance, and other etc.) tries to define the words sacred, faith, bial cake and eating it too? He experiences things that have to be done), losing 60 or religion to be more encompassing of cur- real human suffering both as tortured mar- percent of my down-time to chasing a rent secular thought, humanists are to be tyr and grieving parent but then ends up false god for no reward in the afterlife is a commended when we use more culturally with his only son alive and well and seated horrendous price to pay for the faithful if accurate words like trust or beliefs instead at his right hand. Given these circum- they lose Pascal’s Wager. And how much of faith, or cherished instead of sacred. The stances, Sperlich’s comment that just invok- better would the world be if we all spent word faith is used today as the total accept- ing “I forgive your sins” would suffice our leisure time making this life better ance of supernatural knowledge based on sounds only a little less disagreeable than instead of banking on a payoff in an imag- creeds and the interpretation of old religious the messy alternative. To really know human inary realm? texts, not the definition “positive beliefs.” suffering the son of God would conceivably Keith Trexler My hope, my trust, as a humanist, comes need to stay dead, leaving God the father Milford, New Hampshire from my knowledge of kinship and the evi- alone with his thoughts. dence of conduct and values exhibited in the That’s not much of a symbol to inspire principles of moral intelligence found in that faith within an increasingly sophisticated kinship. This is what I cherish in my relation- human population though. Without a resur- The Importance of ship with others. Please don’t call this “re - rection, whether or not eternal life is then Defining Terms sponse” a religion. guaranteed for the masses, there is not Daniel Maguire in “Atheists for Jesus”(FI, Mark Lively much left to be awed by. Regrettably, the February/March 2012) mentioned that Colleyville, Texas Passion comes off as somewhat shallow; Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism were God has given himself a “get out of jail religions (as defined in the dictionary). They free” card. are not. None of them traditionally have Daniel Maguire’s piece is maddening, as William H. Patterson “gods.” All three represent morality and when he declares, “In fact, there is no one Rohnert Park, California other teachings in order to build a well-bal- who considers nothing sacred.” This quite anced society. Also, Buddhism is not a simply is the very sort of claim without evi- Pascal’s Wager Chinese creation. It originated in the India dence that one would expect from a reli- region and came to China some seven hun- gious nut. He admits that the “tincture of I enjoyed Adam Nehr’s excellent argument dred years later. It then “evolved” into its the sacred” is used “for good or for ill” but against Pascal’s Wager (FI, February/March own form. then nonetheless insists only upon sacred’s 2012). However, I take exception to Pascal’s Richard Kimball, Professor Emeritus majestic, uplifting, awe-inspiring meaning. premise that if you lose, you lose nothing. University of the West, University of He argues that “faithless” has “negative Not so. If believers turn out to be wrong, Zimbabwe, and California State University, codings,” but this is true only if you accept then they have invested both time and Hayward that “faith” is “positive”—which I don’t.

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And while it’s true that Buddhism, Tao - nut, job-preserving coward! Down boys! I Pros and Cons of Circumcision ism, and Confucianism (at least in their pure have never fled from kitchen heat, nor do I forms) don’t advocate belief in God, follow- work in a self-preservative closet. The Unit - Edan Tasca (“Snip the Snip,” FI, Febru - ers of these traditions will often speak of ed States Conference of Catholic Bishops ary/March 2012) uncritically parrots com- themselves as “spiritual but not religious,” who, in March 2007, formally condemned mon misleading claims and provides few which harkens back to the problems of my work wish that I did. sources. Regarding the “millions of extra usage that Flynn highlighted in his editorial. A reading assignment for my respon- nerve endings” the foreskin allegedly con- tains. Says who, what kind, and how does it And in their impure forms, Buddhism, for dents: In Ethics for a Small Planet (SUNY compare to the rest of the body? Cir - instance, becomes very woo-woo like, such Press, 1998), I go beyond David Hume, who cumcision opponents complain about the as when members won’t buy a building to said the question of the existence of a deus loss of nerve endings, especially fine-touch use for a sanctuary until it’s blessed by one faber as the manufacturer of our world is receptors, or Meissner’s corpuscles, but a of their “holy persons” first. not unreasonable. I argue that “the very study of eight different body parts found William H. Clarke question is misconceived.” Give it a read. I that the foreskin has the fewest and small- Missoula, Montana think you’ll find it truly free inquiry with no est of these supposedly sexually important linguistic taboos. nerves and fingertips the most and largest. Those suffering the psychological conflict or Who gets an orgasm by rubbing fingertips? cognitive dissonance of holding conflicting Establishing Personhood Thankfully, Tasca’s half-true claims about beliefs have two choices. They can either be HIV do not fool the WHO, UNAIDS, or the intellectually honest and give up what their Re “Personhood and Human Rights” by Edd CDC. The anti-circumcision movement be - own reason has shown to be the offending Doerr (FI, February/March 2012): It often longs to the same genre as HIV denial, vac- untrue belief or rationalize what they hope amazes me how the anti-abortion advo- cine opposition, and other anti-medicine will somehow be seen as a more sensible cates make lofty speeches about the so- junk science. Fortunately, circinfo.net pro- and accepted version of it. Maguire appears called value of human life. Yet ironically, it is vides an antidote to their emotional rhetoric. to have chosen the latter, forgetting that the they who would apparently reduce the Finally, Tasca considers it unthinkable essence of any ethics is admitting the truth, value of human life to thoughtless matter in that “a young man would see a good rea- not attempting a pedantic justification of the very early stages of pregnancy. It is obvi- son to have part of his penis cut off.” Like the lie. ous that it is not so much a future human many young men I saw plenty of good rea- The more I read his essay, the more it life that they are seeking to preserve and sons nineteen years ago, and I have never sounded like he was saying, “I know the control but rather the function of pregnancy regretted it. secularists are right, but it is not nice to rub attendant to the woman in point. One thing Stephen Moreton, PhD it in. I need this job.” is for certain: if a woman cannot personally Cheshire, United Kingdom James Krider control her reproductive function—the South Bend, Indiana prime biological capacity wherein she is the cosmic female—then someone or some Edan Tasca’s article on circumcision ignores the high quality large-scale studies done re- institution “owns her,” which is not exactly cently. These studies consistently show that Daniel Maguire replies: democratic justice. there are significant life-long health benefits My wife is a registered nurse. Some The dogmatism of the letter writers sur- to being circumcised at birth. Here is a com- years ago she was caring for a baby girl who prised me, reminding me of two Vatican mentary from Drs. Tobian and Gray at John’s was born without frontal lobes. Most babies dicta: Si quis aliter dixerit, anathema sit (If Hopkins: “Three randomized trials in Africa in this condition die within a month follow- you dare to use different words not ap - demonstrated that adult male circumcision ing birth. This one died within seven weeks. proved by our orthodoxy, you are cursed). decreases human im muno deficiency virus Also, Extra ecclesiam, nulla salus (Outside of Everything that we call “characteristi- (HIV) acquisition in men by 51% to 60%, our group-speak, there is no legitimacy). cally human” is emergent of the frontal and the long-term follow-up of these study Seeing theism as poetry, often of a rich lobes. Did this baby have a soul? If so, what participants has shown that the protective sort, is on the Index of Forbidden Thoughts. is that soul doing now—lying around the efficacy of male circumcision increases with Defining sacred as the very serviceable heavenly hosts making obstreperous noises time from surgery. These findings are consis- superlative of precious is banned. Faith, reli- perhaps? Maybe the pope should issue an tent with a large number of observational gion, sacred, and other excommunicated encyclical on the issue and call it Homo stul- studies in Africa and in the United States words that must be shunned. tus (Man the Fool). that found male circumcision reduces the Therefore, let fly the inquisitorial epithets: John L. Indo risk of HIV infection in men.” (Emphasis maddening, pedantic, rationalizer, religious Houston, Texas added.)

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Also: “The evidence for the long-term to lifelong trauma attributed to it. The cru- I state that there’s a debate, not a con- public health benefits of male circumcision elty is committed by the anti-circs who sensus, about whether sex is more enjoy- has increased substantially during the past breed fear in parents and false longings and able for intact men. Further, the “pre-hu - 5 years. If a vaccine were available that regrets in circumcised men. Comparisons to man” nature of the foreskin is true of every reduced HIV risk by 60%, genital herpes loosing a little finger or a complete clitoris body part, none of which should be rou- risk by 30%, and HR-HPV risk by 35%, the are disingenuous and absurd. tinely removed for nonmedical reasons. medical community would rally behind the Paul Shelton It’s of course good that Moreton and immunization and it would be promoted Tukwila, Washington Shelton are happy with their decisions to be as a game-changing public health inter- circumcised. Every male should be similarly vention.” free to decide, which requires an intact penis. Shelton’s suggestion that forgotten As for the ethics of circumcising in fants, Edan Tasca’s criticism of circumcision is not trauma isn’t a concern speaks for itself. see the Benatar and Benatar links below. well researched. What about women as To Elspeth Grant Bobbs and Sally King: partners of men? Sir Ernest Kennaway Sources: The many alternative explanations for proved to the satisfaction of his peers that Tobian, Aaron A.R., MD, PhD; Ronald H. Gray, Bobbs’s correlation are why the American MD, MSc. “The Medical Benefits of Male Jewish women had far less cancer of the Cancer Society does not recommend cir- Circum ci sion,” Available at http://jama.ama- reproductive system than women generally cumcision. Further, breast cancer is the assn.org/content/306/13/1479.full#ref-1. and the only possible reason was that all Tobian, A.A., R.H. Gray, and T.C. Quinn. “Male most common cancer for women. We Cir cumcision for the Prevention of Acquisi- their partners had been circumcised. Surely wouldn’t routinely remove body parts to tion and Transmission of Sexually Trans mitted his work should be examined and updated, prevent it (or HIV, etc.), unless the practice Infections: The Case for Neo natal Circum - and we must have more research about cision.” Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 164, no.1 were already with us as, say, a descendant (2010):78–84. Available at http://archpedi. whether circumcision does prevent AIDS. If of blood sacrifice. ama-assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/164/1/78 indeed it is found that a small operation ?ijkey=2bb86e106c9052df7aaf7e73ecebd4 does save many lives, of women also, surely d526075f38&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha. Mark Twain Revisited Http://www.circs.org/index.php/Library/Benatar2. it is right to promote it rather than seek to Http://www.circs.org/index.php/Library/Benatar. abolish it on somewhat unsubstantiated Joel Welty’s piece “Mark Twain Tries— Joe Provino grounds. Again—to Become a Christian” (FI, Feb - Arlington, Massachusetts Elspeth Grant Bobbs ruary/March 2012) does not contain a single Santa Fe, New Mexico word or observation that we have not read A letter to the editor does not allow enough many times before, but it is written with such words to cover all the untruths, ludicrous grace and style—indeed, an eerie echo of comparisons, and downright illogic in Edan An article purporting to discuss circumci- Mark Twain’s own style— that I can only say Tasca’s piece, which at tempts to convince sion that does not even mention HPV bravo! the reader of the sacrosanct magnificence (human papillomavirus), much less address Peter Rogatz, MD, MPH of the male foreskin. I am one of a reason- the issue, cannot be taken seriously. Edan Port Washington, New York ably rare population of men who have lived Tasca must have left it out on purpose so into adulthood with and without a foreskin. he did not have to bother with countering Take my word for it: if you were circumcised any evidence showing the incidence of WRITE TO as an infant, feel fortunate and thank your HPV infections to be lower among circum- parents. You are cleaner, your partner(s) cised men and their sexual partners. The is/are far happier, you eliminate rashes and most deadly of these infections is of itches, you reduce the probabilities of more course cervical cancer. serious illness, and sex is, by and large, bet- Sally King Send submissions to ter. The foreskin is not a sexual organ. It is a Andrea Szalanski, Letters Editor, Seattle, Washington piece of skin evolved for some pre-human FREE INQUIRY, reason on some pre-human animal that P.O. Box 664, Amherst, NY 14226-0664. came along for the ride with humans. The Edan Tasca replies: Fax: (716) 636-1733. fact that we still retain one does not indicate E-mail: [email protected]. that we ever needed it to survive or that we To Stephen Moreton, Joe Provino, and Paul In letters intended for need it now. Vestigial organs and parts are Shelton: Far from trying to “fool” anyone, I publication, please include name, all over us. clearly address the circumcision/HIV correla- ad dress, city and state, zip code, Furthermore, removing the foreskin is tions. Even a causal link would be relevant and daytime phone number (for verification purposes only). not cruelty to infants. Local anesthesia, so I only to the crisis in Africa. African men vol- read, is commonly used. In any case, find unteering to be circumcised is rather differ- Letters should be 300 words or fewer and pertain to previous me a man, circumcised as an infant, who ent from routinely circumcising newborns in FREE INQUIRY articles. has any recollection of the deed or can point the West.

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International The Academy is composed of nontheists who are: (1) devoted to the principle of free inquiry in all fields of human endeavor; (2) committed to the scientific outlook and Academy of Humanism the use of reason and the scientific method in acquiring knowledge about nature; Académie Internationale d’Humanisme and (3) upholders of humanist ethical values and principles.

HUMANIST LAUREATES Jürgen Habermas, professor of philosophy, Marcel Roche, permanent delegate to UNESCO University of Frankfurt (Germany) from Venezuela (Venezuela) medical doctor (Netherlands) Pieter Admiraal, Margherita Hack, astronomer, astrophysicist (Italy) Salman Rushdie, author, Massachusetts former education minister Shulamit Aloni, Alberto Hidalgo Tuñón, professor of philosophy, Institute of Technology (USA) (Israel) Universidad de Oviedo (Spain) Fernando Savater, philosophy educator (Spain) Ruben Ardila, psychologist, National University Donald Johanson, Institute of Human Origins Peter Singer, DeCamp Professor of Bioethics at of Colombia (Colombia) (discoverer of “Lucy”) (USA) the University Center for Human Values, author (Canada) Margaret Atwood, Sergeí Kapitza, chair, Moscow Institute of Princeton University (USA) , professor of philosophy, University Kurt Baier Physics and Technology; vice president, Nobel Laureate in Chemistry of Pittsburgh (USA) Jens C. Skou, Academy of Sciences (Russia) (Denmark) Etienne-Emile Baulieu, Lasker Award for Clinical George Klein, cancer researcher, Karolinska J.J.C. Smart, professor emeritus of philosophy, Medicine winner (France) Institute, Stockholm (Sweden) Australian National University (Australia) Baruj Bonacerraf, Nobel Prize Laureate in György Konrád, novelist; sociologist; cofounder, Wole Soyinka, Nobel Laureate, playwright Physiology or Medicine (USA) Hungarian Humanist Association (Hungary) (Nigeria) Jacques Bouveresse, professor of philosophy, Sir Harold W. Kroto, Nobel Laureate in Chemistry professor of philosophy, Collège de France (France) (UK) Barbara Stanosz, Instytut Wydawniczy “Ksiazka i Prasa” Paul D. Boyer, Nobel Laureate in Chemistry Ioanna Kuçuradi, secretary general, Fédéra tion (USA) Internationale des Sociétés de Philo sophie (Poland) Mario Bunge, Frothingham Professor of (Turkey) Jack Steinberger, Nobel Laureate in Physics (USA) Foundations and Philosophy of Science, , professor emeritus of philosophy, McGill University (Canada) State University of New York at Buffalo (USA) Thomas S. Szasz, professor of psychiatry, State Uni - Jean-Pierre Changeux, Collège de France, Valerii A. Kuvakin, philosopher, founding direc- versity of New York Medical School, Syracuse Institut Pasteur, Académie des Sciences tor, Center for Inquiry/Moscow (Russia) (USA) (France) Gerald A. Larue, professor emeritus of archeol- Sir Keith Thomas, historian, president, Corpus Patricia Smith Churchland, professor of philoso- ogy and biblical studies, University of Christi College, Oxford University (UK) phy, University of California at San Diego; Southern California at Los Angeles (USA) Rob Tielman, professor of sociology, Universiteit adjunct professor, Salk Institute for Thelma Lavine, Clarence J. Robinson professor voor Humanistiek, Utrecht; former copresi- Biological Studies (USA/Canada) of philosophy, George Mason University dent, Inter national Humanist and Ethical Richard Dawkins, author (USA) Union (Netherlands) José M.R. Delgado, professor and chair, Richard Leakey, author, paleo-anthropologist Lionel Tiger, professor of anthropology, Department of Neuropsychology, University (Kenya) Rutgers–the State University of New Jersey of Madrid (Spain) Jean-Marie Lehn, Nobel Laureate in Chemistry (USA) director of the Center for Daniel C. 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Prof. and Harvey Weinstein, cofounder of Miramax (USA) Rebecca Goldstein, philosopher and author Johnstone Family Prof. in Department of George A. Wells, professor of German, Birkbeck (USA) Psychology, Harvard University (USA) College, University of London (UK) Adolf Grünbaum, Andrew Mellon Professor of Dennis Razis, medical oncologist, “Hygeia” Edward O. Wilson, Pellegrino University Philos ophy of Science, University of Diagnos tic & Therapeutic Center of Athens S.A. Professor, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Pittsburgh (USA) (Greece) Harvard University (USA)