CREATING A NEW IMAGE : Beyond the Olympic City

Mega-event strategies have become part of a deliberate urban policy for cities around the world. There is a particular concern on how to combine the preparation of a mega-event with urban development processes that meet long-term demands. This paper examines how Beijing tried to use the Summer Olympic Games 2008 to fight its spatial and environmental problems, and create a new image for the city. by Yawei Chen

rganising large-scale urban events spur local - and even regional - economic such as the Olympics has become development by attracting mass investment, Opart of a deliberate urban strategy tourism and media attention for the host ci- for many cities to promote local economic ties. On the other hand, host cities were of- growth and brand the city on the world sta- ten not able to cope with the developments ge. Especially the Olympics, as the world’s after the Olympic circus had left town. Ma- biggest ‘mega event’, offers host cities the jor international cities like Montreal, Sydney possibility of ‘fast track urban regeneration, and Athens were faced with large public in- a stimulus to economic growth, improved vestments, cost overruns and the fact that transportation and cultural facilities, and many of the awe-inspiring buildings created enhanced global recognition and prestige’ or modified for the mega event fall into di- (Chalkley & Essex, 1999). Originally, Olym- suse (Mathieu, 2010). pic host cities emphasized the construc- tion of gigantic sport facilities and urban Despite the challenges Olympic cities often infrastructure. Later, host cities paid more face, not only world cities such as London, attention to a much broader urban rege- New York and Paris joined the race. Upri- neration and urban restructuring program sing cities in developing countries, such as by using the Olympic Games as a catalyst. Beijing and Rio de Janeiro, also succeeded Furthermore, the development of Olym- in their bid to become an Olympic host city. pic sites have been increasingly integrated Given both the positive and negative impact into large-scale urban development plans the Games may have on host cities, it is or master plans for the host cities. These important to ask the question what kind of should guarantee that the Olympic sites Olympic legacy cities expect, and what kind will keep functioning as sports and recre- of strategies should host cities follow to rea- ational complexes, and continue to provide lize that legacy. As the first Olympic host city housing or tourist accommodations in the in a developing country, Beijing faced mam- post-Olympic era. moth challenges when it won the bid for hosting the 2008 Olympic Games. Beijing While it is agreed that mega events may not only suffered from severe air pollution create catalyst effects in urban development and severe traffic congestion, but from all processes, opinions differ on what exactly is the societal pains that an economic transi- left behind in a host city. Mega events may tion into a post-industry era can produce.

22 | december 2012 | Real Estate Research Quarterly thema: special onderzoek service - - - - Real Estate Research Quarterly | december 2012 | 23 estates that could accommodate the emer could accommodate estates that of an sectors and the demand ging service middle class. Furthermore, emerging urban service pro- infrastructure and the existing the standard not able to meet vision were ideas information and its ‘capital that allows and interact within, the flow in and out of, this of result a 2006). As (Cook, global city’ 1990s, Beijing concen- concern, in the early in developing major trated its investment and other service financial, trade, exhibition such as in the center, functions in the city Street in Xicheng District Business Central District in the Cha- Business and the Central industrial use in the oyang District. Land for Factories and reduced. city was reconfigured pollution and noise and workshops causing and residential areas in the central district so became the main targets to be moved out - that vacated spaces could be used for deve - loping tertiary industries or housing. Howe still many factors hinder Beijing in be- ver, including the coming an international city, domination of traditional industry sectors, insuf low comprehensive economic power, ficient infrastructure, scarce water resour ces, and poor environmental quality (Zhou, faced regeneration initiatives 2002). Many strong opposition from local inhabitants 1990s, hos- since the and enterprises. But became the new Games the Olympic ting development means to facilitate Beijing’s toward an international metropolis. Motive and Strategies has many As hosting the Olympic Games consequences, the promotion of Beijing’s Olympic candidacy as a host to the Summer to aim at a in 2008 allowed Beijing Games wide set of goals. Besides the need for inter national prestige and projection of national China saw the Olympics strength and unity, as a development engine that could spur growth in Beijing and the surrounding area for years to come. It also expected the Olympics to become ‘a valuable channel for the city to exchange and learn advanced - In the last two decades, developing Beijing In the last two decades, developing Beijing a as an international metropolis became transforma- new driving force for the city’s tion. As one of the largest Chinese cities political and its unique position as China’s Beijing has good inter and culture center, national linkages in multinational political national linkages in multinational political affairs and business in the Asian-Pacific Spatial concentration of resources Region. by the Chinese state further facilitates cities like Beijing to catch up in the global capita- due to lack of invest- list system. However, ment, the city was in need of high-quality office space, retail facilities and residential During the latter half of the 20th century, During the latter half of the 20th century, to Beijing was extensively reconstructed cope with urban growth. The most dramatic changes have taken place since the economic - reform following the open-door policy im plemented in the late 1970s. These included the increasing power of land and housing markets, heavy influence of global financial capital, and dramatic demographic changes These fac- migration. by rural-urban caused tors have become driving forces behind the urban form. transformation of Beijing’s By examining the construction of the Olym- the construction of examining By behind this Beijing, the research pic city in - understan better a provide to aims article strategies effect of mega event ding of the this article The data used in on host cities. 2012 during in 2010 and has been collected with involved on-site fieldwork, interviews as planners, architects, professionals - such officials - who economists, and municipal Beijing’s’ of on the preparation worked as well as with companies Olympic Games this article Hence, that operated the venues. motives of hosting the examines Beijing’s the strategies used to con- Olympic Games, and the visible and struct the Olympic sites, the city in the short invisible impacts for article concludes with and longer term. The some lessons to learned. Beijing: the construction of an Olympic city management and technological skills from sion of the AOP was finalized in June 2002, Western countries’ (Wei and Yu 2006). The which accommodated some suggestions games also provided an opportunity and ra- from society. tional justification for massive investment and drastic measures to improve the city’s Olympic venues and post-use consideration environment and infrastructure. The OAP set out a clear guidance for the objectives and implementation strategies by The Beijing Olympic Organizing Commit- taking post-Olympic use into consideration. tee for the Olympic Games (BOCOG) led Beijing used a dual-track design process that by its mayor, officials from the Beijing mu- forced architects to decipher between an nicipal government, the State Sports Gene- Olympic design and a post-Olympic design, ral Association of China, and the Chinese to allow for a smooth transition from Olym- Olympic Committee set the tone for the pic facilities to public facilities (Cochran et event with the slogans ‘People’s Olympics’, al, 2011). Under the OAP plan, the Olympics ‘Green Olympics’, and ‘Technological Olym- would utilize 32 venues in Beijing. Only 12 pics’, all focusing on the remaking of the would be newly-built venues, while the rest city and the city’s image beyond the Games. are either renovated or temporary structu- The main strategies that help realizing the res. The locations of the venues used a ‘de- three themes can be explained as follows: centralised clustering model’, as is shown in figure 1. The Olympic Green in northern Be- Olympic Action Plan ijing accommodates 14 venues, the Olympic In March 2002, BOCOG published a draft village, the media village, as well as other of its three-phase Beijing Olympic Action press facilities and communication infra- Plan (OAP) online. The pre-preparation structures. It is adjacent to the area where phase - from December 2001 to June 2003 the previous 1990 Asian Games village was - would ‘include consolidation of supervi- located. The rest of the Olympic facilities sory organizations, drafting and initial im- are located mostly in university campuses, plementation of a comprehensive Olympic and in the western and eastern communi- Action Plan, securing funds for facility con- ties. The choice of venue location had more struction, and the drafting of blueprints for major facilities’. The Development phase Figure 1 ▶ Location of Olympic – from July 2003 to June 2006 – would venues and Olympic Green be focused on massive facility construc- tion. The Implementation and Operation Phase – from July 2006 to the opening of the 2008 Olympic Games – would include double-checks of facilities, test runs of the competitions, and final adjustments or last- minute preparations for the Games. Besides the strategic themes, objectives and overall plans, the OAP also provided detailed plans for construction: the distribution of new fa- cilities throughout the city (including plans for post-Games use), as well as related im- provement strategies on communication infrastructure, transportation issues, and environmental improvement. The final ver- figure based on http://en.beijing2008.cn/venues/

24 | december 2012 | Real Estate Research Quarterly thema: China special onderzoek service - - Real Estate Research Quarterly | december 2012 | 25 more, a clear guidance to improve the envi- guidance to improve more, a clear out. These Beijing was mapped ronment of and quality improvement included water environmentally-friendly adopting control, creating and materials, and technologies 2003; systems (Borne regional ecological UNEP 2009; Zhang 2008). 2002; Ness promotion Grand projects and place urban image is a key The creation of a new mega-event stra- embedded in the concern lost its bid to host the When Beijing tegy. leader the 1993, in Games Olympic 2000 ship changed from focusing on the ‘Chine- ship changed from focusing of the ‘look’ of Beijing to stressing seness’ and contempo- Beijing as an international Besides the ‘Bird’s rary city (Li et al, 2007). Swiss architects Herzog 2) by (Figure Nest’ monumen- several other and De Meuron, tal buildings were constructed during the by project CCTV the including period, same National the Koolhaas, architect Rem Dutch Andreu, Paul Theatre by the French Grand and the new airport terminal by the UK’s Beijing was thus ‘branded’ Foster. Norman attracting global design elite, by the world’s these mega capital into Beijing. Following projects, Beijing also saw a construction residential pro- boom: new office buildings, - jects, hotels and other retail facilities provi - ded the city with a diverse, more internatio nally oriented image. Financial scheme huge in- the Olympics requires Hosting vestments in facilities, infrastructure and budget to the 2001 organization. According forecast, the total investment on venues and - non-sports infrastructure would be $14 billi on, of which only 13 percent would be spent Within on sports and the Olympic Village. the non-BOCOG budget, 60 percent was devoted to environmental improvements, and the rest to infrastructure and transpor et al, 2008). tation improvements (Hashmi In the view of a number of other studies, the had real cost of hosting the Olympic Games - to do with the existing good condition of the existing good to do with sport terms of infrastructure, the area in potential environment and facilities, social Beijing of the venues. Although post-users the poorer need to regenerate has an urgent munici- Beijing, the local areas in southern to locate most Olympic pality finally decided northern part of Beij- venues mainly in the feared the amount of ing, partly because it in such regenera- relocation tasks involved as potential societal tion programs, as well media tend to conflicts that international cover extensively. and econo- of urban restructuring Integration mic restructuring attempts to integrate The Olympic plan the pre-existing Tenth the main ideas from well as the major urban Plan as Five-Year regeneration and infrastructure projects Plan 2004- proposed in the Beijing Master its 2020. Beijing used OAP to realize both urban and economic restructuring strategy, as well as its environmental improvement measures and infrastructure development Olym- the of preparation the During plan. pics, about 200 polluting factories inside the fourth ring were moved out to Beijing’s neighboring provincial or even to suburbs cities. Other factories either went through were or upgrading, technical significant obliged to reduce or cease production. Even Shougang Group, steel giant, the Beijing’s fa- moved all its Beijing-based production Province by in Hebei cilities to Caofeidian Ping 1 in the article by Ya 2010 (see Figure behind page 30). The spaces left Wang, - were assigned to new functions such as offi the same time, ce, residential, and retail. At out. were carried programs ‘facelift’ various - They not only helped developing new com centers, but cultural and sports mercial, also supported the regeneration of the old, dilapidated inner city and restoration of his- torical sites. Investments were particularly tou- retail, city’s the developing on focused rism and culture-related facilities. Further Figure 2 ▶ Grand projects: the “Bird Nest” and Beijing National Aquatics Centre the Water Cube

Source: Author, 2012 actually reached the amount of $44 billion, Spatial, Economic and Social Impacts if all the related beautification, preservation The Olympic Games have caused a massive and relocation projects were taken into ac- overhaul of the city’s urban fabric and in- count. In different scenarios, it is clear that frastructure, including: 22 new stadiums, a large proportion of the investment was al- 15 renovated facilities, two new Ring Roads, located to infrastructure improvements and 142 miles of new infrastructure, eight new urban restructuring projects that are expec- subway lines, 252 new star-rated hotels, 40 ted to create long term impacts. km of cleaned rivers, one million new trees and 83 km of planted greenbelt. Beijing has BOCOG involved the private sector and at- seen positive developments in the creation tracted private investments through spon- of new urban sub-centers, improved trans- sorship and broadcast rights. Furthermore, portation systems, a greener environment, BOT (Building, Operation and Transfer) and improved sports and cultural facilities model and several PPP (Public-Private for local residential communities. Hosting Partnership) models were used in the con- the Olympic Games offered Beijing a legi- struction of venues and infrastructure de- timate reason to carry out some really am- velopment. Among the twelve newly built bitious environmental and infrastructure venues, about 26 percent of the investment projects which may have been planned for came from local government, and about 11 a long time, but would have been severely percent from national government, with delayed or cancelled without the Games. the rest either coming from the owner of Moreover, the 2008 Games also left an the venue or from private investors (50%) important environmental legacy for the or donations from Chinese nationals based city of Beijing in areas such as energy ef- overseas (about 13%) (Lin 2009). ficiency and the development of renewable

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  (2000-2010)     Beijing HAIDIAN DISTRICT   prices   Real Estate Research Quarterly | december 2012 | 27 housing FENGTAI DISTRICT   re items involved temporary facilities, sports re items involved temporary facilities, sports - and communication equipment, accommo dation and medical services (China Audit this result has 2009). Nevertheless, Bureau, not taken into account the major investments - in environmental and infrastructure pro jects or other urban redevelopment projects has the Nor related to the Olympic Games. - result taken into account all the losses sus in tained by factories and construction sites and five neighboring provinces that Beijing were obliged to suspend their production line In the short to keep the pollution level low. in term, Beijing has seen a mixed picture the stimulated economic growth. The Games hotel and retail sector, construction industry, market the real estate the development of and and housing development. The temporary jobs created by the booming of these sectors local citizens for the millions of jobs created to the and migrants from rural areas. Related housing for 16,000 athletes Olympic Games, luxury apart- designed from the start as was ments sold out well ahead of the Olympics at   ditu- CHAOYANG DISTRICT CHAOYANG   f commercial of   INNERCITY DISTRICT TONGZHOU   Development 

      YUAN District; District, Dongcheng District, Xuanwu District, Chongwen Inner-city includes Xicheng of Beijing’s many foreign embassies, CBD Chaoyaqng District: located in the north east of Beijing; home to the majority District: suburban district to the east of Beijing. Tongzhou and the Olympic Green; Figure 3 ▶ 3 Figure Notes energy, water, and waste treatment capaci- and waste water, energy, ties (Zhang, 2008). Although the Olympic of plan also took into account the post-use the Olympic venues by locating most of the venues in university campus or residential in communities, post-use of the stadiums main Beijing remains a difficult task. The - Olympic venues are mostly visited by tou rists, yet sports events are only held there the selection of Furthermore, occasionally. opportunity to address missed the strategies fa- the gentrification process that the city is con- all efforts and investments cing. Since of Olympic- on the development centrated related areas and facilities in the north, the southern Beijing gap between northern and has intensified. to an auditing report from the According have left the Games Chinese Government, BOCOG with a small profit of US $170 mil- lion, resulting from sales of broadcasting rights, souvenirs and tickets, assets sales and sponsorship, while the main expen 1. 2.  3. are located; haidian District: located in the west of Beijing and where most universities 4. prices ranging from $3,000-$4,500 per squa- due to city ‘beautification’ project for Olym- re meter, high even in the booming Beijing pic tourism, urban facilities related to the market (Gluckman n.d.). In the post-1998 Olympic Games, and improvements to the real estate boom, housing prices in Beijing city’s general infrastructure. Today, the real rose between 400 and 1,000 percent between number of migration or displacement is still 2001 and 2008. Contrary to expectation, the unknown. tourism market actually shrank in Beijing during the Games due to tighter political res- Conclusion trictions and security measures, leaving the As the first city in a developing country to newly-built 780 hotels in Beijing with a high host the Olympic Games, Beijing’s con- vacancy rate. The tourism industry only star- spicuous construction of an Olympic city ted to recover two years after the Games were showcased China’s strong capabilities to over. In total, Beijing has doubled its GDP per improve its urban environment and brand capita from 2001 to 2008. In the long term, Beijing as an international metropolis. Beij- the economic restructuring measures has ing is no longer only ‘ancient and wise’, but allowed Beijing’s tertiary sector to grow ste- also ‘new, innovative and high-tech, valuing adily, from 61 to 78 percent of Beijing’s total harmony, unity and the environment’ (Ha- GDP. The sectors that grew strongest are in gan 2008: 79). The Beijing case also shows the high-tech, financial, culture, and service the difficulties that cities face in balancing industries. Given all the above factors, it is economic, social, as well as environmental clear that the economic impact of the Games development. For example, the Games sti- on Beijing and its region is still developing. mulated the growth of the real estate market Its full economic impact should therefore be and the increase in housing prices, but also assessed again in the future, tracing it back creates serious affordability problems in the over a longer period of time. city after the event.

As was already mentioned, BOCOG invited Although the impact analysis shows am- societal groups to discuss OAP for impro- biguity or even conflicting results, it is clear vement. It organized various programs to that the Olympic Games have helped Beij- encourage Chinese citizens to get involved ing to realize some really ambitious environ- in sports activities and facilitate their invol- mental and infrastructure projects. These vement in the Olympic Games. By the end projects may have been delayed substantially of 2005, more than 5,000 sports facilities without the pressures that the Games create were created in residential communities al- for its main stakeholders. Furthermore, the ong major roads and villages, with financial case shows how the Games can be used as a input surpassing 662 million Yuan (US$83 stepping stone for economic restructuring. million) from the profits of the local sports Host cities have the opportunity to intro- lottery (Liu 2006). What remains a contro- duce new urban functions, and create new versy is the fate of the affected communi- city images during the preparation for the ties. BOCOG claims only several thousand Games though global media attention. For people were affected by the Olympic project. Beijing, the Olympics fuelled the city’s tran- The Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions sition towards an international metropolis. (COHRE), on the other hand, estimates that a total of 1.5 million people were displaced. The times of Olympic host cities are gene- COHRE not only includes the relocation de- rally toughest in the post-event era. With rived from projects for the principal Olym- regard to urban development strategies, we pics venues, but also the affected households have seen a clear intention to combine the

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aculty ork, United States: Palgrave - 01-05-2011, from http://www.unep.org/down Real Estate Research Quarterly | december 2012 | 29 Routledge . (ed), Globalization and the Chinese city, , retrieved ut the author the About is assistant professor at Chen is assistant professor Yawei Dr. F Delft University of Technology, of Architecture, Department Real Estate & Housing. is to address and prepare an overall post-use and prepare an overall is to address – a strategy before the event strategy well and not only focus on planning that should and manage- also on financing design, but period. in the post-Olympic ment issues - - . (2011) Olympic legacy: Will Beijing be added to the list? The 2011 Barcelona European .27-35 Beijing 2008 Olympic Games: an environmental review u, D. (2006) State policy and the globalization of Beijing: emerging themes, in: Habitat International, 30, 377- - looking forward to the Olympic Games 2008 in Beijing, Olympic Games - looking forward to the Olympic . (2003) The environment impacts of the . (2002). The Prospect of International Cities in China. In Logan, J.R. (Ed.), The New Chinese City: Globalization and . and Y aily. , August 06, 2009, Guangming Daily. Lin, X. (2009) Survey on the post-use of Beijing Olympic Games venue March 01, 2006, China Daily (2006) Regulation helps Beijingers keep fit, Liu, W. from http://www.thestar.com/ retrieved 30-01-2010, The Star, Mathieu, E. (2010) Games legacy: a herd of white elephants, business/article/757961 March-April, pp. 48-54 Ness, A. (2002) Blue Skies for the Beijing Olympics, in: The China Business Review, Macmillan. New Y to Olympic City. Imperial Capital H. (2007). Beijing: From A. & Kong, Li, L., Dray-Novey, One world, one dream? Image building and brand China in the 2008 Beijing Olympics [Master Thesis],Hagan, C. (2008) One world, one dream? Image building and brand China in University of Oregon Urban development through hosting international events: a history of the Olympic Games, B. & Essex, S. (1999) Urban development through hosting Chalkley, Planning Perspectives, 14, pp. 369 – 394. finance and construction costs of venues, no. 40. audit of Beijing Olympic Games’ China Audit Bureau (2009) Tracking F I. (2006) Beijing as an “internationalized metropolis”, in: Wu, Cook, J., Davis, C. & Banfe, P Cochran, P/paper/view/579/586 http://conferences.cluteonline.com/index.php/IAC/2011S Gluckman, R. (n.d.). After the Olympics. Retrieved 04-10-2012, from http://www.gluckman.com/Beijing%20Olympics%20 Legacy.html , n: China-USA Busi- A. (2008) Economic impact studies of Beijing 2008 Olympic Games Hashmi, S., Fida, B. and Alhayky, 7(5), PP ness Review, Borne, Y niversity. China, master thesis, Lund U Retrieved 04-10-2012, from http://www.audit.gov.cn/n1057/n1072/n1282/1831561.html China Series, UK: Abingdon, pp. 63-84 Contemporary Barcelona, Spain, 2011, Retrieved 04-10-2012, from Academic Conference, Wei, Y Wei, 395 Zhang, A. (2008) China after the Olympics: lessons from Beijing, Greenpeace East Asia, from http://www.greenpeace.org/ raw/content/eastasia/press/reports/green.pdf (accessed Zhou, Y Market Reform. Oxford: Blackwell Press, pp.59-73. loads/BeijingReport.pdf UNEP (2009) References -  -  -  -  -  -  -  preparation of the mega event with Beijing’s Beijing’s of the mega event with preparation has incor development. Beijing long-term in the plans consideration porated post-use and facili- of Olympic venues and designs the Olympic by locating most of ties, if only or re- to the university campus venues next Private investments sidential communities. BOT contracts, PPP were secured through - donations. Ne arrangements, or individual still have many dif vertheless, Beijing will the maintenance in coping with ficulties in the coming costs of Olympic venues for future host cities years. A major lesson -  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  -