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CONTENTS

List of illustrations ix Acknowledgements xix Translator's Note xxi Conventions used in this book xxiii

INTRODUCTION 1 Scope of Research 4 Time-frame 4 Selection of material 6 State of Research 11 Research on the development of the cult and iconography of warrior saints 11 Research on the military equipment of the Middle Byzantine army 14

Chapter One SOURCES 19 Material Sources (Archaeological) 19 Written Sources 34 Military treatises (Taktika and Strategika) 34 Taktikons and Books of Ceremony 40 Lexicography 42 Historiography 43 Literature . 50 Non-Greek sources 51 Iconographical Sources 53

Chapter Two ORIGINS OF THE IMAGE OF THE WARRIOR SAINT 57 God's Peace and Holy War in Christian Doctrine 63 The Image of the Warrior Saint in Art Before Iconoclasm ... 74 The type of the mounted warrior saint 74 The type of the warrior saint on foot 86 Warrior Saints and Ancient Gods 92 Heavenly supporters of the army 98 Vi CONTENTS

The Imperial Cohort 104 From local cult to nationwide image of the patron warrior saint 107 The two saint Theodores 117 Conclusions 121

Chapter Three ICONOGRAPHY OF THE COSTUME AND OF THE WARRIOR SAINTS 125 Armour 125 Corselet 125 The 'muscled' cuirass 129 Scale body armour 133 The lamellar cuirass (klibanion) 137 Soft armour (neurika, lorikion psilos) 151 The zaba and lorikion and the problem of the mail-shirt 154 Other elements of armour 162 Lower body protection (pteryges and kremasmata) 162 Kabadion (and skaramangion) 166 Shoulder-guards and sleeves (manikia) 170 Lower tunic (himation, peristethidia) 174 Shoulder pennants (phlamuliskia) 176 Epilorikion (epanoklibanion, epithorakion) 177 The Symbolism of Armour 179 Protection for Arms and Legs 183 Manikellia (cheiromanika, cheiropsella) 183 Armour for the lower leg (chalkotouba, podopsella) 187 Footwear (pedila) 191 Shoes (tzangia) 191 Tall boots (krepides, hypodemata) 193 Bast sandals—servoula (mouzakia) and kampagia 198 Trousers (toubia, anaxyrides) 203 The Shield 208 Construction of the shield 215 Shape of the shield 225 Circular and oval shields (thyreos, skoutarion, pelta, parmd) 225 The kite-shaped shield 231 The elongated triangular shield and the Gothic or heater shield 234 CONTENTS Vii

Devices on the shields of the warrior saints 236 Ornamental motifs 238 Signs (simeia) for identifying military units 240 Inscriptions 241 Religious (and apotropaic) symbols 243 Proto-heraldic devices 246 Symbolism and customs related to the shield 250 The Cloak (Mandyas) 254 The chlamys or officer's cloak 255 Cloaks of junior officers and ordinary soldiers (the sagion) 265 Insignia 271 Fibula (kornoukopion, porpe) 271 The officer's sash (diadema, zone stratiotike) 277 Tablion 281 Symbolic insignia—diadem and tiara 284 Diadem 285 Tiara 293 The torque (maniakion) 294 Unusual Variants of Uniform in the Iconography of the Warrior Saints 300 Warrior saints in officer's parade uniform 301 The warrior saint in a provincial guise (in a kabadion) .... 307 Continuation of the Early Byzantine image of the equestrian saint in a tunic 309 The fantastical image of the holy warrior 310 Conclusions 311

Chapter Four IN THE ICONOGRAPHY OF THE WARRIOR SAINTS 313 The Lance or of the Warrior Saint 313 Types of Shafted in Byzantium 318 and (verytta, akontion, rhiptarion) 318 The heavy (menaulion) 320 Lance and spear (, kontarion, longche) 323 The lance as a sign of status and a symbolic weapon 329 The Crux hastata 334 Military flags (phlamoulon, bandon) 340 Edged Weapons 342 The (spatha, xiphos) 342 Viil CONTENTS

The palash (proto-?)—paramerion 357 Symbolism of the sword 360 Other Types of Weapons of the Warrior Saints 367 Conclusions 376

Chapter Five EQUESTRIAN EQUIPMENT 379 Horse Tack 379 (skala, anavoleus) 379 Saddle and saddlecloth (sella and ephestris) 383 Other elements of riding equipment 386 Spurs 392 The Horse Armour Problem 395 Conclusions 397

Conclusions 399 Bibliography 405 Indices 447 Illustration Section