Painting Techniques

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Two painters, two centuries, one mural: Technical research on the layered crucifixion mural in the Utrecht burial chapel of Guy of Avesnes van Egmond, A.-M.; Wallert, A.

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Citation for published version (APA): van Egmond, A-M., & Wallert, A. (2016). Two painters, two centuries, one mural: Technical research on the layered crucifixion mural in the Utrecht burial chapel of Guy of Avesnes. In A. Wallert (Ed.), Painting Techniques: History, materials and studio practice : 5th international symposium (pp. 17-21). Rijksmuseum.

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UvA-DARE is a service provided by the library of the University of Amsterdam (https://dare.uva.nl) Download date:02 Oct 2021 5th International Symposium

Painting Techniques

History, Materials and Studio Practice

Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam 18-19-20 December 2013

Edited by Prof. Dr. A. Wallert Publisher Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam

Editor Word Workers, Utrecht

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Rijksmuseum PO Box 74888 NL-1070 DN Amsterdam www.rijksmuseum.nl Contents

FOREWORD 9

MURALS OF THE SO-CALLED ’HYBRID’ GOTHIC STYLE IN SLOVENIA (FOURTEENTH CENTURY); CONNECTIONS BETWEEN THEIR STYLISTIC AND TECHNICAL HISTORY 11 Anabelle Križnar

TWO PAINTERS, TWO CENTURIES, ONE MURAL: TECHNICAL RESEARCH ON THE LAYERED CRUCIFIXION MURAL IN THE UTRECHT BURIAL CHAPEL OF GUY OF AVESNES 17 Anne-Maria van Egmond, Arie Wallert

WERE METALPOINTS USED FOR VAN EYCK’S SAINT BARBARA? A NEW HYPOTHESIS ON THE GENESIS BASED ON A RE-EXAMINATION 22 Marie Postec, Jana Sanyova

CENNINO INSIDE OUT: NEW LIGHT ON VERDE AZURRO, GIESSO GROSSO AND ULTRAMARINE BASED ON CLOSE READING 30 Lara Broecke

THE ENIGMATIC IDEAL CITY: A RENAISSANCE PANEL REVEALS ITS SECRETS 36 Eric Gordon

GROUND GLASS IN HOLBEIN THE ELDER’S WORK 43 Stephanie Dietz, Christoph Krekel, Andrea Obermeier, Heike Stege

ALL THAT GLITTERS IS NOT GOLD. SOME ASPECTS OF THE IMITATION OF GOLD-BROCADED VELVETS IN EARLY NETHERLANDISH PAINTING 48 Esther van Duijn

HIERONYMUS BOSCH IN VENICE: A BRCP (BOSCH RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION PROJECT) CASE STUDY 55 Luuk Hoogstede

PRINTS AND PASTIGLIA: THE SURVIVING PAINTINGS OF A LATE-MEDIEVAL EAST ANGLIAN WORKSHOP 62 Lucy J. Wrapson

A FISHY BUSINESS: A LATE-MEDIEVAL NORTH GERMAN SHRINE ATTRIBUTED TO WILM DEDEKE IN NORWAY 70 Kristin Kausland

FLOUR AND STARCH IN PREPARATORY LAYERS FOR OIL PAINTING: RECONSTRUCTIONS BASED ON HISTORICAL RECIPES (SIXTEENTH TO NINETEENTH CENTURIES) 79 Maartje Stols-Witlox

EXAMINATION OF PAINTINGS BY LUCAS CRANACH THE ELDER AND HIS WORKSHOP FROM THE COLLECTION OF THE NATIONAL GALLERY IN PRAGUE 85

Kristina Málková, Radka Šefců, Olga Kotková, Václav Pitthard, Štěpánka H. Kučková

A VERNACULAR HERBAL MANUSCRIPT (C. 1598): MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES 97 Raffaella Bruzzone, Paola Caiffi , Maurizio Aceto, Angelo Agostino, Gaia Fenoglio DEFINING THE ORIGINS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF ANGLO-NETHERLANDISH AND NATIVE WORKSHOP PRACTICES IN LATE ELIZABETHAN EARLY JACOBEAN ENGLAND 102 Caroline Rae and Aviva Burnstock

DANIËL SEGHERS AND ANDRIES BOSMAN: A MIGRATION OF ARTISTIC PRACTICE? 109 Anne Haack Christensen, Erma Hermens, Hannah Tempest

A STUDY OF CUYP’S MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES AND THEIR CORRELATION WITH THE ARTIST’S STYLISTIC EVOLUTION 115 Libby Sheldon, Gabriella Macaro, Marika Spring, Charles Ford

‘LE NOIR NE SEICHE JAMAIS SANS ADDITION’, METHODS TO ENSURE THE DRYING OF BLACK PAINTS IN THE SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY ORANJEZAAL ENSEMBLE 123 Ester S.B. Ferreira, Lidwien Speleers, Jaap J. Boon

SMALL IS BEAUTIFUL. LEAD WHITE IN FINE PARTICLE SIZE 133 Marya Albrecht, Maartje Stols-Witlox

PAINTING BY THE RULES OF ART. THE GROOT SCHILDERBOEK ON TECHNIQUE; LIEVENS AND DE LAIRESSE COMPARED 138 Elsemieke van Rietschoten, Monique Staal, Peter Eurlings, Indra Kneepkens, Tatjana van Run

DISCOVERIES DURING THE TECHNICAL INVESTIGATION OF GERARD DE LAIRESSE’S EARLIEST KNOWN CEILING PAINTING (1672) 145 Margriet van Eikema Hommes, Tatjana van Run, Katrien Keune, Ige Verslype, Arie Wallert, Milko den Leeuw, Ingeborg de Jongh

MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PAINTINGS BY JOHANN GEORG DE HAMILTON (1672–1737), A FAMOUS PORTRAITIST OF HORSES 153 David Hradil, Janka Hradilová, Olga Trmalová, Zdeňka Čermáková, Ludmila Ourodová

VENETIAN SPLENDOUR IN THE MAURITSHUIS: A LITTLE KNOWN PAINTING ENSEMBLE BY PELLEGRINI IN THE NETHERLANDS 163 Carol Pottasch, Julia van den Burg, Margriet van Eikema Hommes, Ralph Haswell

REMARKABLE WHITE PIGMENTS ON LIOTARD’S PASTEL PAINTINGS 168 Arie Wallert, Joana Vaz Pedroso, Jolanda van Iperen

OBSERVATIONS ON DRYING CRACKLE AND MICROCISSING IN EARLY AND MID-EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY BRITISH PAINTINGS 174 Rica Jones, Joyce H. Townsend, Katrien Keune and Jaap J. Boon

ANDRIES WARMOES’S TRIUMPHAL PROCESSION (1778) IN THE HOFKESHUIS: A TECHNICAL STUDY OF AN EXCEPTIONAL PAINTED WALL HANGING 182 Margriet van Eikema Hommes, Katrien Keune, Piet Bakker, Ige Verslype

EXCISE STAMPS ON ARTISTS’ CANVASES: LOST THREADS AND LOOSE ENDS 192 Sally Woodcock

REYNOLDS AS RESTORER: PRINCE BALTASAR CARLOS IN BLACK AND SILVER 198 Alexandra Gent with contributions from Lucy Davis

‘THE TRUTH IS FOR MANY YEARS I WAS EXTREMELY FOND OF A VERY TREACHEROUS COLOUR CALLED CARMINE ...’ SIR JOSHUA REYNOLDS AND HIS PORTRAIT OF NELLY O’BRIEN: TECHNIQUE, FADING, CRACKING AND LONGEVITY 205 Erma Hermens, Mark Richter, Peter Chung, Jonathan Cooper, Alasdair Clark

FARMER WITH AN OX-CART. VISUALISATION AND INTERPRETATION OF A ‘LOST’ WORK BY VINCENT VAN GOGH 213 Annemiek Rens, Margje Leeuwestein, Luuk van der Loeff, Matthias Alfeld, Koen Janssens, Geert van der Snickt, Karen Appel, Manuela Borchert, Don H. Johnson, Rick Johnson, Joris Dik

EDOUARD MANET’S VIEW OF THE 1867 EXPOSITION UNIVERSELLE. COMPOSITIONAL PROCESS AND A QUESTION OF FINISH 218 Thierry Ford THREAD COUNT, WEAVE, AND GROUND ANALYSIS OF CLAUDE MONET’S VIEILLE & TROISGROS/ TROISGROS FRÈRES CANVASES IN THE ART INSTITUTE OF CHICAGO 226 Kimberley Muir, Inge Fiedler, Don H. Johnson, Robert Erdmann

HOW TO BECOME A PAINTER IN THREE HOURS: ARTISTS’ TRAINING IN NINETEENTH-CENTURY PORTUGAL 237 Ângela Ferraz, Leslie Carlyle, Rita Macedo

LUCIEN PISSARRO AND THE DIFFUSION OF A MATTE AESTHETIC TO LONDON, 1880–C. 1921 243 Alejandra Petersen Castiello

BECOMING PICASSO: PARIS 1901. A TECHNICAL STUDY OF CHILD WITH A DOVE 250 Aviva Burnstock, Barnaby Wright, Klaas-Jan van den Berg

LOOKING BELOW THE SURFACE OF PICASSO’S THE OLD GUITARIST 258 Allison Langley, Kim Muir, Anikó Bezur

THE SURFACE OF THE SUN: MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES IN EDVARD MUNCH’S CENTRAL AULA PAINTING 264 Mirjam Liu, Karen Mengshoel, Tine Frøysaker

DER MATROSE FRITZ MÜLLER AUS PIESCHEN: A DADA PAINTING BY OTTO DIX 272 Paola Iazurlo, Francesca Capanna, Laura D’Agostino, Giancarlo Sidoti

FROM THE STREETS TO THE CANVAS: ON THE USE OF BITUMINOUS ASPHALT IN EARLY SOVIET CONSTRUCTIVIST PAINTINGS 280 Maria Kokkori, Jaap J. Boon, Aviva Burnstock, Chris McGlinchey, Petra Mandt

THE PAINTING TECHNIQUES OF KAZIMIR MALEVICH, 1900–1910 288 Maria Kokkori, Alexander Bouras TWO PAINTERS, TWO CENTURIES, ONE MURAL: TECHNICAL RESEARCH ON THE LAYERED CRUCIFIXION MURAL IN THE UTRECHT BURIAL CHAPEL OF GUY OF AVESNES

Anne-Maria van Egmonda, Arie Wallert

Introduction has his eyes closed. Above his head the INRI banderole is fixed In the Cathedral of Utrecht, a well-preserved mural still dec- to the cross, which disappears into a somewhat translucent orates the burial chapel of Guy of Avesnes, Bishop of Utrecht cloud. The cross stands on Golgotha against a red background, between 1301 and 1317. It was discovered in 1919, when a brick while earth-coloured mountains delimit the depth of the de- wall was removed from what turned out to be a painted picted space. The lower part of the painting, a red plain, is niche.1 The mural, which depicts a Calvary, covers the rear wall lined with first a thin band and then a broad black band and of this niche, which is located in the chapel’s eastside wall. Its shows hardly any traces of original paint. This section may figures are of an outstanding quality; other murals like this have contained inscriptions or coats of arms, connecting the have not survived in the Northern Netherlands. What is even painting to the chapel’s function as the burial place for Guy of more exceptional is the fact that on the back wall of the niche Avesnes.2 not one but two paintings can be found, the one currently vis- The painter of this mural has already been identified as ible covering an older mural. This older mural was probably an internationally oriented painter coming from Guelders or placed there as part of the furnishings when the chapel be- the Lower Rhine region who worked sufficiently long in the came a burial chapel for the aforementioned bishop in around Southern Netherlands to absorb the main currents of refine- 1320. This mural was painted over in around 1410. The unique ment and elegance. Kees van der Ploeg made an elaborate situation of a well-preserved fifteenth-century mural covering stylistic comparison in which he built up this hypothesis, tak- a fourteenth-century one calls for technical research that ren- ing earlier comparative research by Albert Châtelet and Chris- ders both murals visible and determines the working meth- tian Klamt to a new level and dating the now visible mural to ods of the two painters who worked on the same wall almost around 1410.3 a century apart. A second mural Description of mural Even with the naked eye, several clues can be detected point- The currently visible mural depicts the crucified Christ, with ing to the fact that the main mural was painted over an earli- Mary and St John the Evangelist on his right and St Margaret er scene. Black contoured circles indicate the presence of two of Antioch on his left, identifiable by the dragon from which other nimbuses between the nimbuses of Mary and St John she rises (fig. 1, original and Photoshop reconstruction). St and to the right of that of St Margaret. Between the red, pink, Margaret wears a dress in a pale shade of pink with a deep red green and blue hues of the saints’ clothing, tiny specks of yel- cloak, which can be distinguished from the red background low emerge where the top layer of paint has flaked off. The because of the green dragon’s wing that separates the two yellow paint is visible on both the left and the right of the shades of red. Around her head and fair hair she has a fillet cross, suggesting underlying yellow garments. Next to the tor- with a pearl in the middle and in her hands she holds a cross. so of Christ are the contour lines of another body. Not surpris- Mary is clothed in a white veil, a pink robe and a blue and ingly, the subject of the underlying painting was presumed to green cloak. She has her left hand around her right arm hold- be a more traditional Crucifixion with St John and Mary stand- ing herself and is supported by a brown-haired St John, who is ing on either side of Christ.4 wearing a green robe and a pink cloak. His gaze is upon Christ. Infrared reflectography (IRR) was used to render the un- Christ, nailed to his cross only a few feet from the ground and derlying painting visible (fig. 2, original and Photoshop re- naked apart from his loincloth, rests his chin on his chest and construction). It allows a very detailed description of what is a. University of Amsterdam, 1086 BX Amsterdam, the Netherlands; [email protected], +31 (0)6 1871 0539.

17 Fig. 1. Anonymous, Crucifixion with Mary, St John and St Margaret of Antioch and six figures of bishop saints, female saints and angels, c. 1330 and 1410, tempera and oil on a sandstone wall, niche: 207 x 169 x 44 cm, Avesnes burial chapel, Cathedral of Utrecht, with Photoshop reconstruction eliminating irregularities (photograph: A.J. van Egmond).

Fig. 2. An infrared image (IRR) of the Avesnes mural painting Crucifixion with Mary, St John and St Margaret of Antioch and six figures of bishop saints, female saints and angels, taken with an Osiris digital still infrared camera model A1 in April 2012, owned by the Art, Books and Collections Foundation, ABC Foundation © 2013. IRR assemblies and reconstruction were made using Adobe Photoshop CS6.

18 indeed a depiction of a traditional Crucifixion. Christ, put to the cross with large nails, hangs on the right side of the cross. Nothing can be said of Christ’s original facial expression because the IRR reflects off the gold leaves of the nimbus, ren- dering undetectable what is underneath. Close to his head is the INRI sign on the intersection of the wooden beams. On top of the cross nests a bird that can be identified as the symbolic pelican feeding its young; on either side of its nest are depictions of the sun and moon. Mary stands to Christ’s right side, chaste with her veiled head bowed. St John is on Christ’s left side, identifiable by the book in his left hand, looking and gesturing towards the crucified Christ. His right leg is pointing outwards, causing his robe to fold. A pin on his chest holds his garment together; the fabric is clasped under his armpit. His blond hair is slightly curled. Both Mary and St John are clad in yellow; fragments of this colour are visible where the afore- Fig. 4. Paint cross section from the background of the Crucifix- mentioned top layer of paint has come off. The little creature ion with Mary, St John and St Margaret of Antioch, to the right in front of St John’s right foot is very peculiar: a tiny dragon, of the torso of the fifteenth-century Christ. A. Plain reflected which shares the foreground with the skulls and bones of Gol- light, bright field illumination; B. UV fluorescence. Mag. 200x gotha. (photograph: A. Wallert). 1. Sandstone rear wall and what might be a layer of imprematura. 2. Red background of fourteenth-century Crucifixion, consisting of several paint layers. 3. Flesh tone from torso of Christ in fourteenth-century Crucifixion. 4. Red background of fifteenth-century Crucifixion, consisting of several paint layers.

In the reveals of the niche, six figures can be seen that are half the size of those on the rear wall: from top to bottom they appear to be bishop saints, virgin saints and angels, all carry- ing attributes, but these objects are not sufficiently specific to identify the figures holding them (fig. 3). The plants at their feet are similar to the ones in the fourteenth-century painting on the back wall. The pallet used for these figures and those on the background, with white and yellow tones, also seems to be the same. It can therefore be assumed that the six figures were part of the initial painting that covered both the back wall and the reveals of the chapel niche.

Method of overpainting Before the painting techniques of each of the Avesnes mural painters can be outlined, it is important to clearly separate the two overlapping paintings, determining which elements belong to which painting and what the main differences are between the two. Both are Calvary scenes. The oldest one shows Christ with Mary and St John, while in the second one St Margaret has been added and the symbolic bird covered by a cloud. The currently visible torso of Christ is painted more to the left than the overpainted one. However, the placement of his shoulders, head and arms has stayed the same. This shift- ing of Christ’s body may have been necessary to create suffi- cient space to insert St Margaret and her enormous dragon: in Christ’s original pose, St Margaret’s cross would have touched his side at points. By changing Christ’s position, the cross could Fig. 3. The six side-wall paintings, with infrared images of the stay in the same place and the mural’s symmetry remain in- three on the right-hand wall, taken with an Osiris digital still tact. infrared camera model A1 in April 2012, owned by the Art, Books Because Christ was painted in two different places, it is and Collections Foundation, ABC Foundation © 2013. possible to study the contour lines of the underlying torso:

19 Painting in fourteenth-century Utrecht The figures on the sides of the niche and, more important- ly, the ones in the IRR photograph can be compared to other fourteenth-century figures in Utrecht paintings in order to gain some insight on the origins of the fourteenth-century painter. Another fourteenth-century wall painting can be found in the direct vicinity of Utrecht Cathedral: one of the houses surrounding the Dom square, the Rode Poort, contains a private chapel with a mural dating from the first quarter of the fourteenth century. It shows the cleansing of a priest’s hands and thereby confirms the assumption that this house belonged to an important cleric. The priest can be compared to the fourteenth-century St John from the Avesnes mural. Their cloaks show a marked difference between the pictur- esqueness of the priest and the linearity of the saint: the folds of the priest’s fabrics exist because of different shades of blue Fig. 5. Detail of fourteenth-century and fifteenth-century hands juxtaposed next to each other, while those in St John’s cloak and nails (photograph: A.J. van Egmond). only exist because of curving contour lines (fig. 6). Marieke van Vlierden, comparing the mural in the house chapel with early they have a ‘sketchy’ look about them when compared to the Cologne panel and wall painting, suspects that the painter of contour lines of the other figures. The lines might be part of this house chapel mural is from Cologne and visited Utrecht a charcoal preparation drawing that has been partly wiped following the cathedral’s building master John of Cologne, out, the carbon black residue forming several smaller lines, who worked there between 1295 and 1320.6 or part of the paint used to define or outline the contours at a The more linear style characterising the oldest Avesnes later stage. Because of the ‘sketchy’ look of the lines, the ques- chapel mural appears to be a feature of fourteenth-century tion arises whether the Christ figure is actually a completed wall painting in the Southern Netherlands. Comparable line- figure in the underlying painting or a sketch that belongs to arity can be found in Flanders, Brabant, Artois and the Meuse the preparation of the fifteenth-century painting. A cross sec- area until the 1380s.7 Applying the same logic as Van Vlierden, tion taken from the area to the right of the fifteenth-century the painter of the Avesnes mural could have come from the Christ’s armpit (fig. 4) clarifies the issue: it shows a skin-colour- area of Hainaut, just like the bishop it was painted for and the ed layer of paint between two red ones, indicating that the limestone used for his Tournai tomb, which is also in the Ut torso was painted in with flesh tones. It can be assumed that recht chapel. This tomb was polychrome, as has recently been a painter does not completely finish one element of his com- detected with the aid of X-ray fluorescence (XRF) executed position before adding others to only then find out his scheme on invisible fragments in the cracks of the dark limestone.8 does not work out as planned. This means that it is very likely This polychrome must have been applied in situ to prevent the torso of Christ does indeed belong to the oldest mural. An- damage in transport.9 It could even be possible that the same other, clearly visible, characteristic of this fourteenth-century painter who accompanied and polychromed the tomb was re- Christ are his hands and fingers, splayed and attached to the sponsible for the painting on the wall opposite it. cross with very large nails, whereas Christ’s hands in the later The date and location of this fourteenth-century mural lead position claw around more modest nails (fig. 5). to comparison with other Utrecht paintings, albeit on a differ- The second painter, working in the early fifteenth century, used a layer of red paint to cover part of the torso and other areas he no longer used in his representation of the Crucifix- ion. He made two remarkable choices concerning this red layer. First, he did not use it to cover up his predecessor’s pelican, but instead used a semi-transparent cloud, leaving viewers to guess what is underneath. For instance, a figure of God the Father had been suggested.5 It is unclear what the merit was of this cloud. Furthermore, the painter did not use a red layer, or for that matter any layer of paint, to cover the sides of the niche where, by the time he finished painting, six old-fash- ioned figures remained. Their faces, which do not have clear traits, indicate that they were initially left unfinished. It is as if the first painter only applied a first layer of colour fields without filling in the details in an additional layer. The IRR image Fig. 6. Detail from mural The cleansing of a priest’s hands in does not clarify this. It is not clear whether it already looked the Rode Poort, early fourteenth century, Utrecht, Gemeente like this when the second painter started his work, but if it did, lijke Fotodienst Utrecht (photograph: Cultural Heritage Agen- it is all the more strange that this painter did not apply a fresh cy of the Netherlands), compared with detail of figure of St layer of paint. John from fourteenth-century Avesnes mural (photograph: A.J. van Egmond.

20 ent scale because they have been painted in a different me- through art objects and luxuries and on the economic net- dium. These are the miniatures in the Rime Bible of Jacob van works of nobles, artisans and merchants. Her main interests Maerlant (fig. 6) painted by Michiel van der Borch.10 Several fig- are medieval art in the Northern Netherlands, different ap- ures are painted with some of the same traits as the Avesnes proaches to art historical research and the history of art histo- St John figure. For instance, the miniature of the Annuncia- ry in the Netherlands. tion (fol. 118v) shows Mary and Gabriel opposite one another and their robes have curled folds similar to St John’s cloak in Notes the mural. St John’s stance can be recognised in Joshua’s (fol. 1. D.F. Slothouwer and C.H. de Jonge, ‘Eenige vondsten in de Ut 38r) and Nebuchadnezzar’s (fol. 85v), the right leg pointing rechtschen Domkerk’, Bulletin van den Nederlandschen oudheid- outwards and guiding the fabric over it with a double fold in kundigen, 12, 1919, 219-27. front of the lap. Apart from their stereotypical Jewish hats, 2. A.J. van Egmond, ‘Art and archives, clerics and counts. New in- sights on the Crucifixion mural in the Utrecht burial chapel of Guy they are dressed like the Rime Bible figure of God, who in the of Avesnes’, in Medieval art in the Northern Netherlands: new facts miniature with Moses receiving the law (fol. 29v), has a similar and features, ed. A.J. van Egmond and C.A. Chavannes-Mazel, Utre- brooch on his chest to the one St John is wearing (also to be cht, 2013. seen in fol. 1v and fol. 4v). Even though the illuminator Michi- 3. K. van der Ploeg, ‘De kruisiging in de Dom van Utrecht’, in Polyp- el’s signature in the miniature of The destruction of Jerusalem tiek. Een veelluik van Groninger bijdragen aan de kunstgeschieden- and the presence of his name in the local archives strongly is, eds H.T. van Veen et al., Zwolle, 2002, 58-69 (64-9). For other suggest a Northern Netherlandish origin, namely Utrecht, it stylistic and iconographical interpretations: A. Châtelet, Early has been generally agreed that Michiel van der Borch must Dutch painting: painting in the Northern Netherlands in the fif- at least have had training in Southern Flanders or Northern teenth century, Amsterdam, 1981; P. de Borst et al., Graven en France.11 The possibility that a Utrecht painter who received begraven in de Dom van Utrecht, Zeist, 1997; G.J. Hoogewerff, De Noord-Nederlandsche schilderkunst, part I, The Hague, 1936; G.J. his education abroad was responsible for the fourteenth-cen- Hoogewerff, ‘De schilderkunst in de Noordelijke Nederlanden tot tury Avesnes mural, rather than a painter with actual origins omstreeks 1440’, in Kunstgeschiedenis der Nederlanden, de Mid- in the Southern Netherlands, cannot therefore be discounted. deleeuwen en de zestiende eeuw, ed. H.E. van Gelder and J. Duver- Technical research might give some more indications of this ger, Utrecht, 1954, 180-203 (196-7); J.C. J.A. Klamt, ‘Sub turri nostra: fourteenth-century painter’s whereabouts. Kunst und Künstler im mittelalterlichen Utrecht’, in Masters and miniatures: proceedings of the Congress on medieval manuscript Painting technique of the fourteenth-century painter illumination in the Northern Netherlands (Utrecht, 10-13 December Using different techniques, the materials the fourteenth-cen- 1989), eds K. van der Horst and J.C. J.A. Klamt, Doornspijk, 1991, 19- tury painter used can be identified from the samples that 38 (29-31); J.C. J.A. Klamt, ‘Saint Margaret under our Lord’s cross: a were taken from the mural. The pallet is characterised by hues mural painting in the cathedral of Utrecht’, in Utrecht: Britain and the continent. Archeology, art and architecture. The British Archeo- of yellow and brown. logical Association Conference Transactions, ed. E. de Bievre, Leeds 1996, 189-98; J. Por, ‘Drie kruisigingstafereelen uit de XVe eeuw’, Painting technique of the fifteenth-century painter Oud-Holland 54, 1937, 27-37. The same techniques have been proved successful in identify- 4. M.A. Barnard and C.C. van Hoogevest, ‘Restauratie wandschilde ing the fifteenth-century materials. Remarkably, the red paint ring, altaarretabel en cenotaaf in de Domkerk te Utrecht’, Restau- of the background contains vermilion, which is known to be a ratie vijf hervormde kerken in de binnenstad van Utrecht (jaarvers- very expensive pigment. Fragments of carapace can also be lag 1985–1988), 8, 120-45, 125. found in St Margaret’s red clothing, which indicates the use of 5. Barnard and Hoogevest, ‘Restauratie wandschildering’, 125. red lake, an even more valuable material. The fifteenth-cen- 6. M. van Vlierden, Het Utrechtse huis de Rode Poort en zijn piscina, tury painter could have utilised red ochre, a cheaper variant Zutphen, 1989, 13-14. 7. Carina Fryklund, Flemish wall painting, Turnhout, 2011, 170. that is certainly usually applied when covering large surfaces. 8. S. Frequin, ‘A voice from the grave: the tomb of Guy of Avesnes in Saint-Martin’s cathedral in Utrecht’, in Medieval art in the Northern Netherlands. New facts and features, ed. A. J van Egmond and C.A. Acknowledgements Chavannes-Mazel, Utrecht, 2013. Art, Books and Collections Foundation and C.A. Chavannes- 9. A. Lorne and A. van Loon, ‘Ontdekkingstocht naar een kleurrijk Mazel. verleden. Onderzoek naar de polychromie van laatmiddeleeuwse stenen beelden in Utrecht’, in Middeleeuwse beelden uit Utrecht Biography 1430–1530, eds M. Leefland and K. van Schooten, exh. cat., Utrecht, Anne-Maria van Egmond studied History of Medieval Art at 2012, 146-56, 152. the University of Amsterdam. She obtained her MA with dis- 10. C.A. Chavannes-Mazel, Maerlants Rijmbijbel in Museum Meerman- no. De kracht van woorden, de pracht van beelden, The Hague, tinction at the same university after internships at Museum 2008; Manuscript 10 B 21, Museum Meermanno-Westreenianum, Catharijneconvent, OOG Rijksmuseum magazine and Stichting The Hague. Kerkelijk Kunstbezit Nederland. She is now writing her disser- 11. A. Wallert, ‘Early Netherlandish manuscript illumination: technical tation on the material culture of the The Hague court between aspects of illuminations in the Rime Bible of Jacob van Maerlant’, about 1350 and 1430, focusing on means of communication Revista de historia da arte, 2011, 183-90, 184.