Journal of Coastal Research 951-959 Royal Palm Beach, Florida Summer 1998

Historical Development of the Port Royal Mangrove Wetland, Jamaica Gerard P. Alleng

Institute of Marine Affairs, Hilltop Lane, Chaguaramas, Trinidad and Tobago.

ABSTRACT _

ALLENG, G.P., 1998. Historical development of the Port Royal Mangrove Wetland, Jamaica. Journal of Coastal Re­ .tllllllll:. search, 14(3),951-959. Royal Palm Beach (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208. ~ Studies on the historical development of mangrove wetlands are rare in contrast to the vast array of information on eusss~ ~ ? the geological development of these systems. Historical development of the Port Royal mangal was investigated so as --A... w;-4ES improve understanding of recent changes occurring in relation to the increasing threat of sea level rise to their existence. The historical development of the Port Royal mangal, Jamaica, began with the first documented spatial record for the area in 1692 and traced to 1991 using historical maps and aerial photographs. The mangrove system is a fringe mangrove community type, composed of primarily Rhizophora mangle L. located along the northern shore of the Palisadoes, which is a composite tombolo on the south coast of Jamaica. A general trend was determined for the morphology of the mangal which showed relative stability, displaying little significant variation in its areal extent over a period of 300 years. The horizontal extension by colonizing mangroves has not been significant, with forested areas being restricted to sharply defined geomorphological units, probably because of the response of the system to a combination of factors. These include: i. a small tidal range; ii. geomorphology of the system; iii. a lack of large sediment inputs and iv. episodic events such as hurricanes. This stability of the Port Royal mangrove system is atypical of the understanding of development of these wetlands, which has been accepted to be a constant state of migration or movement. The stable trend of this mangrove system has implications with regard to its response to occurrences such as sea-level rise. Coastal wetlands of this type will probably experience complete collapse when sea levels begin to rise.

ADDITIONAL INDEX WORDS: Mangroves, geomorphology, sea-level rise, Jamaica.

INTRODUCTION However, EGLER(1952) and TROM(1967) successfully chal­ lenged the concept of seral succession in mangroves, limiting Previous studies on the development of mangrove forests it to a particular geomorphic condition. This condition oc­ have often assumed a successional model following a distinct curred where the shoreline was prograding, such as that of zonation from sea to land with vegetational changes contin­ some salt marshes described by CHAPMAN (1960), where the uously taking place along the areal extent of the ecosystem. vegetation did promote rapid sediment accumulation and the The work of DAVIS (1940), a classical view of mangrove de­ increase in sediment levels promoted further successional velopment in Florida, described the geologic role of man­ groves as land builders through sediment accumulation and changes. EGLER (1952) demonstrated that in some cases the colonization. The vegetational model was based on a Cle­ mangroves in Florida were migrating inland rather than sea­ mentsian pattern of seral stages of succession where each ward as a response to rising sea level. EGLER (1952) and stage was represented as a distinct monospecific zone in the TROM (1967) both suggested that these mangroves were re­ mangrove forest. The most seaward zone would be dominated sponding passively rather than actively to geomorphic pro­ by the "pioneer stage" and be represented by Rhizophora cesses. Vegetational changes within tropical deltaic-estuarine mangle. Further inland, it was inferred that the relationship environments were regarded as being the passive response of between the vegetation and sediment accretion would pro­ the plants to habitat changes induced by geomorphic pro­ mote succession since geomorphic conditions would be active­ cesses, such as sedimentation and subsidence (TROM, 1967). ly changed by the plants themselves. Thus the pioneer com­ This geomorphological approach to mangrove distribution fo­ munity would be replaced by a secondary community, which cused on the plant responses to geomorphologic processes and in time would be replaced until a climax community was fi­ conditions. TROM et al. (1975) further illustrated this ap­ nally achieved, a terrestrial forest. Since each zone was un­ proach in a study of the Cambridge Gulf-Ord River region of derstood to be a progressively later stage in the succession Western Australia, in which the variety of mangrove habitats model, the entire system was believed to be constantly mov­ was related to sediment complexes. STODDART (1980) also ing seaward. suggested that the opportunistic pattern of mangrove devel­ opment could be a response to substrate topography, as was 95158 received 12 November 1995; accepted in revision 28 February the situation of mangroves colonizing old reefs tops. More 1997. recently, WOODROFFE (1982) extended this concept to the 952 Alleng

KINGSTON HARBOUR

Gallows Point

17° 56 '

PorI Little Plumb Royal Point

CARIBBEAN SEA

o, Kilometres

~ MANGROVE

Figure 1. Map of Kingston Ha rbour and the Port Royal Manga l, Jama ica. mangrove coloniz ation of the Cay ma n Islands, where the de­ ment have concentrated on the evolution of these systems velopment and geomorphology of the man grove swa mps were over geologic time , Historical studies involving shorter time controlled principally by the re lations hi p between land a nd intervals have been rare. Th e purp ose of this study was to sea during Holocene submerge nce. As a result of submer­ investigate th e configuration and speed of development of a gence, terrestrial environments which became inundated and mangal ecosystem using historical record s for the last 300 offere d ideal wave and current conditions for colonization by years . mangrove see dlings, were invaded by man groves migr ating inland, AREA OF STUDY STODDART (1980) dem onstrated through the mapping of the developm en t of man grove islands on old reef tops in Aus­ The Port Royal mangal (76° 49'W, 17° 56'N) has been de­ tralia , that the exte nt of mangroves in the Low Isles area scri bed as a fringe mangrove community type (ALLENG, 1990) increased from 27 ha to 36,5 ha over a 44 year period, But it following the classification sche me of LUGO a nd SNEDAKER was also show n that other mangrove islands within the study (1974 ). Th e system is located on the northern shore of the area had re maine d constan t over th e same time period, If Pa lisadoes Spit (Figure 1) which forms the southern bound­ mangrove commu nities are respond ing to different environ­ ary of Kin gston Ha rbour on th e south coas t of J am aica, mental conditions, it is imp ortant in order to accurate ly pr e­ CHAPMAN (1939) and STEERS (1940) have suggeste d that the dict future responses, that a better understanding of histor­ spit was form ed by the coalesci ng of several cays th rough ical changes be obtaine d. Most studies of mangr ove develop- littoral drift. The cays according to GaREAU and BURKE

Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 14, No.3, 1998 Development of Mangroves in Jamaica 953

N 1 KGN

5Z>~~"" "'D~~

3 Milts ,==='===±====ll 1824 1728

N N 1 1

Pari Royal

o I o, 1873-74 1780 N ~ N 1

Pori Royal

1914 1780 Figure 3. (a) Tr igonometric survey of the channels heading to Port Hoy­ Figure 2, (a) A map of th e harbour of Port Royal in J amaica (Gasco inge , ai , King st on (Unknown, 1824).(b) British Admiralt y Chart, G. St anley, J . 1728). (b) A plan of Kingston Harbour (Un known, 1780).(c) A ma p of 1873-74. (c) Bri tish Admi ralty Chart, J . Combe, 1914. Port Royal (Unknown, 1780 ).

gence. The wetland consist of a fringing mangrove forest (1966), seem to have been built upon the limestone erosio na l which is bordered on its southern flank by a terrestrial thorn­ resi dua ls of an old Pleistocene surface. More re cently , the spit scrub associatio n of acacia and cactus. The distribution of the has been determined to be a composite tombolo in accorda nce mangrove vegetation differs from that of the monospeci fic with the tied-island theory (HENDRY, 1979). It has been zones described by DAVIS (1940 ) and CHAPMAN (1944), whe re dated to be post Pleis tocene . each ma ngrove species dominates a clearly defined zone. In Colonization of the tombolo by wet land vegetation is not the Port Royal area there are only two distinct monospecific known but probably took place during Holocene submer- zones which have been identified, a fringe Rhizophora mangle

J ournal of Coastal Research, Vol. 14, No.3, 1998 954 Alleng

Gallows Point

Refuge

port Royal Lagoon

1954 '1956 -- 1958 .

1968 ------­

1986 - '-'-'-'- 1991 _ ... - ••.-

o 10 00 200 0 I . I Feer

Figure 4. Historical profile s from 1954-1 991 of the western sector of th e Port Royal mangal.

zone bordering the edges of all water bodie s in the wetland Norm ally, discharge from thi s river sys te m is directed out and a narrow transition zone of Conocarpus erectus which along the western end of the harbour, by-pas sing th e Port sepa rates wetland from terrestrial forest (ALLENG, 1990 ). In Royal mangroves (GOODBODY, 1989a). The episodic events , between these two zones are extensive area s of mixed man­ including hurricanes, are considered to be an integral part of grove forest similar to that described by WOODROFFE (1982 ) th e ecology of th e mangal and may be a limiting factor to the for Grand Cayman Island. Some of these mixed areas are growth and development of th e forest. The frequency of hur­ dense thicket s of small Rhizophora mangle, Avicennia ger­ ricanes affecting the area parall els the time it tak es the man­ minans and Laguncularia racemosa trees and is comparable groves to mature (LuGO and SNEDAKER, 1974; ALLENG, to area s described in Pu erto Rico (CINTRON et al., 1978) and 1990) and thus limits stru ctural development of th e forest. Grand Cay ma n (WOODROFFE, 1982 ). The mean tidal ran ge for the Port Royal area ha s been given The assoc iate d lagoons of th e mangrove forest displ ay ma­ as 20 cm with a spring range of 27-30 ern (CHAPMAN, 1944) rine conditions (annual ave rage ran ge 28- 35 % 0) with little and an extreme range of 90 em (GOODBODY, 1970 ) or 24 ern diurnal chan ge (average diurnal va riation < 1 % 0). There are with an extreme spring range of 87 em (GOODBODY, 1989b). no freshwater inlet s issuing into th ese lagoons from the land­ The later figures from GOODBODY (1989b) were used in th is ward side of the wetl and, resulting a low sediment load of study. the water s within the lagoons. However these lagoons can at times displ ay brackish or hyposaline conditions and high sed­ METHODOLOGY iment levels. Salinities can reach as low as 10.9% 0 (SlUNG, 1976). These low salinities only occur during extre me rainfall An attempt was made to determine the historical changes events when runoff from a large river along the north-west­ in the geomorphology of the Port Royal mangal. The data sets ern boundary of th e harbour apparently affects th e sys te m. used for th is process consisted of: a) old maps and nautical

Tab le 1. Changes in areal extent of mangrove forests in the western sector ofPort Royal, 1954-1 991.

Gallows Point Refuge Cay Cemetery Area

Year Area (ha) % Change Year Area (ha) % Change Year Area (ha) % Change 1954-56 30.89 0 1954-56 6.72 0 1954-56 13.43 0 1958 30.38 - 1.8 1958 1958 13.74 + 2.3 1968 31.48 + 1.9 1968 8.94 + 33.0 1968 13.14 - 2.2 1986 30.99 + 0.3 1986 7.91 + 17.7 1986 14.4 + 7.2 1991 31.1 + 0.7 1991 1991 14.43 + 7.5 -Data not availa ble

Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 14, No.3, 1998 Developmen t of Mangroves in Jamaica 955

Tabl e 2. Changes in the areal extent of the salina at Gallows Point , 1954­ 1991. .... Year Area (ha) % Change 1958 1.03 0 1 1968 1.36 32 1986 4.29 317 1991 4.26 314 charts of varying scales and dating from 1692-1970. A plan­ variograph (R. & A. ROST 19514 ) was used to enlarge som e of the maps and charts in order to bri ng them to a common scal e, b) Aerial photographs taken in 1958, 1968, 1986 and 1991. A Vertical Sketch Ma ster (Ryker Model L-1) was used to tran sfer data from th e aerial photographs to base map s 1958---- (scale 1:10,000). A hand-held stereoscope was used in th e 1968 ...... ·····_ ..·· analysis of stereoscopic pairs of aerial photographs. 1986 ------The datasets were used to determine the changes over time in th e areal extents of forested areas, zonation, die-back and o 1000 lagoon area s. A planimeter (Model K&E 620002) was used to 1 - mea sure areal extents . However this pr oved to be difficult for many of the older maps and charts becau se of an inherent Figu re 5. Historical profiles from 1958-1986 of th e centra l sector of the inaccuracies, and also distortions after the enla rgeme nt to a Port Royal man gal , common scal e. In spite of thi s, it was possible to determine general trend s. The bathymetry of the lagoons bet ween th e forested areas was investigated using a Fishray radar gun mounted behind throughout the late 18th century and into th e late 19th cen­ a small boat. A total of 20 transects was sound ed in the la­ tury (Figure 3). Th e exception to this is the development of goons and th e results compared to British Adm iralty Ch art a lagoon on the southern side of the spit (1914 ma p). Th is 456. Salinity readings were taken in the lagoons -using a was probably caused by the accumulation of sediment trans­ hand -held refractometer. ported by longshore dri ft along the Palisadoes (HENDRY, 1979). Th e development of this lagoon took place between RESULTS 1873 and 1914 , under different conditions to the she lte re d northern side of th e Pali sadoes. The historical development of the Port Royal mangal is di­ vided into two sections based on the map material. Recent Development

Early development Western Sector Some of the earlies t maps of the Port Roya l area are Th e profiles of three major forested are as in the western shown in Figure 2. These represent the late 17th Century sector of the Port Royal system are presented in Figure 4. to early 18th Century period. Th e earlies t map of the area Th ey are overlain each other to form a ma trix and represent (1728) shows the town of Port Royal se pa rate d from the Pal ­ a 37 year period of historical mangrove development. Th e isadoes spit and a series of breach es in the eastern sector. phy siogr aphy of these forested a reas and water bodies Th ese changes were du e to a great earthquake which oc­ separating th em, indicate a general stability of th e mangal. curre d in 1692 . It also destroyed large sections of the town. Table 1 gives the varying are al exte nts of the forests over the However, it can be determined that th e main mangrove ar­ 37 year time period. Th ere is no significant change in the eas north-west of the town, on th e northern side of the spit, areal exte nts over time, as any minute difference s maybe due had alre ady been es tablishe d and eas ily recognizable, wh en to inherent inaccuracies in the data sources , particularly the compared to the present mangrove distribution as shown in ae rial photographs . Figure 1. The 1780 maps show Port Royal reunited to the Palisadoes, Table 3. Changes in areal extent of the mangrove forest in the Rose'sHole which would have occurred sometime between 1728 and Lagoon sector, 1958-1986. 1780. At the end of this period, the mangal is shown as a distinct fringe mangrove community typ e, developed along Year Area (ha) % Change the northern sides of the spit. Th ere are indications based on 1958 6.46 o these records, that there have not been any macro-changes 1968 5.81 -10.1 in the profiles of the main mangrove forests. Furthermore, 1986 4.71 - 27.1 the lagoons and channels separating these areas also display 1991 stability in their general shape a nd size. Thi s trend continued - Data not ava ilab le

Journal of Coastal Resear ch, Vol. 14, No. 3, 1998 956 Alleng

N 1

Run lVay

Plumb Point Logoo n - - 1958

.·· ..... •. 1968

----- 1986

-" _00199 1

1000 I

Figure 6. Historical profiles from 1958-1 991 of the easte rn sect ion of Port Royal ma nga l.

But there have been micro-changes tak ing place within through th e dyin g ba ck of trees. During th e sa me tim e these forested are a. Th ere has been th e rapid development of interval (1958-199l), its area increased by approximately a large sa lina or sa lt flat in th e north western sector of the 100'7< . Th e form ation of these ba rr en areas or salinas within Gallows Point area. When this area was first formed is not th e forest, may sugge st the maturation of th e system. A known, but it appears on th e aerial photogr aphs tak en in simil ar sit uation has been reported by BACON (1970) in th e 1958 . It was once covere d by mangroves, ba sed on th e Ca roni Swamp, Trinidad, who suggeste d th at th ese bare pre sence of dead, bleached mangrove tree trunks and some area s were a natural stage in th e succession from soft mud clumps of living Avicennia germ inans L. trees. These mainly to cons olidated sediment. persist in th e centre of th e barren a rea. The sa lina is approxima te ly 4.3 ha and is seas onally inundated, becoming Central Sectio n dry during the drier months of the year (exce pt for th e central The central section or Rose's Hole Lagoon of the mangro ve section), but compl etely inundated « 25 ern of water covers system also displays th e general sta bility of its profile over an t he surface) during the wetter months. Th e substrate is a exte nded period of time, similarly to the western section (Figure peaty soil bu t firm enough to be walked upon, except close to 5). Table 3 provides an indication of the limited cha nges in the the centre. Salinitie s of between 73 and 77%0 were record ed profile of this forested zone over a 28 year period. at the edge of the central section in August 1989 ; surface However, as with the western section, th ere ha ve been mi­ water salinity of 37%0 was recorded approximately 50 m off cro cha nges . In its north-eastern end, a frin ge of Rhizophora Gallows Point at the same time. It is estima ted th at the mangle L. died over th e period of time, leading to the incor­ salina has expanded by approximately 300 % between 1958 poration of a sm all lagoon with th e waters of Kin gston Har­ and 1991 (33 years), as a resu lt of the dying back of trees on bour. The bre aching of th e fringe took plac e some time be­ all margins of the salina. tween 1968 and 1986 and displayed a similar trend of th e In addition , there is anot her salina located southeast of th is die-ba ck phenomen on occurring in th e Gallow s Point area de­ area, whi ch is also displaying a simila r tenden cy of expa ns ion scribed ea rlier. In addition, this north-eastern edge of Rose's Hole is showing signs of denudation which may be the ad­ verse effects of reclamation in 1967 . In time, th e thin strip of Table 4. Changes in areal extent of the mangrove forest at Plum b Point Lagoon, 1958-1 991. mangrove may be removed. If degradation continues, it is lik ely that the main mangrove area may be cut off, creating Year Area (ha ) '7c Change an isolated mangrove island. 1958 3.89 0 1968 8.1 + 108.2 Eastern Section 1986 7.68 + 97.4 The profile of th e mangrove forest within the eastern section 1991 7.39 + 90 or Plumb Point Lagoon continues the trend of stability along its

J ourn al of Coast al Resear ch. Vol. 14, No. 3, 1998 Development of Man groves in J am a ica 957

o

N !

..... Depth in met r es

500 10 00 Mtlrn

b

N 1

Depth in metres

100 200 Mt> l rt S

c

.-. ~-,; •.,....;- por t

.Depth in metres

a roo 20 0 l=c=_ Mefrts

Figure 7. a--<: Bathymetric profiles of th e lagoons of the Port Royal Man gal.

Jo urnal of Coastal Research , Vol. 14, No. 3, 1998 958 Alleng outer margins, even though internally, th ere has been active onizing trees becau se of the non-establishment of man grove expansion by red mangroves into small lagoon areas (Figure 6l. propagules. Epi sodic events such as hurricanes also hinder Table 4 shows that between 1958 and 1968, th ere was an initi al th e growth a nd development of the mangrove forest. increase in th e forested area by approxima tely 100%, followed Th e general sta bility of mangrove sys te ms lik e the Port by a period of stability at thi s limit up to 1991. The increase Royal area has implications on th e respon se of th ese sys te m was due to th e filling of some of th e small internal lagoons with ­ to occurre nces such as sea-leve l rise. As th ese sys te ms have in th e main sections of th e mangrove forest. This resulted in an developed and conformed to sha rply defined geomorphologi­ increase in th e vegetat ion to water ratio of th e forested area. cal units a nd moderate coast al processes, it is expected th at However in comparison, there has not been any similar type of minor alte ra tions to th ese conditions can have seve re impacts expansion of th e ma ngrove forest into th e larger Plumb Point on th ese ecosys te ms. There is th e great possibi lity th at th ere lagoon, during the same period. ca n be the complete colla pse of th e ecosyste m, since th ere is very little space for inland migration. Thi s would occur even Bathym etr y if th e ra te of increase of sea level is slow. It is also expected that community cha nges with in th e forested zone would occur Th e bathym etry of the lagoons sh ows th e exis te nce of rel­ becau se of increased submergence. atively deep areas separating the forested isla nds (Figure 7.a­ Th erefore it is recomm end ed th at more site specific, his­ c). Th e gra dients of these lagoons a re steep, declining rapidly torical a nalysis of coas ta l ecosyste ms be und ertak en , in order from th e edges of th e mangrove a reas into deep water (5- 13 to greatly increase th e accuracy of pr edicti ons of th eir re­ meters ). In addition there are no mudflats pr esen t along th e sponses to expecte d climatic cha nge. There is th e possibility edges of th e forest . Th e bathymetric profile is corroborated th at th ese sys tems will respond differently to cha nges he­ with data obtained from th e British Admi ralty cha rt. Th ese cause of th e wide ran ge of coas ta l and sedimentological pro­ lagoons may represent form er oceanic sides of developing cesses and geomorphic settings . spits (perso nal communication-M. Hendry, Coas tal Geolo­ gist) as there are tw o shoal a reas north of Port Royal which possibly mark th e former positions of th e Pa lisa does Spit ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS (GOREAU and BURKE, 1966). Th e author wishes to th ank th e followin g persons for th eir DISCUSSION signi ficant contributions to this manuscrip t. Dr Peter Bacon. Professor of Zoology. Univers ity of th e West Indies. for advice Th e development of a man gal is ofte n determined to be th e and support in writing thi s pa per; J ack Tynd ale-Biscoe (pro­ response of th e ecosys te m to geomor phic processes such as fessional photographer ) for old photogr aphs of th e area ;Hi­ sea level fluctu ation and sedimentation. Man grove forests lary Baptiste. Instit ute of Marine Affairs, Trinidad a nd To­ over time, are expecte d to extend th eir limits into landward bago, for her cartographica l work . zones in response to rising sea level or into seawa rd zones as a result of incre ased sedimentation. Th ey may also cont ra ct LITERATURE CITED in size in response to rising sea level, if the topogr aphic set­ ting presents a physical barrier to expa ns ion, such as at th e AI.I.!o: !'I(;. G.P.. 1990. Historical Development. Present Status an d base of a cliff. Th e Port Royal mangrove syste m in its devel­ Management Guide lines for the Port Royal Ma ngal. Jamaica. M.Phil Th esis. Zoology Dep artment . Univers ity of th e West Indies. opme nt over time does not display any of th ese respon ses but Mon a , J am aica. 172p. maintains a stable profile over a 300 year peri od. Bxcox, P.R., 1970 . The Ecology ofCaron i Swamp. Tri nidad. Special Th e historical records from th e Port Royal sys te m ind icate Publication , Centra l Statistical Office. Trin idad. 68 p. th at th ere is a gene ral stability in the morphology of th e man­ C HAP ~lA:-': , V.J., 1939. Ca mb ridge Univers ity Expedition to J am ai ­ grove forest. Thi s is atypical of th e curre nt understanding of ce .Nature. 144, 964 p. CHAPMA N. V.J .. 1944. Cam bridge University Exped itio n to J am aica. the development of mangrove sys te m, as th ey are ofte n con­ Part 1. A study of the botanica l processes concerned in the devel­ sidered to be cons tantly changing. As has been suggested by opme nt of the J am aican shoreline . Journal of Linneaus Society of THoM (1967 ) and others, th e growt h and development of Botany. 52 , 407-447. th ese ecosystems are determined by th e influ en ce of geomor­ CHAPMAN, J .H. , 1960. Sa lt marshes and sa lt desert s of th e wor ld. phological processes. But this should also apply to situations Plan t Science Monog rap hs. Leonard Hill , London, 392 p. CINTHON . G.; LUGo , A.E.; POOl., D.J ., and MOIUWi. G.. 1978. Man ­ where th ese processes are not as acute, such as in areas with grov es of arid environments in Pu er to Rico and adj acen t islands. a slow rate of increa se of sea level or a low rate of sedimen­ Biotropica , 10, 110--121. tation. In th e Port Royal , this seems to be th e situa tion, as DAVI S, J.H., 1940. Th e ecology and th e geologic role of man groves in there is a slow rate of mean sea level rise, 0.1 cm.yr : (Ma ul Florida. Carnegie Institute. Wash ingt on , D.C.. Publicat ion 517. Tor­ tugas Laboratory. Pap er 32. 303-412. and Hanson, 1989 ) and a noted absence of large sedime nt EGL ~;H . F.E.• 1952. Southeast saline Everglad es vege tation , Florida , inputs. This is reflected in the lack of any sign ifica nt forward and its man agement. Vegetatio. 3. 213- 265. movem ent into th e adjacent lagoons by th e man gr ove forest GOODBODY, I.. 1970. The biology of Kingston Harbour. Journ al of and absen ce of an y landward shifting of th e mangrove forest the Scientifi c Research of Jam aica , LXVII. 62- 76. into the terrestrial thorn/scrub association. In addition to GOODIlODY, I., 1989a. Caribbea n Coastal Man agemen t Study: The Hellshire Coast. St. Catherine, J am aica. Research Report No. 1. Ma­ these eleme nts , th ere are other negating fact ors such as the rine S cience Unit , University of the West Indies (Jamaica); 176 pp. depth of the adjacent lagoons and the small tid al range which GOODllODY. I.. 1989b. Th e sta te of th e marine environme nt in J a­ limits any expans ion by prop root exte ns ion or fringes of col- mai ca . Pap er prese nted to Th e Na tural Sciences Se m ina r on Waste

J ournal of Coasta l Research, Vol. 14, No. 3. 1998 Development of Mangroves in Jamaica 959

Management and Waste Disposal at Sea, Kingston, Jamaica, Feb­ Isognomon alatus Gmelin, Crassostrea rhizophorae Guilding and ruary, 1989, 22p. Ostrea equestris Say, in Jamaica. Ph.D. Thesis, Zoology Depart­ GOREAU, T. and BURKE,K., 1966. Pleistocene and Holocene geology ment, University of the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica, 312p. of the island shelf near Kingston, Jamaica. Marine Geology, 4, STEERS, J.A., 1940. The cays and the Palisadoes, Port Royal, Ja­ 207-255. maica. Geographical Review, 30(2), 279-296. HENDRY, M., 1979. A Study of Coastline Evolution and Sedimentol­ STODDART, D.R., 1980. Mangroves as successional stages, inner reefs ogy, the Palisadoes, Jamaica. Ph.D. Thesis, Geology Department, of the northern Great Barrier Reef. Journal of Biogeography, 7, University of the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica, 232p. 269-284. LUGo, A.E. AND SNEDAKER, S.C., 1974. The ecology of mangroves. THOM,B.G., 1967. Mangrove ecology and deltaic geomorphology. Ta­ Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 5, 39-64. basco, Mexico. Journal ofEcology, 55, 310-343. MAUL, G. and HANSON, K., 1989. Sea level variability in the Intra­ THOM, B.G.; WRIGHT, L.D., and COLEMAN, J.M., 1975. Mangrove American sea with concentration on Key West as a regional ex­ ecology and deltaic-estuarine geomorphology: Cambridge Gulf-Ord ample. In: Maul, G., (ed.), Implications of Climate Changes in the River, Western Australia. Journal ofEcology, 63, 202-323. Wider Caribbean Region. A Report by the Task Team of Experts WOODROFFE, C.D., 1982. Geomorphology and development of man­ UNEP/IOC; pp. 125-137. grove swamps, Grand Cayman Island, West Indies. Bulletin ofMa­ SlUNG, A., 1976. Studies on the Biology of Three Mangrove Oysters: rine Science, 32(2), 381-398.

Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 14, No.3, 1998