Turcologica 37,1

Salar: A Study in Inner Asian Language Contact Processes

Part I: Phonology

Bearbeitet von Arienne M Dwyer

1. Auflage 2007. Taschenbuch. XXVI, 336 S. Paperback ISBN 978 3 447 04091 4 Format (B x L): 17 x 24 cm

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2007 Harrassowitz Verlag · Wiesbaden

ISSN 01774743 ISBN 978-344704091-4

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Photos and Figures ...... ix Abbreviations ...... xii Preface...... xvii On Transcription and Transliteration ...... xix

1 Cultural History...... 1 1.1 Salar Origins...... 1 1.1.1 The Legend...... 1 1.1.2 Early historical References to the Salars in China ...... 3 1.1.3 The Central Asian Connection...... 6 1.1.4 Preconditions to Ethnogenesis ...... 8 1.2 Cultural Contact and ethnoreligious Identity ...... 9 1.2.1 Tibetan and Muslim-Chinese Contact...... 11 1.2.2 Faith and Control ...... 14 1.3 Summary ...... 25

2 Linguistic History ...... 26 2.1 The Turkic Language Family: Locus and Chronology ...... 26 2.2 Classification of the Turkic Family...... 29 2.3 The Classification of Salar...... 32 2.4 Western Turkic Tendencies, real and imagined...... 35 2.4.1 Phonetic Elements...... 35 2.4.2 Oghuz lexical Elements ...... 40 2.4.3 Salar and Turkmen: a closer Relationship?...... 44 2.5 Archaisms in Salar ...... 47 2.5.1 Morphosyntactic Archaisms...... 47 2.5.2 Lexical Archaisms...... 49 2.6 South Siberian and marginal Kïpchak Turkic Elements ...... 52 2.7 Non-Uyghur Elements ...... 56 2.7.1 Phonological Elements...... 57 2.7.2 Lexical Elements...... 57 2.7.3 Morphological Elements ...... 60 2.8 Southeastern Features...... 61 2.8.1 Sound System...... 61 2.8.2 Morphosyntactic Elements...... 61 vi Table of Contents

2.9 Idiosyncratic Features...... 62 2.10 Summary of Salar Features by Type ...... 66

3 Documentation and Variation ...... 69 3.1 Explorers and Linguists: previous Studies...... 69 3.2 Data Basis...... 73 3.3 Forms of vocalized Salar...... 74 3.4 Varieties and Variation ...... 77 3.4.1 Western Salar: the Ili Dialect ...... 79 3.4.2 Eastern Salar Vernaculars...... 81 3.4.3 Factors in Dialect Variation ...... 87 3.5 Language Status...... 90 3.5.1 Speakers and Multilingualism...... 90 3.5.2 Orthography, Extant Texts...... 91 3.5.3 Language Endangerment...... 92

4 The Sound System: an Overview...... 94 4.1 Consonants...... 94 4.1.1 Surface consonantal Inventory...... 94 4.1.2 Underlying consonantal Inventory...... 96 4.1.3 Manner ...... 96 4.1.4 Voicing and Aspiration...... 98 4.1.5 Place ...... 108 4.2 Vowels ...... 119 4.2.1 Surface vowel Inventory ...... 120 4.2.2 Vowel Phonemes...... 121 4.2.3 Vowel Quality...... 122 4.2.4 Diphthongs...... 132 4.2.5 Long Vowels...... 136

5 Syllable Structure and Prosody...... 139 5.1 Framework ...... 139 5.2 Syllable Types...... 139 5.3 CVC syllables and vowel Epenthesis...... 146 5.3.1 Epenthesis within the Syllable (1)...... 146 5.3.2 Epenthesis within the Syllable (2)...... 147 5.3.3 Epenthesis across Syllables...... 149 5.3.4 Sonority, Syllable Weight and Epenthesis...... 150 5.4 Prosodic Minimality and Glide Epenthesis...... 151 5.5 Syllable Strengthening...... 153 Table of Contents vii

5.6 Summary of Strategies for achieving preferred Syllable Structure ...... 154 5.7 Prosodic Structure...... 155 5.7.1 Stress Assignment in Salar...... 155 5.7.2 Morpheme-based Stress Assignment ...... 155 5.7.2.1 Stress-attracting Morphemes...... 155 5.7.2.2 Unstressed Morphemes...... 156 5.7.3 Syllable-based Stress Assignment...... 157 5.7.4 Non-final Stress...... 157 5.7.5 Prosody-based Stress Assignment...... 159 5.8 Unstressed Suffixes...... 160

6 Major phonological Processes ...... 163 6.1 Syllabification Processes...... 163 6.1.1 Glottal Prothesis...... 163 6.1.2 Initial [v]-Prothesis ...... 164 6.1.3 On-glide Prothesis...... 164 6.1.4 Nasal Deletion; Vowel Nasalization ...... 165 6.1.5 Liquid Deletion...... 166 6.1.6 Consonant Epenthesis ...... 168 6.1.7 Co-occurrence Restrictions on Salar Codae...... 169 6.2 Harmonic Assimilation Processes...... 171 6.2.1 Vowel Harmony...... 171 6.3 Regular Disharmony ...... 173 6.3.1 Vowel Derounding...... 174 6.3.2 Vowel Laxing...... 174 6.3.3 Vowel Raising...... 175 6.3.4 Disharmonic Foreign Loans...... 176 6.4 Other Consonantal Assimilation Processes...... 176 6.4.1 Voicing Assimilation...... 176 6.4.2 Place Assimilation of Dorsal Consonants...... 178 6.4.3 Labialization...... 179 6.5 Devoicing Processes ...... 179 6.5.1 Final Obstruent Devoicing...... 179 6.5.2 Continuant Devoicing ...... 181 6.5.3 r-Devoicing ...... 183 6.6 Spirantization of Final Stops...... 185 6.7 Preconsonantal t-weakening ...... 185 6.8 Dental Affrication...... 186 6.9 Vowel-consonant Interactions...... 187 viii Table of Contents

6.9.1 Vowel Devoicing...... 187 6.9.2 Vowel Consonantalization (Spirantization) ...... 188 6.9.3 Consonant Preaspiration ...... 191

7 Diachronic development...... 201 7.1 Approach...... 201 7.2 Sources on premodern Salar ...... 204 7.3 Consonant Development in Common and Orxon Turkic...... 204 7.4 The Oghuz Turkic Context ...... 210 7.5 Consonant Development in Salar...... 211 7.5.1 Labials...... 212 7.5.2 Dentals ...... 223 7.5.3 Velar and Uvular Consonants ...... 233 7.5.4 Laryngeal /h/...... 251 7.5.5 Coronal Spirants...... 255 7.5.6 Retroflex Fricatives and Affricates ...... 267 7.5.7 Glides ...... 269 7.5.8 Nasals...... 273 7.5.9 Liquids ...... 281 7.6 Consonant Development and the Salar Lexicon ...... 285 7.6.1 The non-Turkic Lexicon ...... 285 7.6.2 Comments on the Turkic Lexicon...... 286 7.7 Vowels ...... 287 7.7.1 Primary Vowel Length...... 288 7.7.2 Secondary Vowel Length...... 289 7.7.3 Modern Salar /i/ ...... 291 7.7.4 Modern Salar /¡/ ...... 291 7.7.5 Modern Salar /a/...... 292 7.7.6 Modern Salar /e/...... 294 7.7.7 Modern Salar /u/...... 295 7.7.8 Modern Salar /o/...... 296 7.7.9 Modern Salar /y/...... 297 7.7.10 Modern Salar /ø/...... 299 7.7.11 Summary: Vowels...... 301

8 Conclusions...... 303

References ...... 309 Index ...... 327