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Om Hunter- Gatherers in Northern Namibia, 1990-1994

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Om Hunter- Gatherers in Northern Namibia, 1990-1994 The Social Relationships of Changing Hai || om Hunter- Gatherers in Northern Namibia, 1990-1994 Thomas Widlok London School of Economics and Political Science PhD dissertation submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of the University of London 1994 1 UMI Number: U615779 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI U615779 Published by ProQuest LLC 2014. Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 7 / 6 ( K i O G Sh\ Abstract This thesis analyses the social relationships of a group of northern Hai || om, who also call themselves =j=Akhoe, in the Oshikoto region of Namibia. The Hai ||om are a Khoisan-speaking group, labelled "Bushmen" or "San" by outsiders, who were dispossessed of their land during the colonial period. Today most Hai || om combine hunting, gathering, agriculture, handicrafts, wage labour, and cattle-keeping in a mixed economy. The Hai || om changing economy has elements of an immediate-retum strategy aimed at gaining access to the delayed-retum economies of neighbouring groups, particularly Owambo-speaking agropastoralists, and farmers of European origin. Based on long-term participant observation with the Hai || om, this thesis shows the flexibility and versatility of Hai || om social organization and its institutions. Particular reference is made to the ways in which social categories are established on the basis of material transactions (sharing, gift- giving, bartering and commercial exchange), and are grounded in shared classifications of land and its resources. The thesis documents and analyses how Hai || om construct and maintain social relations, including relations with outsiders, in everyday social interaction. Patterns of Hai || om social practice involving these social relations emerge in language pragmatics, in the usage of space, and in ritual activities. The thesis also includes an analysis of representations of ethnic identity and economic difference in Hai||om folklore. The investigation shows that Hai || om social relationships and social values continue to shape the diversity and overall flexibility that characterize Hai || om life today. Although Hai || om have little power to influence the conditions imposed on them by national and international contexts, Hai || om social strategies across changing conditions can be explained on the basis of a set of instituted social practices centred around open accessibility and informal common ground. 2 Table of Contents Abstract page 2 List of Maps and Figures 7 List of Tables 8 List of Photos 9 Acknowledgements 12 Chapter One Introduction: Cultural Diversity and the Context of Social Relationships 15 Introduction 15 Labelling the Hai || om 16 Locating and Counting the Hai || om 18 Classifying the Hai || om in Past Research 27 Placing the Hai || om in the Context of Contemporary Namibia 36 Defining Hai || om Culture in Its Diversity 42 Conclusion 51 Chapter Two Subsistence Flexibility and Access to Resources 54 Introduction 54 Environmental Conditions and Environmental Knowledge 56 Hunting 66 Gathering 78 Blacksmithing, Handicrafts and Wage Labour 94 Gardening and Agriculture 105 Keeping Livestock 111 Mobility 117 Conclusion 121 3 Chapter Three Modes of Transaction and Concepts of Common Ground 123 Introduction 123 Hai || om Categories and Their Sociological Correlates 124 Sharing, Gift-Exchange and Barter in Hunter-Gatherer Studies 127 Ethnic Deixis 130 Residential Units 137 Avoidance and Joking Relations, Seniority, Gender, and Genealogical Kinship 146 Name Relationships 162 Relationship Categories and Interethnic Contact 173 Relations of Domination 186 Conclusion 190 Chapter Four Classifying the Environment and Shared Knowledge 192 Introduction 192 Food Classification 193 Setting Apart Places, Actions and Objects 199 The Classification of Land 209 Conclusion 228 Chapter Five Language Pragmatics and Communicated Values 230 Introduction 230 Language in Ritual Contexts 231 Indirect Requests in Hai || om 237 Hai || om Greetings 246 Conventionalization and Instutionalization in Language Usage 253 Conclusion 256 4 Chapter Six Settlement Patterns and the Permeability of Space 258 Introduction 258 Diversity in Hai || om Settlements 259 Mapping Domestic Space 268 Continuity in Hai || om Settlement Patterns 279 Transformations of Settlement Layouts in Different Contexts 286 Conclusions 302 Chapter Seven Ritual and Demand Cooperation 304 Introduction 304 Funeral Rites 304 Female Initiation 309 The Medicine Dance and Social Change 315 Towards a Processual Analysis of the Medicine Dance 329 The Medicine Dance as Social Practice 336 The Medicine Dance and Demand Cooperation 341 Conclusion 345 Chapter Eight Storytelling and Ethnic Identity 346 Introduction 346 The Hai || om Case and the Study of MSan" Identity 346 Hai || om Folk Story Performances 349 Hai || om Ethnicity and Stories of Economic Diversifiction 355 Hai || om Historicity and Patterns of Storytelling 361 Conclusion 367 Conclusion 370 5 Appendix 1: Botanical Survey 378 Appendix 2: Crime Statistics 388 Appendix 3: Settlement Survey 390 References 394 6 List of Maps and Figures Map 1.1 Southern Africa and area of research page 19 Map 1.2 Northern Namibia and field sites 24 Figure 2.1 Rainfall at Mangetti-West 58 Figure 2.2 Seasonal availability of important gathered food items and of agricultural labour 60 Figure 2.3 Idealized north-south transect through =|=Akhoe country 63 Figure 2.4 Expenditure of wages during one year period 100 Figure 3.1 =j=Akhoe kin terminology 151 Figure 3.2 Hai || om kin terminology 152 Figure 3.3 Cross-naming, ego female 166 Figure 3.4 Cross-naming, ego male 166 Figure 6.1.1 !Gai=)=nas camp layout 259 Figure 6.1.2 !Gai4=nas permeability map 288 Figure 6.2.1 Botos camp layout 262 Figure 6.2.2 Botos permeability map 290 7 Figure 6.3.1 || Khausis camp layout 267 Figure 6.3.2 || Khausis permeability map 291 Figure 6.4 Hai || om settlement layout according to Fourie 270 Figure 6.5 Owambo homestead layout according to Loeb 274 Figure 6.6 Basic spatial relations in permeability maps 277 Figure 6.7 Permeability map of =j=Giseb (dry season 1990) 281 Figure 6.8 Permeability map of Sanika (wet season 1990/91) 281 Figure 6.9.1 Permeability map of =|<jiseb (dry season 1991) 282 Figure 6.9.2 =|<jiseb camp layout 271 Figure 6.10 Permeability map of Omboto (dry season 1992) 283 Figure 6.11 Permeability map of Sanab (wet season 1992/93) 284 Figure 7.1 Placing the elephant dance in play, dance, and medicine 334 List of Tables Table 2.1 Hai||om hunting returns (May to August) of 1991 68 Table 2.2 Returns from gathering mangettis at | Gomais 85 8 Table 3.1 Hai || om surnames and Owambo clan names 177 Table 4.1 =f=Akhoe food classification 195 Table 4.2 Hai || om estimates of direction 214 Table 6.1 Characteristic features of survey maps and permeability maps 278 Table 6.2 A comparison of Hai || om settlement layouts 293 Table 7.1 Medicine dances witnessed during field research 319 Tables Appendix 2: Crime statistics of the Oshivelo police station a) 1990 and 1991 388 b) 1991 only 388 c) 1990 only 389 Tables Appendix 3: Settlement survey a) Camp profile 390 b) Economic profile 392 List of Photos Plate 1.1 Hai||om looking at "Bushmen" 37 Plate 1.2 Discussing illegal fencing and rights to land in the Sanab area 37 Plate 1.3 Aerial photograph of Hai || om huts at | Gomais 49 Plate 1.4 Playing the xaraxaras 49 Plate 2.1 9 !Khore, the plant used for arrow poison 77 Plate 2.2 Mangetti nuts at !Gai=(=nas 77 Plate 2.3 Hai || om men going on a hunting and gathering trip 83 Plate 2.4 Hai || om women gathering mangettis in goat corral 83 Plate 2.5 Hai || om men sitting in the shade at | Gomais making bows and arrows 98 Plate 2.6 Owambo equipment for distilling liquor 98 Plate 3.1 Lighting a pipe with a tinder box 135 Plate 3.2 Hai || om worker at an Owambo cattlepost 135 Plate 3.3 Skinning and cutting up a !arib 187 Plate 3.4 A couple and their daughter at | Gomais 187 Plate 4.1 Domokhoeb being consulted about pointing out directions 229 Plate 4.2 IGamkhas discussing one of the "orientation tasks" 229 Plate 5.1 Demonstrating the way fire was made "in the old days" 239 Plate 5.2 Owambo woman greeting her Hai || om neighbour 239 Plate 5.3 An old Hai || om couple at their fireplace 247 Plate 5.4 Men at their fireplace 247 10 Plate 6.1 !Gai=f=nas, the subsistence foraging camp in the dry season 263 Plate 6.2 Botos, abandoned during the dry season 263 Plate 6.3 The huts and adjacent gardens of farm workers at || Khausis 298 Plate 6.4 Hai || om women making a grass hut 298 Plate 7.1 Hai || om Igaiaob treating a woman 321 Plate 7.2 A medicine dance at a cattlepost of | Gomais 321 Plate 8.1 Dadab telling a Haiseb story 354 Plate 8.2 Men and women dancing the ostrich dance 354 11 Acknowledgements The material presented in this thesis was collected during a total of twenty- three months of field research in the years 1990-1994 with the Hai||om in Namibia. The core area of my research was the Oshikoto region (formally part of the Tsumeb district and Owamboland) in the central north of Namibia where Hai || om also refer to themselves as 4=Akhoe.
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