Page 1 of 36 Ecology 1 Running Head: Mutualism exploitation: costs & benefits 2 3 Title: Costs and benefits of alternative food handling tactics help explain facultative exploitation 4 of pollination mutualisms 5 6 Elinor M. Lichtenberg1,*, Rebecca E. Irwin2,3, Judith L. Bronstein1 7 8 1) Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721 9 USA 10 2) Department of Applied Ecology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695 USA 11 3) Rocky Mountain Biological Lab, Crested Butte, CO 81224 USA 12 13 Corresponding author: Elinor M. Lichtenberg,
[email protected] 14 15 * Current affiliation: Department of Integrative Biology, The University of Texas at Austin, 16 Austin, TX 78712 USA 17 1 Ecology Page 2 of 36 18 Abstract 19 Many mutualisms are taken advantage of by organisms that take rewards from their partners but 20 provide no benefit in return. In the absence of traits that limit exploitation, facultative exploiters 21 (partners that can either exploit or cooperate) are widely predicted by mutualism theory to 22 choose an exploitative strategy, potentially threatening mutualism stability. However, it is 23 unknown whether facultative exploiters choose to exploit, and, if so, make this choice because it 24 is the most beneficial strategy for them. We explored these questions in a subalpine plant-insect 25 community in which individuals of several bumble bee species visit flowers both “legitimately” 26 (entering via the flower opening, picking up and depositing pollen, and hence behaving 27 mutualistically) and via nectar robbing (creating holes through corollas or using an existing hole, 28 bypassing stigmas and anthers).