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App 1 Guide to Scale Insect Families

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App 1 Guide to Scale Insect Families Detection and identification of scale insects families (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) Chris Malumphy The Food and Environment Research Agency Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Sand Hutton, York, UK YO41 1LZ DETECTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF SCALE INSECTS CONTENTS Page 1. Int roduction 3 1.1 Biology 3 1.2 Dispersal 4 1.3 Economic importance 4 2. Detection of scale insects 5 2. 1 Recognition of scale insect families in the field 8 3. Identification of scale insect families 10 3. 1 Preservation of specimens 10 3. 2 Adult female morphology 14 3. 3 Morph ological key to the scale insect families 14 4. Information sources 20 References 23 © Fera 2015 – Version 1 2 DETECTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF SCALE INSECTS 1. INTRODUCTION Scale insects are plant-sap feeding insects, closely related to the aphids, whiteflies and jumping plant lice or psyllids. They are among the most highly specialised of all plant parasites and feed on all parts of the plant including the roots, stems, leaves, buds and fruit. Some feed within hollow plant stems or plant galls; others mine beneath bark or live within plant tissue. There are about 7,500 species assigned to 1050 genera, in 28 or more families, in the superfamily Coccoidea. The higher classification is unresolved but here they are placed in the suborder Sternorrhyncha in the order Hemiptera. The purpose of this guide is to provide information that will assist workers in the United Kingdom Overseas Territories (UKOTs) to detect and identify scale insects to family level. This is intended to help develop diagnostic capacity within the UKOTs. The UKOTs are recognised as having a rich biodiversity that is under threat from the introduction of non- native species. Non-native species are a major cause of the loss of biodiversity globally, and island ecosystems typical of UKOTs are particularly vulnerable (Cheesman et al ., 2003; Varnham, 2006). A recent example of an accidental introduction of an invasive pest in a UKOT resulting in an environmental disaster has been the effect of pine tortoise scale (Toumeyella parvicornis ) on the pineyards in the Turks and Caicos Islands (Malumphy et al ., 2012). The scale has killed the majority of the mature pine trees changing the ecosystem. Accurate and rapid species identification for suspect non-native species is fundamental to the enforcement of eradication and quarantine measures to protect biodiversity and agriculture. 1.1 BIOLOGY Neotenic, larviform adult female coccid Winged adult male scale insect ( Lichtensia (Lichtensia viburni ) viburni ). The caudal wax filaments assist the insect to glide in air currents Scale insects show a tremendous diversity of biology. Most reproduce sexually, others parthenogenetically, others sexually and parthenogenetically, while a few are true hermaphrodites. The adults exhibit extreme sexual dimorphism. Adult females are larviform and neotenic (sexual mature in the larval stage), whereas adult males are winged (occasionally apterous) and resemble small flies. They have a single pair of forewings; the hind wings are reduced to short ribbon-like structures. They lack functional mouthparts, do not feed and live only from a few hours to a few days. The males of many species are attracted to the females by sex pheromones. Most scale insects lay eggs, some lay eggs that hatch almost immediately and some give birth to first instars. The eggs are protected in a variety of ways, some species enclose their eggs in an ovisac of waxen threads, some keep their eggs beneath the female's body, some beneath the separate scale-like covering of the adult female, some between wax plates secreted from the end of the abdomen and some © Fera 2015 – Version 1 3 DETECTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF SCALE INSECTS inside a ventral abdominal pouch. Female scale insects have two or three nymphal instars; the males have two nymphal instars followed by two non-feeding stages termed prepupa and pupa. 1.2 DISPERSAL The first nymphal instar, known as the ‘crawler’, is the principal active dispersal stage and seeks out a new feeding site. First instars are also passively dispersed by wind, water, other insects, birds or by man. Subsequent nymphal instars and adult females of most scale insects are sedentary. The widespread dispersal of many species of scale insects has been largely caused by the movement of scale infested plant material around the world by man. In terms of number of species, scale insects are the largest superfamily of arthropods intercepted on imported plants and plant produce in England and Wales. They are also often the most numerous, in terms of the number of individuals, detected on imported plant material. 1.3 ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE Severe hedge damage in Florida caused by Cycads killed by Aulacaspis yasumatsui in Maconellicoccus hirsutus © 2004-2007 Guam © Anne Brooke, Guam National Florida Department of Agriculture and Wildlife Refuge Consumer Services Scale insects may attack any part of the plant. They are widely distributed throughout the world with the exception of the cold extremes of the Arctic and Antarctic. Host plant diversity is broad, although scales are not commonly found on ferns or mosses. They damage the plants directly by removing sap which reduces host vigour, and may cause chlorosis, discolouration, pitting of stems and fruit, leaf and shoot distortion, localised necrosis, premature leaf drop, drying out of the foliage and stems, die back, and even death of susceptible plants. They may also induce galls, inject toxic saliva and vector plant pathogenic diseases. Many species, particularly in the families Coccidae and Pseudococcidae, produce copious quantities of honeydew which smoothers the host and serves as a medium for the growth of black sooty moulds. The mould screens light from the leaves and restricts gas exchange, reducing photosynthesis and hence productivity. The market value of ornamental plants and plant produce is lowered by insect feeding damage and the presence of moulds. The small size and cryptic nature of scale insects means that they can easily escape detection during quarantine inspections and are regularly transported in international trade. The © Fera 2015 – Version 1 4 DETECTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF SCALE INSECTS accidental introduction of a single fertilized or parthenogenetic female may initiate a serious infestation, causing serious loss of yield or killing crops. Examples of scale insects introduced to new geographical areas and causing major economic losses include: Phenacoccus manihoti, Rastrococcus invadens, Maconellicoccus hirsutus and Aulacaspis yasumatsui . The cassava mealybug, Phenacoccus manihoti , was accidentally introduced to West Africa from South Amercia and was a serious threat to cassava, a staple crop, until a parasitoid wasp was introduced to control it. The ‘mango mealybug’, Rastrococcus invadens , originates from South East Asia and was inadvertently introduced into Ghana and Togo in 1981-82. It spread rapidly through West Africa where it became a serious economic pest of several crops, reducing mango yields by 50-90%. A parasitoid wasp was introduced into Togo in the late 1980s and has successfully controlled the mealybug in most areas. The pink hibiscus mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus , is a serious pest of many crop and ornamental plants in tropical and subtropical regions, including Africa, Southeast Asia, and northern Australia. It was introduced in to the Caribbean in 1994 and has since spread to the USA and South America. It has caused major economic losses and increased crop production costs and is the subject of a biological control programme. The cycad aulacaspis scale, Aulacaspis yasumatsui , is a cycad pest native to South East Asia. It was introduced to the USA (including Hawaii), Central America, Caribbean, Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Guam and the Ivory Coast. Populations can build up rapidly and heavily infested plants are killed. For example, 90% of the native cycads in parts of Guam have been killed. Many species of scale insect, however, are beneficial to man. Several species are used to produce dyes for textiles, cosmetics and foods, for example, cochineal red dye is produced from Dactylopius coccus , crimson lake dye from Kermes vermilio , Polish cochineal from Porphyrophora polonica and Armenian cochineal from Prophyrophora hamelii . They have also been used for lacquers (shellac furniture polish from Laccifer lacca ), resins, waterproofing 'fats', medicines, cosmetics and food (Biblical 'manna' came from Trabutina mannipara ). Ericerus pela is cultivated on an enormous scale in China for wax to make candles. Hard-shelled margarodids, known as ground pearls, are used to make jewellery and ornaments. Honeydew produced by Marchalna hellenica on pine trees in Greece is collected by bees and used to make honey. Scale insects have also been used for the biological control of weeds, for example, Dactylopius spp. have been used as biological control agents for Opuntia cacti in Australia, Ceylon, India, Hawaii, and Mauritius. 2. DETECTION OF SCALE INSECTS Scale insects feed on all parts of the plant, including the leaves, twigs, branches, fruit and roots. Some species are relatively large and highly conspicuous, for example Icerya purchasi , and others are conspicuous as they often occur in large populations. Many produce conspicuous white, waxy ovisacs, particularly some of the Coccidae and Pseudococcidae. Unfortunately, the majority of the scale insects encountered are usually inconspicuous, being small, cryptic and are normally present in low
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