Gilded Women: A Comparison of Charles Frederick Worth Gowns and Crazy Quilts in
Cincinnati from 1876-1890
A thesis presented to
the faculty of
The Patton College of Education of Ohio University
In partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree
Master of Science
Sierra B. Holt
December 2018
© 2018 Sierra B. Holt. All Rights Reserved. 2 This thesis titled
Gilded Women: A Comparison of Charles Frederick Worth Gowns and Crazy Quilts in
Cincinnati from 1876-1890
by
SIERRA B. HOLT
has been approved for
the Department of Human and Consumer Sciences
and The Patton College of Education by
V. Ann Paulins
Professor of Human and Consumer Sciences
Renée A. Middleton
Dean, The Gladys W. and David H. Patton College of Education
3 Abstract
HOLT, SIERRA B., M.S., December 2018, Human and Consumer Sciences
Gilded Women: A Comparison of Charles Frederick Worth Gowns and Crazy Quilts in
Cincinnati from 1876-1890
Director of Thesis: V. Ann Paulins
In this study, the similarities and/or differences between Charles Frederick Worth
gowns and Crazy Quilts created from 1876 to 1890 in Cincinnati, and their historic
contributions to understandings of culture with respect to the socio-economic standards of their consumers, were addressed. These items were paired with prior research on life and economics during the American Gilded Age, the Arts and Crafts Movement, and La
Belle Époque to expand the aesthetic meaning of these trends. For context concerning the historical, cultural, and artistic aspects of the items being analyzed, the E. McClung
Fleming’s Model for artifact study (1974), the elements of art, and the principles of design were utilized as methodologies in the study. The data were collected and compared through content analysis to answer three questions leading the research
(similarities, differences, and historic contributions). A variety of specific aesthetic and cultural similarities and differences held between the owners and the objects were identified. The Charles Frederick Worth gowns and the Crazy Quilts examined were determined to be cultural artifacts of female consumerism and trend consciousness reflective of the documented Cincinnati, Ohio region during the 1876 to 1890 time period.
4 Acknowledgments I would like to thank Dr. V. Ann Paulins for all of her guidance during my graduate career. I want to also extend my thanks to the other members of my thesis committee: Dr. Katherine Jellison, Helene Siebrits, and Trina Gannon.
5 Table of Contents
Page
Abstract ...... 3
Acknowledgments ...... 4
List of Tables...... 8
List of Figures ...... 9
Chapter 1: Introduction ...... 10
Dates……………………………………………………………………..………13
Limitations……………………………………………………………………….14
Delimitations……………………………………………...……………………...14
Glossary of Terms……………………………………...………………………...16
Chapter 2: Review of Literature ...... 18
Societal Dress During the Gilded Age…………………………………………...18
Leisure Class….………………………………………………………………….18
Charles Frederick Worth………………………………………………..…..……21
Aesthetic…………………………………………………………………………22
Fashion of the Gilded Age From 1876-1890…………………………………….23
The Arts and Crafts Movement………………………………………………….25
Crazy Quilts…………...…………………………………………………………27
Theoretical Framework…………………………………………………………..33
Chapter 3: Methodology ...... 36
Chapter 4: Results ………….……………………………………………………………43
6 What are the similarities between Charles Frederick Worth gowns and Crazy
Quilts during the American Gilded Age?...... 43
Gowns……………………………...…………………………………………….43
Crazy Quilts……………………………………………………………………...48
What are the differences between Charles Frederick Worth gowns and Crazy
Quilts during the American Gilded Age?...... 54
Chapter 5: Analysis and Conclusions……………………………………………………73
What are the historic contributions that are documented as a result of comparing
Charles Frederick Worth gowns and Crazy Quilts with respect to the socio-
economic standards of their consumers?...... 73
References ...... 77
Appendix A: Elements of Art and Principles of Design of Charles Frederick Worth gown
(Dress 1)…………...... 84
Appendix B: Elements of Art and Principles of Design of Charles Frederick Worth gown
(Dress 2).…...……...... 87
Appendix C: Elements of Art and Principles of Design of Charles Frederick Worth gown
(Dress 3)…………...... 90
Appendix D: Elements of Art and Principles of Design of Crazy Quilts (Quilt
1)…………...... 93
Appendix E: Elements of Art and Principles of Design of Crazy Quilts (Quilt
2)…………...... 97
Appendix F: Elements of Art and Principles of Design of Crazy Quilts (Quilt
3)…………...... 100
7 Appendix G: Elements of Art and Principles of Design Definitions...... 105
8 List of Tables Page
Table 1. Summary of Data from Three Charles Frederick Worth Gowns Data Presented
Using Elements of Art...... 55
Table 2. Summary of Data from Three Charles Frederick Worth Gowns Data Presented
Using Principles of Design...... 57
Table 3. Summary of Data from Three Crazy Quilts Presented Using Elements of
Art…………………...... 59
Table 4. Summary of Data from Three Crazy Quilts Data Presented Using Principles of
Design…………………...... 62
Table 5. Summary of Data from Three Charles Frederick Worth Gowns Using the
Fleming Model for Artifact Study……………...... 64
Table 6. Summary of Data from Three Crazy Quilts Data Presented Using the Fleming
Model for Artifact Study…………………………..…...... …...………………….………68
9 List of Figures
Page
Figure 1. Bodice of Dress 1...... 38
Figure 2. Skirt of Dress 1...... 38
Figure 3. Bodice of Dress 2...... 39
Figure 4. Skirt of Dress 2...... 39
Figure 5. Bodice of Dress 3...... 40
Figure 6. Skirt of Dress 3...... 40
Figure 7. Quilt 1...... 41
Figure 8. Quilt 2...... 41
Figure 9. Quilt 3...... 41
10 Chapter 1: Introduction
Textile artifacts offer important insights into the fashions and cultures of the times. Historically, humans enjoy surrounding themselves with aesthetically pleasing textiles by acquiring garments and home furnishings. Affluence supports the ability of acquisition and also enables consumption of items that reflect economic status. Thorstein
Veblen (1899) described a “leisure class” who endeavored to communicate their socio- economic standing through conspicuously exhibiting their acquisitions.
Before Industrialization, participation in the American leisure class was restricted to upper-class society. However, by 1876 the increase in communication, mail, and transportation aided in a rising consumer society that allowed middle-class Americans to begin to participate in leisure activities. This democratization of access to fine goods and
“non-productive activities” occurred during a time when upper-class society, particularly women, embraced expensive global trends to secure and display their social standing.
Democratization of consumption was not evenly distributed among categories, largely due to the relationship between some goods and the activities in which they were used.
For example, only very wealthy women needed extensive collections of evening gowns, but consumers in both upper and middle classes could make use of household textiles such as decorative quilts. Although members of the leisure class typically felt a need to differentiate from less wealthy people, members of both upper and middle classes shared similarities in aesthetics, inspiration, and purpose in the items they enjoyed. This is seen with the fabric arts trend of Charles Frederick Worth gowns and Crazy Quilts in
Cincinnati, Ohio during the American Gilded Age.
11 Cincinnati was a fashionable city during the Gilded Age. Consumers bought
goods from local stores, through magazine advertisements, international travel, or created
their pieces at home. Some Cincinnati women were interested in participating in
fashionable trends, particularly Crazy Quilts, and if they could afford them, gowns made by Charles Frederick Worth. Although these two textile items differed in price, form, and access, there are similarities between the aesthetic and meanings in the lives of Cincinnati women. Addressed in this study are the similarities and/or differences between Charles
Frederick Worth gowns and Crazy Quilts, both created during the United States Gilded
Age (1865 to 1896). Crazy Quilts are a style of patchwork quilts made from irregularly shaped, mismatched patches, usually in silk fabrics of velvets and satins, with ornate embellishments, including embroidery (McMorris, 1984). Gowns created by the haute couture salon of Charles Frederick Worth were formal dresses designed in lavish styles and embellishments purchased and worn by wealthy women (De Marly, 1990). Charles
Frederick Worth gowns and Crazy Quilts both date before the American Gilded Age and continued as popular textile artifacts beyond that period in American history. Museum collections such as the Cincinnati Art Museum have substantial holdings of Charles
Frederick Worth gowns, which have been presented in exhibitions and publications
(Thieme, 1988; Amnéus, 2003). Scholars and museum curators have conducted extensive research on the topic of Crazy Quilts (Brackman, 1989; Brick, 2011; McMorris, 1984).
However, no research exists that combines the two textile arts in comparative analysis.
Fashions that are worn and furnishings that decorate people's homes typically reflect the zeitgeist, or spirit of the times, of any given period in which they are consumed
(Tortora, Keiser & Abling, 2014, p. 7). By comparing these decorative artifacts, there is
12 potential to relate two distinctive textiles arts with the life experiences of women in
Southwest Ohio and the aesthetics of the period. Using comparative analysis to document
the relationship between fashion and textile arts with American economics, culture, and society will shed new perspectives on historic textile scholarship.
The Gilded Age occurred in the United States during a time of social, political, and artistic change. As a nation, America had expanded to the West and saw an influx of
immigrants who made up the burgeoning manufacturing workforce. The American upper
class experienced immense wealth, while poverty was increasing among working and
farming classes. Social class lines were changing due to the vast wealth gained by
"barons" who invested in the railroad, oil, and steel industries. Some were persons of
inherited wealth, while others were not. It was a time when some of the wealthiest men in
American history lived, including steel tycoon Andrew Carnegie and businessman John
D. Rockefeller.
An increase in factory work and mechanization also occurred during the Gilded
Age. There was growing accessibility in manufactured goods within the United States
consumer market that made obtaining handcrafted materials easier and less expensive.
Known as the Arts and Craft Movement (1880-1920), the phenomenon developed in
England and gained popularity in the United States with artisans and consumers. The rise
of this movement was a direct reaction against industrialism and embraced craftspeople,
many of whom were women (“The Arts and Crafts Movement,” n.d.). The Arts and Craft
Movement was represented through various aspects of design, like home interiors,
fashion, and fine art. It was also communicated through newspaper and journal
advertisements to rural and isolated communities.
13 The appreciation for craft and design was also present in the movement of La
Belle Époque (The Beautiful Age) (1871-1914), an era of fashion that was enjoyed by wealthy women. The fashion movement originated in France, spread throughout Europe, and was based in ostentatious and lavish fashions made from expensive fabrics and accessories. The focus was on the overall appearance of the wearer, not just the singular components (Gundle, 1999). Women of lesser means did not have the resources or societal events to dress in the haute couture fashion of the era. For women who wanted to emulate these upscale fashions in a more affordable alternative, the option was to select fabrics of inferior quality to be made by hand, with a home sewing machine, or by a local dressmaker. The evolution of democratized fashion had not yet occurred.
The purpose of this research is to contribute to a deeper understanding of both
Charles Frederick Worth gowns and Crazy Quilts from 1876 to 1890 within the
Cincinnati region. These items are paired with prior research about life and economics during the American Gilded Age, the Arts and Crafts Movement, and La Belle Époque to expand the aesthetic meaning of these trends. Despite the wealth of documented information about Charles Frederick Worth gowns and quilt histories, a comparison of these two items does not exist. Therefore, this opportunity to investigate the intersection between Worth dresses and Crazy Quilts will add a valuable contribution to scholarly literature.
Dates
The dates chosen range from 1876 to 1890. The research begins with the year
1876, which is during the Centennial Exposition. The time 1890 was chosen as the end of the study because it coincides with the beginning of the Progressive Era (1890-1920) in
14 the United States. The dates selected for this research also coincide with important aesthetic shifts in the fine arts and fashion industries, the Arts and Crafts movement
(1880-1920) and La Belle Époque (1871-1914).
The set of chosen dates occurred during the career of couturier Charles Frederick
Worth, who was one of the most famous fashion designers of the late 19th century for
wealthy women. A Worth gown was “made to measure” in either the London or Paris
atelier. To wear a Worth gown, a socialite from the United States was required to either
travel to a designer’s salon in Europe or order a gown from an illustrated sketch that was
fitted to her size (Strodder-Davis, 2015). Such action insured special and thoughtful
consideration for a singular dress, which cost a considerable amount of money for the
time. Not calculating shipping or travel costs, a Charles Frederick Worth gown averaged
$10,000 for an American customer (Schiro, 1982; “Topics; Extravagant Charges; Dress
and Taxes,” 1982). The average daily wage in the United States in 1876 was $2.18, and
by 1890 it increased to $2.52 (“Wages in the United States and Europe,” 1898).
Limitations
This study was limited by the availability of historic textile artifacts and by their
accessibility to the researcher. It cannot be determined with certainty whether the items
studied are fully representative of the Worth gowns and Crazy Quilts owned by
Cincinnati residents of the era. A relatively small sample of garments were selected based
on convenience.
Delimitations
The focus of this study is based on the exterior aspects of Charles Frederick
Worth gowns and Crazy Quilts, which excludes interior construction and fabric. The
15 gowns and Crazy Quilts used in this study are from the Fashion Arts and Textiles collection at the Cincinnati Art Museum. This institution was chosen due to the institution’s selection of Charles Frederick Worth gowns and Crazy Quilts within the required timeframe.
Quilts were required to be in an identifiable Crazy style, made with irregular
(rather than repeating patterns) patches and embroidery. The Crazy Quilts must have been created by women between 1876 to 1890 within the United States and currently housed at the Cincinnati Art Museum. Gowns must have been designed by Charles
Frederick Worth for women living in Cincinnati between the years 1876 to 1890 and currently housed at the Cincinnati Art Museum. These gowns were selected because they have bustles and were designed for a semi-formal or formal occasion.
Cincinnati, Ohio served as the base for the research due to the immense wealth earned by industry in the city during the Gilded Age. As a result of the economic opportunity, wealthy families began to participate in the city's social scene by attending operas and hosting balls and parties.
16 Glossary of Terms
Arts and Crafts Movement "A time when many people were working together to make arts and crafts popular in the second half of the 19th century." (Arts and Crafts
Movement. (2017) Merriam Webster.com. Retrieved on October 13, 2017 from
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Arts%20and%20Crafts%20Movement).
Atelier (French. Workroom or Studio) “Large dressmaking establishment, particularly
one of the famous French dressmakers.” (Picken, M. B. (1973). The fashion dictionary.
New York, Funk & Wagnalls [1973]).
Bustle "General term describing exceptional fullness at the back of the skirt of a woman’s
dress." (Tortora, Keiser, & Abling, 2014, p. 40).
Charles Frederick Worth "Worth was the innovator in the presentation of gowns on live
mannequins and was the first to sell models to be copied in the United States and
England." (Tortora, Keiser, & Abling, 2014, p. 472).
Couture A Façon (French.) “Tailoring.” (Coleman, 1989).
Couturier (French.) "Male designer or proprietor of a couture house." (Tortora, Keiser, &
Abling, 2014, p. 96)
Cuirass “A long jacket ending in a point at the front and fitting smoothly over the hips.”
(Tortora & Eubank, 2010, p. 390).
Crazy Cloth "A cotton fabric with a woven or printed pattern consisting of various colors
and shapes in irregular repeats." (Tortora & Merkel, 1996, p.147).
Engageants (French.) “Sleeves ended below the elbow, finishing in one or more ruffles.”
(Tortora, Keiser, & Abling, 2014, p. 282).
17 Formal Attire "Clothes worn by men and women at formal social functions. Women’s dresses designed for formal occasions are often called formal gowns, evening gowns, or ball gowns." (Tortora, Keiser, & Abling, 2014, p. 167).
Haute Couture (French. High Fashion) "As defined by the Chambre Syndicale De La
Couture Parisienne, firms that create models that may be sold to private customers or to other segments of the fashion industry who also acquire the right to reproduce the design." (Tortora, Keiser, & Abling, 2014, p. 208).
La Belle Époque (French. The Beautiful Age) “A period of high artistic or cultural development.” (Belle Époque. (2018) Merriam Webster.com. Retrieved on July 24, 2018 from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/belle%20epoque).
Petites Maines (French. Tiny Hands) “professional sewers.” (Coleman, 1989).
Quilt (verb) "To stitch through two or more layers of cloth that generally have batting made of cotton, wool, down, or manufactured fiber between the layers. Stitching is done by hand, machine, or thermal process in patterns or tufts." (Tortora & Merkel, 1996, p.454).
(noun) “Bed covering quilted, by hand or machine, through top, filling, and lining; often done in beautiful designs or following the pattern in the quilt top.” (Picken, M. B. (1973).
The fashion dictionary. New York, Funk & Wagnalls [1973]).
Salon “…Drawing room or reception room. Also, a showroom used for exhibition purposes.” (Picken, M. B. (1973). The fashion dictionary. New York, Funk & Wagnalls
[1973]).
Zeitgeist (German.) "Spirit of the times." (Tortora, Keiser, & Abling, 2014, p. 7).
18 Chapter 2: Review of Literature
In this chapter, related literature is presented to support this research with the
purpose to expand on the knowledge of both Charles Frederick Worth gowns and Crazy
Quilts, specifically from 1876 to 1890 within Cincinnati, Ohio. Literature was sourced
from scholars of fashion, quilting, and Cincinnati history. Information was also gathered
from museum-sponsored publications, academic papers, biographical texts, and through
personal conversations.
Addressed and discussed in the research are lifestyles of both American wealthy
and working women in relation to the noted textile crafts. A better understanding of the
importance and standing of the chosen textile crafts in the women’s lives is developed,
alongside an understanding of women’s agency, and whether their lives are reflected in
the textile work.
Societal Dress During the Gilded Age
A transition from a farm-based workforce to an urban industrialized center
occurred in Cincinnati during the Gilded Age. The “Queen City” emerged as an industrial
city for its manufactured goods that included leather, lumber, and beer (Scranton, 1999).
The impact of industry attracted a wealthy social class that was part of a growing league
of millionaires, known as tycoons.
Leisure Class
The female members of the wealthy social class in Cincinnati (socialites) were
afforded luxuries that were rare in any other socio-economic classes. Everyday experiences included travel, education, and attending galas (Hughes, n.d.). Such lifestyles required expensive clothing, specifically evening wear to be worn during times of
19 celebration or while attending art-related performances. Women purchased gowns made
overseas in couture salons in Europe or from local dressmakers who could copy the
popular fashion of the time (Amnéus, 2003). Fashion is defined by Nystrom (1928) as
“nothing more nor less than the prevailing style at any given time” (p. 4).
The evening wear of an American socialite was custom-made from either an
American or international atelier (Schorman, 1998). In the city of Cincinnati,
dressmakers replicated the latest fashion trends. Socialites often sought gowns from
international designers, but when faced with time, budget, or personal constraints,
dressmakers would be used. In her 2003 text, A Separate Sphere: Dressmakers in
Cincinnati’s Golden Age 1877-1922, Cynthia Amnéus reported that dressmakers within
Cincinnati were primarily single women from middle-class backgrounds. Successful dressmakers understood the fashionable trends of the time and were able to replicate the intricate construction. Information about these fashions were attainable through magazines or visits to Europe. It was not the dressmaker’s responsibility to create a personal aesthetic, rather dressmakers would sketch or purchase the designs. A dressmaker would either receive fabric from an international salon or imitate a popular style with fabrics sourced from the local area. An example can be seen in a gown designed by Cincinnati-based dressmaker Selina Cadwallader, who created an evening bodice from floral fabric bought from the House of Worth salon. Discussed in Amneus’ text (2003), Cincinnati socialite Mary Swift Thoms purchased a reception gown that was created by Charles Frederick Worth in 1877 or 1878 in a blue satin fabric with accents of floral silk framing the neckline and quarter sleeves. Thoms also purchased the same floral silk fabric to be customized into a bodice, which then made the dress appropriate for
20 evening social occasions. This multi-use of the House of Worth materials provides an insight into the value of the designer’s aesthetic and products by a Cincinnati socialite, both overseas and at home.
This example illustrates the differing role of the dressmaker from that of the couturier (male designer of a couture house). The work created by a dressmaker is couture a façon (tailoring), in which the dressmaker acts as a technician whose product is based on the decisions of the client (Coleman, 1989). Couture a façon was the primary function of making clothing before the onset of the haute couture industry, which began after the opening of the House of Worth et Bobergh. Haute couture fashion is based on the creative decisions and control of the couturier that were then created by the salon's petites maines (tiny hands) or professional sewers (Coleman, 1989).
If a Cincinnati socialite chose to purchase a gown from across the Atlantic, the
city of Paris was the preferred destination. Many designers catered to the needs of
wealthy American women, either through personal appointments that would take place at
the salon or through the mail, once the house obtained the woman’s measurements.
Authors of Dressmakers of France (1956), Mary Brooks Picken and Dora Loues Miller,
noted the varied specializations and aesthetics that characterized the most prized and
successful fashion designers of late 19th century Paris. Among those designs listed in the
publication are Doucet and Redfern. The House of Doucet was founded in 1818 and grew
successful by producing lingerie, and later, evening wear and specialty fur. Redfern was a
British house based in Paris specializing in sportswear (Picken & Miller, 1956). The most
dominant salon in Picken and Miller's text was the House of Worth, which was favored
by wealthy women across an international spectrum. The creator of the House of Worth
21 was Englishman Charles Frederick Worth, who is credited as the “first” fashion brand in modern history.
Charles Frederick Worth
Worth opened his salon in 1858 and worked as a couturier until his death in 1895.
Worth’s family continued the House until it shuttered in the early 1950s. During Charles
Frederick Worth’s lifetime, House of Worth garments were worn by royal and wealthy women, whose appearances were reported in female-oriented lifestyle publications. This association with famous women developed the House of Worth into a brand that became a household name to persons outside of its customer base. This was the first occurrence of a fashion house becoming a world-wide phenomenon, carrying name recognition associated with fashion of the highest quality.
In their text chronicling the life of Worth, De La Haye and Mendes (2014) wrote that his entry into the apparel business began as an adolescent working for a milliner. As he came into adulthood, Worth worked as a salesman and later constructed garments. He then immigrated to Paris, and through his technical and social skills, Worth was able to rise through the ranks at a French fashion house. This gave him the technical skills to create a business that specialized in couture gowns, which he did in 1858. Worth’s career received a boost once he developed close relationships with Austrian Princess Pauline von Metternich and Empress Eugenie. Both of these women’s fame helped showcase
Worth designs through an international lens and become associated with upper class society. This began the profile of the Worth customer, which was that of a woman with both financial and social connections (De Marly, 1990).
22 Worth partnered with apparel businessman Otto Bobergh, who according to De
La Haye and Mendes (2014), was more experienced. The business began as a
dressmaking shop in 1858 under the label “Worth and Bobergh” ("Worth and Bobergh,"
n.d.). The business closed in 1876 due to the Franco-Prussian War. According to De La
Haye and Mendes (2014), the closing led Bobergh to retire and leave the business. Within a year the war ended and Worth revised his salon into the House of Worth. With the addition of his two sons, Gaston and Jean Phillip, the salon grew in both design and management. Thieme (1988) credited Worth’s success to his ability to manage a burgeoning business, his innovative creativity, and his prime social skills within a discriminating society.
Worth’s salon used sewing machines and patterns to create gowns, while the cutting and embroidery were created by hand (Shonfield, 1982). The use of machinery was a reaction to the high number of orders from customers (Coleman, 1989). Shonfield
(1982) found that the salon often replicated designs to better manage the large number of orders. Worth kept a filing system for every customer to avoid duplicated designs for individual women. Worth's decision to include machinery as a part of the garment making process allowed for the haute couture industry to become a commercialized, made-to-order business (White, 1973). This was paradoxical because the company was built upon elite clientele and expensive designs (White, 1973).
Aesthetic
The signature Worth aesthetic was not identified by a distinct style or trend; rather, the designs were created to reflect the clients' personalities and desired styles (De
La Haye & Mendes, 2014). Inspiration was often sought through historical references,
23 which ranged from paintings to past fashionable silhouettes (De Marly, 1990). Expensive materials were characteristic of gowns created by the House of Worth. The typical fabrics
Worth used were handmade lace, silk, and brocades, which were placed underneath hand embroidery created by specialists within the house (Troy, 2003).
Fashion of the Gilded Age From 1876-1890
Fashion created by the House of Worth worn by American socialites represented a small, yet privileged portion of Gilded Age society. This group wore clothing with fine fabric and ornate embellishments, which were conscious comments of their wealth and femininity. Women from wealthy families were expected to wear appropriate yet stylish clothing, manage a home staff, and partake in society. This was a form of social thought that expected upper class Anglo-American women to be “pious and pure” within and outside their domestic sphere (Cathy, 2006). This expectation for women to be social and fashionable creatures occurred during another phenomenon in upper class society, La
Belle Époque (the beautiful age).
According to fashion historian Valerie Steele (2004), La Belle Époque was a time of radical change in fashion. La Belle Époque was a time of grand and lavish fashions in
France. French socialites were considered the height of fashion and were mirrored by socialites in the United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States. Former Vogue editor
Diana Vreeland once described La Belle Époque woman as “an elegant and graceful creature” (Steele, 2004, p. 315).
According to Thieme (1998, p.19), there are two elements that define evening wear dress of the era: (a) a tightly-fitted bodice with a skirt shell that is tacked with an array of decorative fabrics and (b) a skirt with matching fabric that serves as trim on the
24 bodice and vice versa. In 1876, a transition occurred from the prevalent style of the symmetrically voluminous crinoline dress to a garment with an extended bodice and narrow skirt that formed in a shelf-like shape extending from the wearer's bottom, known as the bustle (Thieme, 1998). The garments fitted tightly over the wearers' hips and the skirt tops were fitted close to the body by way of stitched pleats (Thieme, 1993). Bodices were long-waisted and identified as cuirass bodices. The term cuirass refers to “a long jacket ending in a point at the front and fitting smoothly over the hips” (Tortora &
Eubank, 2010, p. 390).
Daytime necklines were modest with bosoms that were covered with fabric to the neck. The neckline could also be decorated with embellishments of ribbon or fabric that either contrasted or highlighted the fabric of the gown. Depending on the responsibilities and occupation of the wearer, day gowns also incorporated ornate fabrics. A similar style is present in Pierre-Auguste Renoir’s La Parisienne ("The Blue Lady") (1874). The figure shown is of Madame Henriette Henriot (National Museum Wales, n.d.). Henriot is portrayed wearing an all-blue ensemble with a long-sleeved jacket and full bustle skirt that is decorated with ribbon embellishments at the wrists, neck, and skirt. Shoulders moved slightly below the natural shoulder line and accentuated the wearer’s bust. The constant element of both daywear and evening wear was a bustle skirt, which was enhanced through draping for evening looks. This silhouette was covered, yet revealed the shape of the woman’s body, and also restricted her by preventing full movements.
Wearing the bustle made walking difficult for women, especially in the outdoors.
To maintain a fashionable silhouette without showing the ankles or lower legs, wearers picked up the ends of their skirts. Formal gowns created in the late 1870s were created
25 with linen tapes sewn inside of the skirt. This allowed the wearer to lift the skirt's sides,
which made the front of the skirt smooth, and a full bustle that was filled with draped
fabric (Thieme, 1993).
The display and revealing of skin was only appropriate for female evening wear
attire, but it came with restrictions. If a woman did not have any clothing coverage over
arms and legs the outfit was considered inappropriate and was a comment on her moral
character (Sidlauskas, 2001). Popular evening wear fashions consisted of corseted gowns
with a shelf-like bustle with strap-like sleeves encasing the shoulders (Gernsheim, 1963).
Wedding gowns were also worn for formal social occasions. This was due to societal
custom, which required young brides to wear their wedding dresses to social gatherings
(Thieme, 1993).
Key components of formal gowns throughout the late 19th century were rich
textiles, jewel tone coloring, and intricate construction. Purple hues were a particularly
common choice in Victorian aesthetics, the Arts and Crafts Movements, and La Belle
Époque because the inclusion of purple displayed a sense of modernity. The color mauve was invented in 1856 by chemist William Perikin and magenta was patented in 1859, making these popular hues recent discoveries in the period of this study (Ribeyrol, 2016).
Fabric types commonly used in haute couture fashion included faille, satin, and silk (De Marly, 1990). Fabric in matching colors were popular, which was a carryover from the crinoline fashions of the 1860s. This could be achieved by purchasing multiple yards or dying fabric in similar hues.
The Arts and Crafts Movement
26 As fashion and Western society were experiencing a cultural shift with La Belle
Époque, the Arts and Crafts Movement was also occurring. According to Obniski (n.d.), the Arts and Crafts Movement was built on promoting the importance of the craft, an item that is created by hand and is not replicated in factories. Inspiration was sought from
Antiquarian and International decorative arts. This art style reached an international audience with the founding of the firm Morris, Marshall, and Faulkner by English designer William Morris in 1861 in England, which was the world’s most industrialized nation (Obniski, n.d.).
The Movement grew in popularity in the United States and influenced jewelry, pottery, and other American decorative arts. It was particularly significant in the popular textile art of quilting, which was made accessible to a wide range of American audiences through the use of magazines and home journals ("Advertisements”, 1887;
"Advertisements", 1885).
Quilting was a common form of expression for women of various social and economic backgrounds due to its association as a “feminine skill.” Quilting, a cultural tradition traced from European immigrants to the United States (Derrick & McShannock,
2009), was also a common form of material culture in American rural communities. Quilt making was taught to women in both public and private educational settings and provided them not only sewing skills, but also with the knowledge of family history, mathematics, aesthetics, and even chemistry (MacDowell et al., n.d.).
To quilt, a woman needed to know how to sew either by hand, machine, or both.
According to Susan Strasser (1982), women would assemble to sew while they "talked about sewing, showed off their work, and exchanged ideas, methods, and hints" (p.134).
27 Women of all classes participated in social sewing, although wealthy women had more time and access to attend gatherings. Some enjoyed the act of hand sewing because it allowed them to showcase their skills. A finished piece could be displayed to a woman's family or group of friends within her home or at public occasions such as fairs or contests
(Strasser, 1982). Machine sewing was also a popular method due to the affordability of the machine and efficiency if offered. For women who were not wealthy, owning a sewing machine not only lessened the time it took to construct an item, it also provided a means for outside income if needed (Strasser, 1982).
Quilting had the potential to showcase the maker's creativity, and also her knowledge of trends in art and fashion. Crazy Quilts were popular during the late
Victorian era for the ornate shapes and embroidery made from scraps of silks, chintz, and organza (“Crazy quilt,” 2014). While a quilt maker could draw upon her artistry and design a Crazy Quilt with loose scraps compiled based on the quilter’s eye, creating
Crazy Quilts did not rely on individual artistry because they were often made through pre-made kits. They could be sewn either by hand or machine sewing, or a combination of both methods.
Crazy Quilts
Tortora and Merkel (1996) define Crazy Quilts, also known as Crazy Cloth, as "a cotton fabric with a woven or printed pattern consisting of various colors and shapes in irregular repeats" (p.147). The origin of Crazy Quilts is unknown but is theorized to be based on Japanese decorative arts, which became popular during at the 1876 Centennial
Exposition in Philadelphia. This event is credited as one of the first displays of Japanese culture to American audiences (Kiracofe & Huff, 1993). McMorris (1984) speculated that
28 a display of Japanese screens made from textured and quilted materials or Japanese
"cracked-ice" ceramics at the Centennial Exposition might have begun the Crazy Quilt
trend. The Japanese "cracked-ice" ceramic style was created by forming broken shards in irregular patterns (Von Gwinner, 1988).
The trend of Crazy Quilts may have also grown due to an increase in silk, which
was considered expensive to produce prior to industrialization. The fabric became more
affordable and attainable for American consumers when its production was fully
industrialized in the United States (McMorris, 1984). Quilts created before the rise of
Crazy Quilts were primarily made from wool or cotton fabrics. These fabrics became less
popular as silk-based pieces became fashionable, which included Log Cabins, String, and
Crazy Quilt designs (Von Gwinner, 1988). Kiracofe and Huff (1993) found that during
the height of the Crazy Quilt trend, manufacturers sold silk scraps that would have been
discarded from the manufacturing processes.
Crazy Quilts do not physically match the definitions of quilts due to a lack of an
inner layer of batting and a lack of uniformity in style that was characteristic of other
coverings of the time (Jung & Paoletti, 1987). For reinforcement, fabrics were tied or
tacked due to the thickness of the fabrics (Von Gwinner, 1988). These fabrics were
difficult to maintain and wash, which gives the quilts a sense of ornament and lavishness.
Fashion historians Jo B. Paoletti and Kathy M. Jung conducted a study to test
their hypothesis that the trend’s aesthetics changed between 1882 and 1910. They highlighted the longevity and interest held by the general public that resulted in multiple aesthetic changes within the Crazy Quilt trend. They analyzed the embroidery and shapes in the quilts alongside the materials made to create the quilts, finding changes in style
29 depending on the construction dates of the quilts. From the mid-1880s, quilts were more
likely to be painted and embroidered with ornate motifs, like fans of the period and were
likely to be made from silk. The later quilts were more likely to be made from silk, cotton, or wool and to have large patches. The authors concluded that their survey of quilts reflected a trend away from complex designs to more practical compositions (Jung
& Paoletti, 1987).
Crazy Quilts were small in size and used as decoration for the home (Von
Gwinner, 1988). Brackman (1989) refers to them as “slumber throws” and describes them as fragile, decorative items that were used to decorate furniture (p. 140). McMorris
(1984) found that creating a Crazy Quilt gave women the opportunity to showcase their
domestic skills: “Not only were they creating something out of nothing, but in the
process, they were seen as making artistic statements that linked them with the arts-and- crafts movements of the day,” (p.15).
The use of decorative elements, like a Crazy Quilt, reflects a Victorian ideal that places the home as “a shelter from the pernicious outside world” (Brackman, 1989 p.
140). A married woman in the Victorian United States, no matter her economic status, was expected to maintain and create a home that incorporated her craftwork, also known as fancywork (McMorris, 1984).
Fancywork was hand sewn embroidery on Crazy Quilts that was common around
the outlines of patches (Brackman, 1989). The design of fancywork stitches varied, but
there were some identified by their design. Popular examples include the herringbone, the
feather, the blanket, and the chevron stitch. These stitches only served an ornamental
30 purpose and reflected what Brackman (1989) calls the “Victorian penchant for covering
any unadorned straight line” (p. 109).
The philosophy behind fancywork was to create beautiful objects from scraps of
fabric and other materials. Crazy Quilts demonstrate this philosophy by combining ornate
embellishments with small bits of cloth that make an art piece.
Aside from fancywork, appliqués were commonly in the designs of Crazy Quilts.
Popular motifs included flowers, birds, butterflies, and insects. Depending on the date of
the quilt, an appliqué of an American was often sewn into the design. The inclusion of an
American flag, shown in motion or lying flat, and was especially popular during the
Centennial Exposition (McMorris, 1984).
Fans were also popular designs for appliqués. McMorris (1984) theorized that the
symbol was sourced from Japanese culture, which was popularized by artist James
Whistler. The artist often used fans as wall decoration in his work. Flowers were also
popular motifs in quilt designs and were sewn to look as if they were plucked from the
garden. According to McMorris (1984), the inclusion of flowers might represent an emotion or message. For example, a rose might indicate love, while a daisy typically means innocence. This trend was made famous by the influence of William Morris, who incorporated floral designs into his work.
Images of human figures were also incorporated into the design of some Crazy
Quilt. McMorris (1984) found the most commonly used work was by English artist Kate
Greenaway. Patterns were made to appear as Greenaway’s illustrations, which were
featured in popular children’s books. Appliqués like the Greenaway illustrations were sourced from patterns found in books and magazines oriented towards women.
31 All aspects of Crazy Quilts were discussed in articles and advertisements in ladies’ journals and magazines. Content highlighted Crazy Quilt trends, instructions on how to create them, and suggestions on how to use the items to decorate the home.
Advertisements featured images of Crazy Quilts with information about how consumers could purchase the items through the American Postal Service. For example, the Ladies’
Home Journal and Practical Housekeeper featured advertisements that sold Crazy Quilt silk scraps and patterns. An 1885 advertisement from Brainerd & Armstrong Spool Silk
Company sold factory ends in “all good silk and beautiful colors” to create patchwork for
Crazy Quilts (“Advertisements,” 1885, p. 4). An advertisement in the May 1887 edition of Ladies' Home Journal and Practical Housekeeper sold kits filled with “over 100 beautiful variations of silk” to create Crazy patchwork (p.6), while another advertisement in the 1887 January edition showcased a “Free Crazy Patchwork Book” with a subscription to the magazine (p.11).
The trend was so significant to women’s lives that it inspired a satirical poem titled The Crazy Quilt (1890), which was featured in the October 25, 1890 issue of Good
Housekeeping magazine (Pillsbury, 2016):
Oh, say, can you see by the dawn’s early light,
what you failed to perceive at the twilight’s last gleaming;
A crazy concern that through the long night
O’er the bed where you slept was so saucily streaming;
the silk patches so fair,
round, three-cornered, and square
gives proof that the lunatic bed-quilt is there.
32 Oh, the crazy-quilt mania triumphantly raves,
And maid, wife, and widow are bound as its slaves
On that quilt dimly seen as you rouse from your sleepy
our long-missing necktie in silence reposes,
And the filoselle insects that over it creep,
A piece of your vest half-conceals, half discloses;
there is kensington-stitch
in designs that are rich,
snow-flake, arrasene, point russe, and all sich.
Oh, the crazy-quilt mania, how long will it rave?
And how long will fair woman be held its slave?
And where is the wife who so vauntingly swore that nothing on earth her affections could smother? she crept from your side at the chiming of four
And is down in the parlour at work on another.
your breakfasts are spoiled,
And your dinners half-boiled,
And your efforts to get a square supper are foiled
By the crazy-quilt mania that fiendishly raves,
And to which all the women are absolute slaves.
And thus it has been since the panic began,
in many loved homes it has wrought desolation,
And cursed is the power by many a man,
33 that has brought him so close to the verge of starvation,
But make it she must,
she will do it or bust,
Beg, swap, and buy pieces or get them on trust,
Oh, the crazy-quilt mania, may it soon cease to rave
in the land of the free and the home of the brave.
—unidentified (p. 10)
This poem illustrates that not only were Crazy Quilts a well-marketed trend, as
seen in the advertisements discussed previously, but they were also a creative outlet for
women. Creating a Crazy Quilt was an opportunity for artistic expression
(McMorris,1984) and participation in a fashionable trend. The art of Crazy Quilts was
based on embracing ornate design, meaningful symbols, and fine fabrics. A woman could
join her peers and piece together a Crazy Quilt, or she could produce one in solace, away
from her daily domestic duties. As evident in the Good Housekeeping poem, the art of
Crazy Quilts directed a woman’s attention away from everyday life to create her craft.
Theoretical Framework
Thorstein Veblen’s theory of leisure class (1899) served as the theoretical framework for the analysis of Charles Frederick Worth gowns and Crazy Quilts as fashionable textile arts. According to Veblen, persons associated with a society’s upper class did not partake in occupations that were associated with persons of lower classes, which then provided a sense of distinction. This connects to the act of what Veblen calls
“conspicuous consumption," in which the wealthy purchased clothing based on fashionable, rather than utilitarian purposes (p. 118). The leisure class preferred clothing
34 that was expensive and fashionable because it displayed how the wearers did not have to
engage in physical labor.
Veblen found that participation in conspicuous consumption was ingrained into
the social fabric (p. 118). Robison (2016) noted that leisure life and conspicuous
consumption have became a form of life that was so ingrained it was virtually unnoticed
by people of the time. The desire to participate was not just held by the persons in the leisure class, but it was replicated by those in lower-economic classes (Robison, 2016).
Veblen’s theory of leisure class is relevant to this study because Charles Frederick
Worth gowns and Crazy Quilts are products of conspicuous consumption. Both were crafted with expensive fabrics and embellishments and did not serve utilitarian purposes.
These items were also designed based on trends of the time, as indicated by their color,
shape, design, and textile.
With this understanding of social, economic, and artistic influences from 1876 to
1890 during the American Gilded Age, the following research questions guided the
research:
1. What are the similarities between Charles Frederick Worth gowns and Crazy
Quilts during the American Gilded Age?
2. What are the differences between Charles Frederick Worth gowns and Crazy
Quilts during the American Gilded Age?
35 3. What are the historic contributions that are documented as a result of comparing
Charles Frederick Worth gowns and Crazy Quilts with respect to the socio-
economic standards of their consumers?
36 Chapter 3: Methodology
Analysis of the history of fashion allows the researcher the ability to look at a
phenomenon as an observable fact (Flynn & Foster, 2009). The methods for this project
are qualitative research methods. Research materials included historic costume, quilts,
and photography, which are viable forms of documentation of past lives (Flynn & Foster,
2009).
Three Charles Frederick Worth gowns and Crazy Quilts were chosen for the
research. Figures 1 through 9 depict these artifacts. All selected artifacts have a
connection to the city of Cincinnati within the 1876-1890 timeframe. The items selected
were sourced from the Cincinnati Art Museum, which houses approximately 15,000
fashion and textile artifacts (“Fashion Arts and Textiles,” n.d).
For context concerning the historical and cultural aspects of the items being
analyzed, the E. McClung Fleming’s Model for artifact study (1974) was utilized in the
study. The E. McClung Fleming’s Model for artifact study (1974) examines the human
experience through the study of objects. Within Fleming’s Model for artifact study, there
are four operations: identification, evaluation, cultural analysis, and interpretation, based
on five properties: history, material, construction, design, and function (Dimock-Quaglia,
1999). This method was chosen because it allows the researcher to break down all aspects of the item. Examples of the E. McClung Fleming’s Model applied to quilts is present in
Cynthia Dimock-Quaglia’s study of the “Vampire” quilt (1999). The researcher utilized all aspects of the Fleming Model to gain an understanding of a Bear’s Paw quilt made in the late 19th century by Mercy Lena Brown. The researcher was able to uncover, “an extraordinary tale from a seemingly ordinary quilt...that helps us understand a facet of
37 late 19th century rural Rhode Island culture,” (Dimock-Quaglia, 1999, para 49). Scholars
of dress have also utilized the E. McClung Fleming’s Model. One prominent example is
seen through Mariela Irene Huergo’s (n.d.) analysis of three mid-century dresses.
Through the Fleming Model, the researcher was able to note the clothing pieces’ origin, their cultural significance to the wearer, and the items’ relationship to the dominant silhouettes of the time.
Two instruments were created for the study, which were drawn from established research methods. The first instrument was a reporting analysis form outlining the elements of both art and design (see Appendix G for definitions). The second instrument incorporated properties of the Fleming Model of artifact study. These instruments acted as guides that segmented visual and biographical aspects of the Charles Frederick Worth gowns and Crazy Quilts. Analyses of the items were conducted in the Fashion Arts and
Textiles department that is located in the Cincinnati Art Museum. The analyses were conducted on two different appointments scheduled a week apart. The curatorial assistant of the Fashion Arts and Textiles department, Adam MacPharlain, was present for both meetings, allowing for the opportunity of question and answer sessions with him. Data were documented through both photograph and personal notes taken by the researcher.
The data were collected in a systematic way following the instrument templates.
These instruments provided a consistent and systematic way to gather data for later
comparison. The Worth gowns and Crazy Quilts depict specific creative details that can
be illustrated through this model. The wearing of Worth haute couture gowns
demonstrates the utility of the item; however, the adornment and silhouette of the
garments evoke artistic thought through line and design. This relationship is also present
38 in the make and design of Crazy Quilts. Because of the flat surface, the item could be used for warmth and coverage, but lack of batting allows the object to be used as a wall hanging or bed covering for display purposes.
39
Figure 1. Bodice of Dress 1
Figure 2. Skirt of Dress 1
40
Figure 3. Bodice of Dress 2
Figure 4. Skirt of Dress 2
41
Figure 5. Bodice of Dress 3
Figure 6. Skirt of Dress 3
42
Figure 7. Quilt 1
Figure 8. Quilt 2
Figure 9. Quilt 3
43 Chapter 4: Results Using the data collection instruments, a set of results were prepared in response to
Research Questions 1 and 2 to present observations of similarities and differences in the
aesthetics of the three Charles Frederick Worth gowns and three Crazy Quilts in this
sample. Review and reflection of the data were gathered and formed a basis for
answering the third research question, "What are the historic contributions that are
documented as a result of comparing Charles Frederick Worth gowns and Crazy Quilts with respect to the socio-economic lifestyles of their creators?" Raw data are presented in
Appendix A, Appendix B, Appendix C, Appendix D, Appendix E, and Appendix F. The
tables below display information gathered from analyzing three Charles Frederick Worth
gowns and Crazy Quilts at the Cincinnati Art Museum.
What are the similarities between Charles Frederick Worth gowns and Crazy Quilts
during the American Gilded Age?
Gowns. All gowns were donated to the Cincinnati Art Museum and have accreditation
through catalog cards from the museum that were created by curators. These garments
have labels sewn into the bodice that read, “Worth. 7 Rue de la Paix. Paris” with narrow
sleeves, cuirass bodices, and bustle skirts.
Construction. Cincinnati Art Museum Curatorial Assistant Adam MacPharlain
stated that a portion of the gowns was created by the use of a sewing machine (Personal
conversation, January 23, 2018). The decorative elements of the dress, including beading,
lace, and three-dimensional objects, were created by hand stitching.
44 Form. All gowns analyzed in the study are three-dimensional. These historical
artifacts have cuirass style bodices and full skirts with bustle attachments and draped
overskirts. As mentioned in Chapter 2, cuirass style bodices are jacket-like bodices that
extend over the waist, attach through a center front, and cover the arms to at least the
elbows. Dress 2 and Dress 3 have detail on the sleeves that references engageants,
sleeves that end below the elbow with lace finishing (Tortora, Keiser, & Abling, 2014).
These decorative embellishments are an example of Charles Frederick Worth’s interest in
historical references (De Marly, 1990).
The bodice of Dress 1 is in the cuirass style, which is determined by the long
torso. The bodice is in deep burgundy. The sleeves of the bodice reach the wearer’s
wrists and are upturned. The shoulders are placed slightly below the natural shoulder line.
The neckline is in the forward point style. There are velvet accents on the neckline that
are shaped to appear as florals. The accents are in a deep purple hue. There are ten fabric
covered buttons on the center front. The back of the bodice is plain. The lower portion of
the back is pleated and bisected.
Due to its floor length style and the manner in which fabric is gathered fully to the back waist, the skirt of Dress 1 was determined to be in the bustle style. The skirt is in the
same deep burgundy color as the bodice. The front of the skirt has the same velvet
accents as the bodice and is shaped to appear as flowers. The accents are located on the
sides of the skirt. The center front of the skirt is pleated and has purple seed beads filling
the pleats.
The waist has a folded silk band that covers the top of the pleats. The bottom skirt
is decorated with knife pleats or long and thin pleats. The back of the skirt has gathered
45 fabric near the top of the skirt. When filled with a bustle, this gathered fabric creates a
bulging silhouette. Underneath the bustle is bisected fabric that folds at the center front.
The folds are decorated with the same velvet accents on the front of the skirt and the
bodice.
The bodice of Dress 2 is in the cuirass style, which is indicated by the long torso.
The bodice is colored eggshell with matching lace located at the neck and end of sleeves.
The sleeves have two layers, silk on top and lace underneath. The collar is high-standing and has two layers, silk on top and lace underneath. The shoulders are ruched and create a
“puffed” appearance, and are placed slightly below the natural shoulder line. The center of the bodice has fifteen round fabric-covered buttons. The front of the torso has two princess seams. The back of the bodice has seven princess seams. The lower back of the bodice is pleated and bisected.
The skirt of Dress 2 is in the bustle style, which is determined by the floor-length and the gathering of fabric on the back. The skirt is in a matching eggshell color as the bodice. The front of the skirt has six princess seams. The skirt gathers at the center of the skirt with multiple elongated pearl accents. Underneath the skirt is fabric that is decorated with knife pleats, or long and thin pleats, made from lace. When filled with a bustle, this gathered fabric creates a bulging silhouette. The bottom of the skirt has a band that is decorated with knife pleats, or long and thin pleats, made from lace.
The bodice of Dress 3 is in the cuirass style, which is determined by the long torso. The bodice is in sapphire blue. The sleeves end at the elbows with upturned fabric that is decorated with floral silk in an East Asian design. Eggshell colored lace is attached
at the bottom of the sleeves. The collar is high-standing and has two layers, silk on top
46 and lace underneath. The shoulders are ruched and create a “puffed” appearance, and are
placed slightly below the natural shoulder line. The neckline is in a plunging round style
that is decorated with eggshell colored lace and bow-tie ribbon in a sapphire blue color that matches the gown. There are no visible buttons on the front of the bodice. There are two vertical stripes on the center front of the bodice that match the fabric of the sleeves.
The front of the bodice has two princess seams on each side.
The back of the bodice has three princess seams. The lower portion of the back is
pleated and bisected. A strip of eggshell colored lace decorates the neck. The cuffs of the
sleeves are upturned and folded. Underneath the cuffs are eggshell colored lace that
matches the neckline and folded strips of sapphire blue cloth that coordinates with the
bodice fabric.
The skirt of Dress 3 is in the bustle style, which is determined by the floor-length
and the gathering of fabric on the back. The skirt is in a sapphire blue color that matches
bodice. The front of the skirt has an apron-like attachment underneath the bustle, which is
in a floral fabric that matches the cuffs and torso of the bodice. The apron-like attachment
sits on top of eggshell colored pleated fabric that is attached to the bustle. Knife pleats are
located on the lower corner of the material. Underneath the skirt is fabric that is decorated
with knife pleats, or long and thin pleats, made from lace.
Lines. The dominant lines create a curved, A-line silhouette. The curved lines of
the gowns recall the aesthetic preference for arched lines in both La Belle Époque and the
Arts and Craft Movement.
The lines of the bodices of Dress 1 are straight, curved, horizontal, vertical,
diagonal, and zigzag. The lines of the bodices of Dress 2 and Dress 3 are straight, curved,
47 horizontal, vertical, and diagonal. The lines of the skirts of Dress 1, Dress 2, and Dress 3
are straight, curved, parallel, diagonal, horizontal, and vertical.
Color. The gowns reflect a dominant formal and semi-formal trend by matching
the bodices and skirts in color. The bodice and skirt of Dress 1 are burgundy, the bodice
and skirt of Dress 2 are in eggshell, and Dress 3 is in a sapphire blue.
Purpose. The purpose for wearing these gowns was for semi-formal and formal
events, which were confirmed through either the previous notes written by curators at the
Cincinnati Art Museum or through analyzing the shape of the gown.
Both Dress 1 and Dress 3 are gowns that were worn for semi-formal occasions.
These gowns display a restrained fashionable appearance through matching beading and printed silks, not lace or ornate beading. This decoration was required for events that are formal, but not galas or balls. Dress 2 is a wedding gown that was also worn as an evening gown so would have been appropriate for galas or balls. According to Cincinnati
Art Museum Curatorial Assistant Adam MacPharlain, the wedding gown was edited to make it appropriate for future social events (Personal conversation, January 23, 2018).
Edits included the removal of sewn-on fabric “orange blossoms” motifs that provided accents emulating Queen Victoria’s wedding gown. Similarly the veil was worn at the wedding, but not at later social events. As a result of the edits, the modified gown illustrates the same restrained decoration as seen in Dress 1 and Dress 3.
The shape of the flowers in the design of Dress 1 is not confirmed. However, the billowed shape of the beading replicates marigolds. According to McMorris (1984), the inclusion of marigolds was a reference to grief, which is discussed in Chapter 2. Dress 2 also incorporates fabricated white flowers on the front gather of the skirt resulting in a
48 monochromatic three-dimensional form. These flowers appear to be white lilies, which
according to McMorris (1984) may refer to purity. Dress 3 has a repeated floral fabric on
the bodice and skirt. The floral print is of small roses and white lilies on a green vine.
This symbolism may indicate purity and love.
Ownership. The Cincinnati Art Museum credits Dress 1 as being made in 1882 or
1883. There is no defined owner of Dress 1. The Cincinnati Art Museum credits Dress 2
as being made in 1877. Dress 2 was owned and worn by Alice B. Williamson for her
marriage to Robert Bonner Bowler II in 1877. Williamson’s husband was the
“Comptroller of the Treasury under President Grover Cleveland and once served as the
Mayor of Clifton before annexation to Cincinnati” (“Digging Cincinnati History”, 2013
para. 6). This gown was also worn for formal social occasions. This was due to societal
custom, which required young brides to wear their wedding dresses to social gatherings
(Thieme, 1993).
Dress 3 was owned and worn by Jean Halstead Davidson who was the daughter of journalist Murat Halstead and the wife of attorney William A. Davidson. This dress was worn to receive guests at her home and is represents a semi-formal design (Thieme,
1993).
Crazy Quilts. Construction. The three Crazy Quilts analyzed were constructed through both hand and machine stitching. The pre-dominant fiber in all of the Crazy Quilts examined was silk constructed in satin, broadcloth, and velvet fabrics. The similarity of fabrics among the three Crazy Quilts correlates with the statements in Chapter 2 that relate silks and velvets with fashion from 1876 to 1890.
49 Quilt 1 is made of 64 squares and is approximately 67’’x 67”. There are 559 assorted fabric pieces that make up the 64 squares (sometimes called patches) in the quilt.
The maximum number of pieces creating a patch is 23, while the minimum is one. There
are no noticeable rips or tears. The stitching on the quilt is consistent throughout the
quilt’s design and appears to be constructed by one maker. A thick burgundy border
frames the quilt.
Quilt 2 is made of 25 squares and is 66’’x 66’’. A total of 231 assorted fabric
pieces make up the patches in the quilt. The maximum number of fabrics creating a patch
is 13, while the minimum is two. The quilt has tearing on the bottom side, which
according to Cincinnati Art Museum curatorial assistant Adam MacPharlain, was caused
by years of storage (Personal Conversation, January 30, 2018). There is a small stain on
the lower right corner on the quilt front. The stitching on the quilt is consistent
throughout and appears to be constructed by one maker. A thin black border frames the
quilt.
Quilt 3 is made of 12 squares and forms a rectangle that is 82’’ x 62”. There are
201 assorted fabric pieces that make up the patches in the quilt. The maximum number of
pieces creating a patch is 24, while the minimum is 16. The quilt has stains on the back,
and there are no noticeable tears or stains on the front of the quilt. The stitching on the
quilt is consistent throughout and appears to be constructed by one maker. A thick
burgundy border frames the quilt.
Form. The three quilts analyzed are symmetrical in form but are asymmetrical in
the patchwork and embroidery. All three quilts are made with blocks that connect to
50 create the overall shape of the quilt, which was a popular construction method
(McMorris, 1984).
The quilts are filled with thin batting which confirms the decorative purpose
(rather than utility/warmth) of Crazy Quilts. As discussed in Chapter 2, traditional quilting was made with thick padding sewn into the interior (between the top and back) with quilting stitches. Less “functional” quilts do not require the thick insular batting.
These Crazy Quilts had silk satin backing that is a relatively fragile fabric, further conforming their decorative than utilitarian purpose. The flat dimensionality of the three quilts allow for the items to be hung on a wall or, the more popular method of the time, to be draped over furniture.
The patches of the quilts are held together through machine stitching. The embroidery on the quilt tops is decorative, and the shapes of the embroidery in the three quilts analyzed reflected popular sewing trends of the era. Embroidery stitching was commonly completed by hand (McMorris, 1984). The most dominant shapes in the embroidered designs of the quilts of the study were blanket, herringbone, chevron, and feather stitching.
Lines. McMorris (1984) noted that curved lines were the preferred choice for design aesthetics from 1876 to 1890. This design element is present in the lines of patches of all three of the analyzed Crazy Quilts. The patches are either created or sewn on top of one another to create curved or straight lines. When viewed in all in the entirety, the interiors of all three quilts are comprised of straight, diagonal, closed curves, parallel, horizontal, and zigzag lines. The lines of all of the quilts’ borders are straight, with both vertical and horizontal directions.
51 Reflecting the traditional definition of Crazy Quilts there are not dominant
stitches but rather a cacophony of stitches contributes to their stimulating visual effect.
The shapes in the embroidery of Quilt 1 are stem stitches, blanket stitches, French knots,
closed blanket stitches, herringbone stitches, twisted herringbone stitches, chevron
stitches, featherstitching, and chain stitches. The shapes in the embroidery of Quilt 2 are
blanket stitches, herringbone stitches, chevron stitches, and featherstitches. Quilt 3
contains French knots, blanket stitches, herringbone stitches, Cretan stitches, chevron
stitches, featherstitches, and chain stitches. All information concerning the shape of stitches were sourced from Pillsbury (2016).
Color. Burgundy emerged as the dominant color in each of the three Crazy Quilts.
The use of the jewel tone burgundy reflects the fashion of the time, which frequently
exhibited deep, vibrant, gemstone-inspired hues. The colors in the embroideries of Quilt
1 include orange, yellow, purple, pink, white, blue, red, green, teal, light green, and
fuchsia. The colors in the patches of Quilt 1 include burgundy, periwinkle, purple, navy
blue, brown, taupe, beige, olive, light green, green, dark green, amber, mauve, buttercup
yellow, pale pink, magenta, and black. The border that frames Quilt 1 is burgundy.
The colors in the embroideries of Quilt 2 include lilac, red, pink, orange, yellow,
blue, pink, green, fuchsia, and brown. The colors in the patches of Quilt 2 include
periwinkle, burgundy, buttercup yellow, green, white, orange, amber, navy, dark green,
brown, taupe, mauve, magenta, and beige. The border that frames Quilt 2 is black.
The colors in the embroideries of Quilt 3 include white, pink, yellow, burgundy,
red, lilac, purple, teal, green, light green, dark green, orange, and brown. The colors in the
patches of Quilt 3 include burgundy, purple, periwinkle, navy blue, brown, taupe, beige,
52 olive, dark green, amber, mauve, buttercup yellow, pale pink, magenta, and black. The border that frames Quilt 3 is burgundy.
Purpose. The purpose of all of the quilts analyzed was to decorate the home.
Appliques were sewn onto the patches to enhance the decorative nature of the quilts. The inclusion of appliqués in the quilts’ designs display the creator’s interest in fashionable trends. This finding conforms with previous research by quilt historians who have found trends with appliqués on Crazy Quilts. As noted in Chapter 2, these images were not only decorative, but they could reflect an emotion or aesthetic trend of the time.
There are 42 appliqué patches sewn onto Quilt 1. The size of the appliqués ranges from a few inches to encompassing half of the patch. The appliqués in the quilt are hand fans, a spider, a maple leaf, a bird, and flowers (roses, daisies, narcissus, and violets).
According to McMorris (1984), the meaning behind these appliqués may be love, innocence, egotism, and/or faithfulness. Quilt 1 also has an American flag appliqué. As discussed in Chapter 2, both the flag and fan represented events occurring in United
States culture. The inclusion of the American flag may be a response to the American
1876 Bicentennial, which was a nation-wide event. Appliqués of fans were used as references to Japanese aesthetic culture, which was made popular with the trend of
Japanese ceramics (McMorris, 1984).
Quilt 2 has 18 appliqué patches on the quilt, and all are of floral bouquets and range in size. Included in the appliqués designs are roses, violets, marigolds, iris, lilies, and tulips (McMorris, 1984). Symbolism may consist of love, faithfulness, grief, and/or purity. Quilt 3 has 17 appliqués sewn onto the quilt. The size of all of the appliqués is a few inches. The appliqués in the quilt are hand fans, a butterfly, wheat, and flowers
53 (daisies, roses, and pansies). Suggested symbolism may be innocence, love, and/or remembrance (McMorris, 1984).
Ownership. Quilt 1 was created in 1884 by Catherine Weissmann Heintz Jung.
The quilt is recorded by the Cincinnati Art Museum to have won first place at the
Carthage Fair in Cincinnati, Ohio. It is also associated with Holy Trinity Church, which is determined by the inclusion of embroidered text located on the mid-left section that reads, “Holy Trinity Church Hartwell." The institution was the first German-speaking
Christian church in Cincinnati (“History of Holy Trinity Church, Cincinnati,” n.d.). Since this quilt is associated with a church, this may indicate that the quilt was created by a member of the congregation. The maker of the quilt could have been an immigrant, a first-generation citizen, and/or a German speaker.
Quilt 2 was created during the 1870s or 1880s by Mrs. Francis T. McFadden (nee
Elizabeth Apthorp Adams). McFadden’s husband was the “eastern representative of the
Chicago Tribune, St. Louis Globe Democrat, and other western newspapers” (“Decennial
Record of the Class of 1896, Yale College,” 1907, p.468). The Cincinnati Art Museum credits the quilt as being made in the 1870s or the 1880s. Embroidered on the quilt is S.B.
1854 and M.B.I OCT 12 1842. The meaning behind the first set of letters and number embroideries (S.B. 1854) is not known. According to the Cincinnati Art Museum, the second set of embroidered letters and numbers (M.B.I OCT 12 1842) corresponds to the wedding date of the maker and her husband.
Quilt 3 was created by Mrs. G. Hammer. There is not any information available about the maker. The Cincinnati Art Museum credits the quilt as being made from the late 1880s to the early 1890s.
54 What are the differences between Charles Frederick Worth gowns and Crazy Quilts during the American Gilded Age?
Design. The Charles Frederick Worth gowns contain a restrained glamour. The overall appearance of the gowns is upscale due to the textile and embellishments, but the ornamentation is restrained. This differs from the design of the Crazy Quilts, which incorporates lavish fabrics, numerous appliqués, and multiple patches in various shapes.
Influence. Crazy Quilts are commonly associated with Japanese design, particularly ceramics. This international influence is not as prominent in the designs of
Charles Frederick Worth with the exception of Dress 3, which has floral detail in an East
Asian design. The gowns examined for this study referenced Western culture and history
(De Marly, 1990).
Consumer. A prominent difference between the Charles Frederick Worth gowns and Crazy Quilts analyzed is the consumer. Crazy Quilts were enjoyed by women of a wide variety of classes. This was due to the access to patterns and other published content in women’s paper media and quilting circles and to women’s general familiarity with quilting. Although the work of Charles Frederick Worth was well known in the fashion industry, the expense of the designer’s product only women from extremely wealthy and socially prominent families to purchase and wear this clothing (White, 1973).
Form. The items analyzed differ in form. The Crazy Quilts are two-dimensional, while the Charles Frederick Worth gowns are three-dimensional. The difference in form is a result of the purpose of the textiles.
Construction. The Crazy Quilts display personalization through the decorative embroidery, fabric scraps, and appliqués. Another indicator is seen through the use of
55 dates and initials sewn onto the quilts’ designs. This is present in the design of Quilt 1 and Quilt 3, which have letters, dates, and inscriptions that refer to people and events.
The gowns created by Charles Frederick Worth differ in that they were solely designed within the Worth salon. It was the mission of the head designer, Worth, to make all aspects of the gown unique. This difference showcases the exclusivity in consumers.
Charles Frederick Worth gowns were items that were the sole proprietary of the salon until it was sold to the female consumer to wear.
56 Table 1 Summary of Data from Three Charles Frederick Worth Gowns Data Presented Using Elements of Art ______Elements of Art Artifact Component Result ______
Line Bodice The dominant lines of the bodice of Dress 1 are straight, curved, horizontal, vertical, diagonal, and zigzag. The dominant lines of the bodices of Dress 2 and Dress 3 are straight, curved, horizontal, vertical, and diagonal. Skirt The dominant lines of the skirt of Dress 1, Dress 2, and Dress 3 are straight, curved, parallel, diagonal, horizontal, and vertical. Shape Bodice The primary shapes present in the bodice of Dress 1 are irregular pentagons, circles, rectangles, irregular rectangles, irregular octagons, and squares. The primary shapes present in the bodice of Dress 2 are circles, closed curves, semicircles, rectangles, irregular rectangles, scalene triangles, and irregular octagons. The primary shapes present in the bodice of Dress 3 are vertical rectangles, irregular octagons, closed curves, horizontal rectangles, irregular nonagons, rhombuses, and scalene triangles. Skirt The primary shapes present in the skirt of Dress 1 are irregular polygons, vertical rectangles, horizontal rectangles, vertical squares, organic, irregular right triangles, closed curves, and overlapping circles. The primary shapes present in the skirt of Dress 2 are vertical rectangles, rhombuses, ovals, triangles, scalene triangles, diamonds, horizontal rectangles, and irregular hexagons. The primary shapes present in the skirt of Dress 3 are vertical rectangles, rhombuses, ovals, triangles, scalene triangles, horizontal rectangles, and irregular nonagons. Form Bodice Bodices are in the cone and cylinder form. Skirt Skirts are in the sphere and cone form.
57 Table 1 (Continued) Summary of Data from Three Charles Frederick Worth Gowns Data Presented Using Elements of Art ______Elements of Art Artifact Component Result ______
Value Bodice The bodice of Dress 1 has a dark value. The value of the bodice of Dress 2 is light. The value of the bodice of Dress 3 is both light and dark. Skirt The values of the skirt of Dress 1 is dark. The value of the skirt of Dress 2 is light. The value of the skirt of Dress 3 is both light and dark. Space Bodice The bodices are made from both negative and positive space. Skirt The skirts are made from both negative and positive space. Color Bodice The coloring of the bodice of Dress 1 is burgundy. The coloring of the bodice of Dress 2 is eggshell. The coloring of the bodice of Dress 3 is a sapphire blue. Skirt The coloring of the skirt of Dress 1 is burgundy. The coloring of the skirt of Dress 2 is eggshell. The coloring of the skirt of Dress 3 is a sapphire blue. Texture Bodice Due to the matte finish of the fabric, the visual textures of the bodices are flat and smooth. Skirt Due to the matte finish of the fabric, the visual textures of the bodices are flat and smooth.
58 Table 2 Summary of Data from Three Charles Frederick Worth Gowns Data Presented Using Principles of Design ______Principles of Design Artifact Component Result ______
Balance Bodice The bodices have a symmetrical balance. Skirt The skirts have a symmetrical balance. Contrast Bodice The contrasts of the bodices of Dress 1 and Dress 2 are low. The contrast of the bodice of Dress 3 is high. Skirt The skirts of Dress 1 and Dress 2 have low contrast. The skirt of Dress 3 has high contrast. Emphasis Bodice The design emphasis of the bodices is found on the cuffs and necklines. Skirt The design emphasis of the skirts is found on the bustle. Movement Bodice The visual movements of the bodices are vertical due to the seams in the waist. Skirt The visual movements of the skirts are vertical due to the seams and bustle in the skirt.
59 Table 2 (Continued) Summary of Data from Three Charles Frederick Worth Gowns Data Presented Using Principles of Design ______Principles of Design Artifact Component Result ______
Variety Bodice The variety in the bodices are exclusive around the necklines and cuffs. Skirt The variety in the skirts are extensive through the bustles. Pattern Bodice The most prominent patterns on the bodices of Dress 1 and Dress 3 are florals that are beaded or woven into the design. The most prominent pattern on the bodice of Dress 2 are wide pleats and ruching. Skirt The most prominent patterns on the skirt of Dress 1 are beaded or woven florals, wide pleats and organic shapes pointing upward. The most prominent pattern on the skirt of Dress 2 are wide and knife pleats. The most prominent patterns on the skirt of Dress 3 are small florals and knife pleats.
60 Table 3 Summary of Data from Three Crazy Quilts Presented Using Elements of Art ______Element of Art Artifact Component Result ______
Line Embroidery The lines of the embroidery in Quilt 1, Quilt 2, and Quilt 3 are straight, horizontal, diagonal, vertical, horizontal, and curved. Patches The lines of the patches of Quilt 1, Quilt 2, and Quilt 3 are straight, diagonal, closed curves, parallel, horizontal, and zigzag. Quilt When viewed in the entirety, the focal point of the interiors of Quilt 1, Quilt 2, and Quilt 3 are made up of straight, diagonal, closed curves, parallel, horizontal, and zigzag lines. The lines of all of the quilts’ borders are straight, vertical and horizontal. Shape Embroidery The dominant shapes in the embroidery of Quilt 1 are stem stitches, blanket stitches, French knots, closed blanket stitches, herringbone stitches, twisted herringbone stitches, chevron stitches, featherstitching, and chain stitches. The dominant shapes in the embroidery of Quilt 2 are blanket stitches, herringbone stitches, chevron stitches, and featherstitches. The dominant shapes in the embroidery of Quilt 3 are French knots, blanket stitches, herringbone stitches, Cretan stitches, chevron stitches, featherstitches, and chain stitches. All information concerning the shape of stitches were sourced from Pillsbury (2016).
61 Table 3 (Continued) Summary of Data from Three Crazy Quilts Data Presented Using Elements of Art ______Elements of Art Artifact Component Result ______
Patches The dominant shapes in the patches of Quilt 1 are rectangles, irregular rectangles, triangles, irregular triangles, squares, irregular squares, overlapping circles, closed curves, semicircles, irregular rhombuses, trefoils, irregular pentagons, and irregular hexagons. The dominant shapes in the patches of Quilt 2 are rectangles, irregular rectangles, triangles, irregular triangles, squares, irregular squares, closed curves, semicircles, irregular rhombuses, irregular pentagons, and lunes. The dominant shapes in the patches of Quilt 3 are rectangles, irregular rectangles, triangles, irregular triangles, squares, irregular squares, closed curves, semicircles, irregular rhombuses and irregular pentagons. Quilt All three Crazy Quilts are rectangle. Quilt 1 is 67”x67”, Quilt 2 is 66”x66”, and Quilt 3 is 82”x 62”. Form Embroidery The forms of the embroideries in all three quilts are cylindrical. Patches Patches in all three quilts are flat and two-dimensional. Quilt All quilts are flat and two-dimensional. Value Embroidery The value of the embroideries in Quilt 1, Quilt 2, and Quilt 3 are light. Patches The patches in Quilt 1 are combination of dark and light value. The patches in Quilt 2 and Quilt 3 are combinations of light, medium, and dark value. Quilt All of the quilts have dark value.
62 Table 3 (Continued) Summary of Data from Three Crazy Quilts Data Presented Using Elements of Art ______Elements of Art Artifact Component Result ______
Space Embroidery The embroidered stitches in all three quilts create negative space. Patches The patches in all three quilts create positive space. Quilt The quilts in all three quilts create positive space.
Color Embroidery The principal coloring of the quilts are in bright tones. Patches The principal coloring of the quilts are in primary and jewel tones. Quilt The principal coloring of the quilts are jewel tones. Texture Embroidery The visual texture of the embroideries in all three quilts are raised, course, and uneven. Patches The visual textures of the patches in all three quilts are smooth, soft, and flat. Quilt The visual textures of the quilts are both smooth and raised.
63 Table 4 Summary of Data from Three Crazy Quilts Data Presented Using Principles of Design ______Principles of Design Artifact Component Result ______
Balance Embroidery The balances of the embroideries in all three quilts are asymmetrical. Patches The balances of the patches in all three quilts are both asymmetrical and symmetrical. Quilt The balances of the quilts are symmetrical. Contrast Embroidery The embroideries in all three quilts have high contrast. Patches The patches in all three quilts have high contrast. Quilt The quilts have high contrast. Emphasis Embroidery There is equal emphasis in the embroideries in all three quilts. Patches There is equal emphasis in the patches from one another in all three quilts. Quilt There is equal emphasis in the quilts in relation to the patches and embroideries.
64 Table 4 (Continued) Summary of Data from Three Crazy Quilts Data Presented Using Principles of Design ______Principle of Design Artifact Component Result ______
Movement Embroidery The dominant movements of the embroideries in all three quilts are in zigzag motions. Patches The dominant movements in the patches in all three quilts are in zigzag motions. Quilt The dominant movements of the quilts in all three quilts are in zigzag motions. Variety Embroidery The varieties in the embroideries in all three quilts are extensive in colors and shapes. Patches The varieties in the patches in all three quilts are extensive in colors, shapes, and sizes. Quilt The variety in the quilts in all three quilts are exclusive in shapes and sizes. Pattern Embroidery There is no obvious repeating of embroidery stitches. Patches All of the patches create a repeated slanted appearance. Quilt The quilts have a similar slanted and square appearance.
65 Table 5 Summary of Data from Three Charles Frederick Worth Gowns Using the Fleming Model for Artifact Study ______Identification Result ______
Classification Dresses Based On Mixed Materials (Silk and Velvet-based fabrics) Machine and Hand Sewing Construction Authentication All gowns were donated to the Cincinnati Art Museum and have accreditation through catalog cards from the museum that were created by curators. These garments have labels sewn into the bodice that read, “Worth. 7 Rue de la Paix. Paris.”
All gowns can be dated to the 1870s-1890s because they have bustles, cuirass bodices, and narrow sleeves. Function The embellishments and silk-based fabric indicate non-utilitarian purposes of the gown and do not provide warmth, or have safety or protection purposes. The gowns are rare because of the materials, expensive price, and adornment.
66 Table 5 (Continued) Summary of Data from Three Charles Frederick Worth Gowns Using the Fleming Model for Artifact Study ______Identification Result ______
Evaluation The dresses all have two components: bodice and skirt. The purpose of the garments is to be worn in semi-formal and formal occasions. This is made apparent through the design of the gowns, which includes the neckline, sleeve, and skirt styles. The bodice of Dress 1 is in the cuirass style, which is determined by the long torso. The bodice is in a deep burgundy color. The sleeves of the bodice reaches the wearer’s wrists and are upturned. The shoulders are placed slightly below the natural shoulder line. The neckline is in the forward point style. There are velvet accents on the neckline and the sleeve are shaped to appear as florals. The accents are made from velvet and are in a deep purple hue. There are ten fabric covered buttons on the center front. The back of the bodice is plain. The lower portion of the back is pleated and bisected. The skirt of Dress 1 is in the bustle style, which is determined by the floor-length and the gathering of fabric on the back. The skirt is in a deep burgundy color that matches the bodice. The front of the skirt has the same velvet accents as the bodice and are shaped to appear as flowers. The accents are located on the sides of the skirt. The center front of the skirt is pleated and has purple seed beads filling the pleats. The waist has a folded silk band that covers the top of the pleats. The bottom skirt is decorated with knife pleats, or long and thin pleats. The back of the skirt has gathered fabric near the top of the skirt. When filled with a bustle, this gathered fabric creates a bulging silhouette. Underneath the bustle is bisected fabric that folds at the center front. The folds are decorated with the same velvet accents as on the front of the skirt and on the bodice. Dress 1 is credited by the Cincinnati Art Museum as being made in 1882 or 1883. The bodice of Dress 2 is in the cuirass style, which is indicated by the long torso. The bodice is an eggshell color with matching lace located at the neck and end of sleeves. The sleeves have two layers, silk on top and lace underneath. The collar is high-standing and has two layers, silk on top and lace underneath. The shoulders are ruched and create a “puffed” appearance, and are placed slightly below the natural shoulder line. The center of the bodice has fifteen round fabric-covered buttons. The front of the torso has two princess seams.
67 Table 5 (Continued) Summary of Data from Three Charles Frederick Worth Gowns Using the Fleming Model for Artifact Study ______Identification Result ______
The back of the bodice has seven princess seams. The lower back of the bodice is pleated and bisected. The skirt of Dress 2 is in the bustle style, which is determined by the floor-length and the gathering of fabric on the back. The skirt is in an eggshell color that matches the bodice. The front of the skirt has six princess seams. The skirt gathers at the center with multiple elongated pearl accents. Underneath the skirt is fabric that is decorated with knife pleats, or long and thin pleats, made from lace. When filled with a bustle, this gathered fabric creates a bulging silhouette. The bottom of the skirt has a band that is decorated with knife pleats, or long and thin pleats, made from lace. Dress 2 is credited by the Cincinnati Art Museum as being made in 1877. The bodice of Dress 3 is in the cuirass style, which is determined by the long torso. The bodice is in a deep blue color. The sleeves end at the elbows with upturned fabric that is decorated with floral silk. Eggshell colored lace is attached at the bottom of the sleeves. The shoulders are placed slightly below the natural shoulder line. The collar is high-standing and has two layers, silk on top and lace underneath. The shoulders are ruched and create a “puffed” appearance, and are placed slightly below the natural shoulder line. The neckline is in a plunging round style that is decorated with eggshell colored lace and bow-tie ribbon in a blue color that matches the gown. There are no visible button on the front of the bodice. There are two vertical strips on the center front of the bodice that are in a fabric that matches the sleeves. The front of the bodice has two princess seams on the each side. The back of the bodice has three princess seams. The lower portion of the back is pleated and bisected. A strip of eggshell colored lace decorates the neck. The cuffs of the sleeves are upturned and folded. Underneath the cuffs are eggshell colored lace that matches the neckline and folded strips of blue cloth that coordinate with the bodice’s fabric.
68 Table 5 (Continued) Summary of Data from Three Charles Frederick Worth Gowns Using the Fleming Model for Artifact Study ______Identification Result ______
The skirt of Dress 3 is in the bustle style, which is determined by the floor-length and the gathering of fabric on the back. The skirt is in the same blue color as the bodice. The front of the skirt has an apron-like attachment underneath the bustle, which is in a floral fabric that matches the cuffs and torso on the bodice. The apron-like attachment sits on top of eggshell colored pleated fabric that is attached to the bustle. Knife pleats are located on the lower corner of the fabric. Underneath the skirt is fabric that is decorated with knife pleats, or long and thin pleats, made from lace. Dress 3 is credited by the Cincinnati Art Museum as being made in 1877 or 1878.
Cultural Analysis There is no defined owner of Dress 1. The burgundy color of the gown is reflective of fashion at the time (Thieme, 1993). The high neck of the bodice indicates that the gown was meant as daywear. Dress 2 was owned and worn by Alice B. Williamson for her marriage to Robert Bonner Bowler II in 1877. Williamson’s husband was the, “Comptroller of the Treasury under President Grover Cleveland and once served as the Mayor of Clifton before annexation to Cincinnati” (Digging Cincinnati History, 2013, para. 6). This gown was also worn for formal social occasions. This was due to societal custom, which required young brides to wear their wedding dresses to social gatherings (Thieme, 1993). These gowns were minutely modified for these occasions. Dress 3 was owned and worn by Jean Halstead Davidson, who was the daughter of journalist Murat Halstead and the wife of attorney William A. Davidson. The dress was worn to receive guests at one’s home and is in a semi-formal design (Thieme, 1993).
69 Table 6 Summary of Data from Three Crazy Quilts Data Presented Using the Fleming Model for Artifact Study ______Operations Result ______
Identification: Quilts Classification Based On: Mixed Materials (Silk-Based Fabrics) Machine and Hand Sewing Construction Authentication: All quilts were donated to the Cincinnati Art Museum and have accreditation through catalog cards from the museum that were created by curators. There are not any attached tags that indicate the makers of the quilts. All information is provided by the donors of the pieces or through embroidery sewn on the quilts. All quilts are in the Crazy style. This is determined by the aesthetic appearance of the patches, textile, and backing. Function: The function of the quilts is ornamental. This is indicated by the thin backing of the quilts. The quilts lack batting that is used to fill the interior to create weight and warmth for the users (Brackman, 1989).
70 Table 6 (Continued) Summary of Data from Three Crazy Quilts Data Presented Using the Fleming Model for Artifact Study ______Identification Result ______
Evaluation: All quilts are constructed with machine stitching and hand embroidery. All quilts have thin backings. Quilt 1 is made of 64 squares. The quilt was created in 1884 by Catherine Weissmann Heintz Jung. The quilt is recorded by the Cincinnati Art Museum to have won first place at the Carthage Fair in Cincinnati, Ohio. The quilt is approximately 67 inches. There are no noticeable rips or tears. There are 42 appliqué patches sewn onto the quilt. All appliqués are of shapes found in nature or of the human form. The size of the appliques range from a few inches to encompassing half of the patch. The appliqués in the quilt are hand fans, a spider, daisy flower, maple leaf, and flower. There are 559 assorted fabric pieces that make up the patches in the quilt. The maximum number of fabrics creating a patch is 23, while the minimum is one. The stitching on the quilt is consistent throughout and appears to be made by one maker. A thick burgundy border frames the quilt. Quilt 2 is made of 25 squares. The quilt was created sometime in the 1870s or the 1880s by Mrs. Francis T. McFadden (nee Elizabeth Apthorp Adams). The quilt is 66 inches. The quilt has tearing on the bottom side. According to Cincinnati Art Museum curatorial assistant Adam MacPharlain, the tears were caused by years of storage (Personal Conversation, January 30, 2018). There is a small stain on the lower right corner on the quilt front. Embroidered on the quilt is S.B. 1854 and M.B.I OCT 12 1842. The meaning behind the first set of letters and number embroideries (S.B. 1854) is not known. The second set of embroidered letters and numbers (M.B.I OCT 12 1842) corresponds to the wedding date of the maker and her husband.
71 Table 6 (Continued) Summary of Data from Three Crazy Quilts Data Presented Using the Fleming Model for Artifact Study ______Identification Result ______
There are 231 assorted fabric pieces that make up the patches in the quilt. The maximum number of fabrics creating a patch is 13, while the minimum is two. There are 18 appliqué patches on the quilt. All are of floral bouquets and range in size. The stitching on the quilt is consistent throughout and appears to be made by one maker. A thin black border frames the quilt. Quilt 3 is made of 12 squares and was created during the late 1880s and early 1890s by Mrs. G. Hammer. The quilt is 82 inches x 62 inches. The quilt has stains on the back. There are no noticeable tears or stains on the front of the quilt. There are 201 assorted fabric pieces that make up the patches in the quilt. The maximum number of fabrics creating a patch is 24, while the minimum is 16. There are 17 appliqué patches sewn onto the quilt. The size of all of the appliqués are a few inches. The appliqués in the quilt are hand fans, a butterfly, flowers, and wheat. The stitching on the quilt is consistent throughout and appears to be made by one maker. There is a thick burgundy border that frames the quilt. Cultural Analysis/Interpretation: Quilt 1 is associated with Holy Trinity Church. This was determined by the inclusion of embroidered text located on the mid-left section that reads, “Holy Trinity Church Hartwell." The institution was the first German speaking Christian church in Cincinnati (“History of Holy Trinity Church, Cincinnati,” n.d.).
72 Table 6 (Continued) Summary of Data from Three Crazy Quilts Data Presented Using the Fleming Model for Artifact Study ______Identification Result ______
Because this quilt is associated with a church, this may indicate that the item was created by a member the congregation. The maker of the quilt could be an immigrant, first generation, and/or spoke German. The quilt is credited by the Cincinnati Art Museum as being made in 1884. Quilt 2 is associated with Mrs. Francis T. McFadden (nee Elizabeth Apthorp Adams). McFadden’s husband was once the “eastern representative of the Chicago Tribune, St. Louis Globe Democrat, and other western newspapers” (“Decennial Record of the Class of 1896, Yale College,” 1907, p.468). The quilt is credited by the Cincinnati Art Museum as being made in the 1870s or the 1880s. Quilt 3 is credited to a Mrs. J. Hamer. There is not any information available about the maker. The quilt is credited by the Cincinnati Art Museum as being made from the late 1880s to the early 1890s.
73 Chapter 5: Analysis and Conclusions
The data presented in Tables 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 depict observations of the elements of art and design. Data analyses were conducted to compare each of the three items representing Charles Frederick Worth gowns or Crazy Quilts. The data was then compared with overall observations of gowns compared to quilts. Analyses were generated within the context of Veblen’s theory of the leisure class to determine whether the fashion and decorative needle arts items reflected leisure class consumption. This chapter contains analysis responding to the third research question of this study.
What are the historic contributions that are documented as a result of comparing
Charles Frederick Worth gowns and Crazy Quilts with respect to the socio-
economic standards of their consumers?
Both the Charles Frederick Worth gowns and the Crazy Quilts are complex in
design. The gowns have long-sleeved bodices, bustles, and floor-length skirts with three-
dimensional adornment. The Crazy Quilts have fabric bases, patches, and embroideries,
which include curved and ornate fancywork. These attributes display a knowledge of
construction by the maker and an appreciation by the owners, if they did not make them.
The intricate designs of both the Charles Frederick Worth gowns and the Crazy
Quilts create a layered appearance, which contributes to the grand sense of both pieces.
Adornment, whether it is patches, embroidery, or lace, is placed upon a textile base.
These attributes differ from utilitarian textiles, which are mainly plain in design for
functionality. Layering content creates a garment or quilt that cannot frequently be
handled due to the fear of damage, soil, or the cultural importance of the items. The items
may not be necessarily fragile, but the fabrics and embellishments are given importance
74 due to the high price or fashionable significance. The layering of design also adds
dimensionality to the form.
Both the Charles Frederick Worth gowns and Crazy Quilts are designed in the
fashions of their time, which embraced curved lines and ornate sensibilities. The curved
lines of all of the examined pieces also reflect an interest in the burgeoning artistic
movements of the area, particularly La Belle Époque and the Arts and Crafts Movement.
Also, the inclusion of floral details in all of the items analyzed reflect a cultural
sentiment.
The items analyzed all have elegant fabrics, layering, appliqués and
embellishments within a fanciful context. This presents a sense of whimsy that
compliments the femininity of the wearer or owner, which correlates to Cathy’s (2006)
discussion of the domestic feminine ideal. This sensibility also connects to Veblen’s
theory of the leisure class, which theorizes that the wants of wealthy consumers are based
more in appearance and social approval than need. Both the Charles Frederick Worth
gowns and the Crazy Quilts were created to be seen and display the creator’s or wearer’s
sensibilities in relation to fashionable textiles trends of the time.
Although the audience differs between the wearers of the Charles Frederick
Worth gowns and the makers of the Crazy Quilts, all of the items analyzed have details
that make them decorative textile arts. These are items to be shown or displayed to the
wearer’s audience to showcase one’s sense of femininity, which was tied to both a
woman’s appearance and social status.
Through analyzing the elements of art, principles of design, and applying the E.
McClung Fleming’s Model for artifact study (1974) to the aesthetic details present on the
75 items, it was concluded that the owners of the items were consumers interested in participating in fashionable trends. The purchase of a Charles Frederick Worth gown
displayed a woman’s financial wealth, social standing, and fashion sense because of the
silhouette, textile, and ornamentation. The purchase of materials, kit, or a pattern that
creates a Crazy Quilt also displayed a woman’s financial means, yet unlike the Charles
Frederick Worth gowns, showcased her handcraft skills. A visitor to a woman’s home
that had a Crazy Quilt displayed would reveal both the woman’s following of trends
through color and shape, and some personalization of embroidered text or appliqués.
The social standing of women from 1876 to 1890 was determined by this ability
to be the domestic head of their household (Cathy, 2006). Aside from cleaning and
cooking, beauty in both the appearance of the home and the woman herself was
important. Both investments of a Charles Frederick Worth gown or a Crazy Quilt
contributed to a woman’s accomplishment of beauty.
The purchase of Charles Frederick Worth gowns and Crazy Quilts also showcased
a Cincinnati woman’s connection to the aesthetic trends occurring globally. The design of all of the items examined at the Cincinnati Art Museum correlates to trends seen in media and other examples of Charles Frederick Worth gowns and Crazy Quilts in the United
States.
Women (both middle- and upper-class) who created, purchased, and participated in the Crazy Quilt trend illustrated how they group were entering, or maintaining) their
leisure class status. These women were creating objects influenced by international
design, sold in some form nationwide, and used as decoration. This role as a consumer
76 allowed these women to attend social gatherings, find solace, improve their home, and
display their fashionable-ness through the craft of Crazy Quilts.
Similar to the women creating Crazy Quilts, women who purchased and wore
Charles Frederick Worth gowns displayed their participation in the leisure class. For
these women, involvement was a social requirement that was ingrained in their everyday
lives. The purchase of a Charles Frederick Worth gown was an international venture due
to the location of the salon and the haute couture industry. Wearing a Worth gown
signified her family’s status and her personal choices, which were expected to reflect that
of her home. As with Crazy Quilts, wearing a Worth gown could occur at a social
gathering or in the home.
Both Worth gowns and Crazy Quilts have decorative elements that reflect
international art movements of La Belle Époque and the Arts and Crafts Movement. By
purchasing a Charles Frederick Worth gown or a Crazy Quilt, women in Cincinnati, Ohio
were consumers who held a recognition and desire to be a part of fashionable trends
beyond the city. As a result, women used their purchases to complement their roles
within their home and as international consumers. During the late 19th century, these women did not have much autonomy to make decisions in their lives, but participation in these selected textile arts gave them an important and visible form of liberty. This study
confirms the role of fashion through Charles Frederick Worth gowns and Crazy Quilts as
an important historic contributor with respect to the socio-economic standards of their consumers in Cincinnati, Ohio.
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84 Appendix A: Elements of Art Charles Frederick Worth gown (Dress 1) Element Result
Line Bodice Straight Curved Horizontal Vertical Diagonal Zigzag Skirt Straight Curved Parallel Diagonal Horizontal Vertical Shape Bodice Irregular Pentagon Circle Rectangle Irregular Rectangle Irregular Octagon Square Skirt Irregular Polygon Vertical Rectangle Horizontal Rectangle Vertical Square Organic Irregular Right Triangle Closed Curves Overlapping Circle Form Bodice Cone Cylinder Skirt Sphere Cone Value Bodice Dark Skirt Dark Space Bodice Negative Skirt Negative Color Bodice Maroon Skirt Maroon
85 Texture Bodice Flat Smooth Soft Uneven Skirt Flat Smooth Soft Uneven Polished Raised
86 Principles of Design Charles Frederick Worth gown (Dress 1) Element Result
Balance Bodice Symmetrical Skirt Symmetrical Contrast Bodice Low Skirt Low Emphasis Bodice Neckline and Cuffs Skirt Bustle Movement Bodice Hourglass Motion Skirt Vertical (Up to Down) Variety Bodice Exclusive; Appears on Neckline and Cuffs Skirt Extensive; Appears in Print, Fabric, and Shape Pattern Bodice Flowers Skirt Flowers Organic shape with upturned lines Wide Pleats
87 Appendix B: Elements of Art Charles Frederick Worth gown (Dress 2) Element Result
Line Bodice Straight Curved Horizontal Vertical Diagonal Skirt Straight Curved Parallel Horizontal Vertical Diagonal Shape Bodice Circle Closed Curve Semicircle Rectangle Irregular Rectangle Scalene Triangle Irregular Octagon Skirt Vertical Rectangle Rhombus Oval Triangle Scalene Triangle Diamond Horizontal Rectangle Irregular Hexagon Form Bodice Cone Cylinder Skirt Sphere Cone Value Bodice Light Skirt Light Space Bodice Positive Skirt Positive Color Bodice White Skirt White
88 Texture Bodice Flat Smooth Soft Uneven Raised Semi-gloss Skirt Flat Smooth Semi-gloss Uneven
89 Principles of Design Charles Frederick Worth gown (Dress 2) Element Result
Balance Bodice Symmetrical Skirt Symmetrical Contrast Bodice Low Skirt Low Emphasis Bodice Shoulders Cuffs Center Front Lower Back Pleating Skirt Bustle Gather at Knee Movement Bodice Vertical Skirt Vertical Variety Bodice Extensive; Appears on Shoulders, Neckline, Chest and Cuffs Skirt Exclusive; Bottom Pleating Pattern Bodice Wide Pleats Ruching Skirt Wide and Knife Pleating
90 Appendix C: Elements of Art Charles Frederick Worth gown (Dress 3) Element Result
Line Bodice Straight Curved Horizontal Vertical Diagonal Skirt Straight Curved Parallel Diagonal Horizontal Vertical Shape Bodice Vertical Rectangle Irregular Octagon Closed Curve Horizontal Rectangle Irregular Nonagon Rhombus Scalene Triangle Skirt Vertical Rectangle Rhombus Oval Triangle Scalene Triangle Irregular Rectangles Irregular Nonagon Form Bodice Cone Cylinder Skirt Sphere Cone Value Bodice Light Dark Skirt Light Dark Space Bodice Negative Skirt Positive Color Bodice Navy Blue Beige Red
91 White Pale Blue Skirt Navy Blue Beige Red White Pale Blue Texture Bodice Flat Smooth Soft Uneven Raised Skirt
92 Principles of Design Charles Frederick Worth gown (Dress 3) Element Result
Balance Bodice Symmetrical Skirt Symmetrical Contrast Bodice High Skirt High Emphasis Bodice Center front Cuffs Neckline Back Tail Skirt Bustle Lower hem Movement Bodice Vertical Skirt Vertical Variety Bodice Extensive; Appears on Neckline, Chest, Lower Back and Cuffs Skirt Extensive- Bustle, Hem, Pleating Pattern Bodice Small Floral Skirt Small Floral Knife Pleats
93 Appendix D: Elements of Art Crazy Quilt (Quilt 1) Element Result
Line Embroidered Stitches Straight Diagonal Vertical Horizontal Curved Patches Straight Diagonal Closed Curves Parallel Horizontal Zigzag Quilt Straight Shape Embroidered Stitches Stem Stitches Blanket Stitches French Knots Closed Blanket Stitches Herringbone Stitches Twisted Herringbone Stitches Chevron Stitches Featherstitching Chain Stitches Patches Rectangle Irregular Rectangle Triangle Irregular Triangle Square Irregular Square Overlapping Circle Closed Curve Semicircle Irregular Rhombus Trefoil Irregular Pentagon Irregular Hexagon Quilt Square Form Embroidered Stitches Cylinder Patches Two Dimensional, Flat Organic (Appliqué Flower) Quilt Two Dimensional, Flat Value Embroidered Stitches
94 Light Patches Dark Light Quilt Dark Space Embroidered Stitches Negative Patches Positive Quilt Positive Color Embroidered Stitches Orange Yellow Purple Pink White Blue Red Green Teal Light Green Fuchsia Patches Burgundy Purple Periwinkle Navy Blue Brown Taupe Beige Olive Light Green Green Dark Green Amber Mauve Buttercup Yellow Pale pink Magenta Black Quilt Burgundy Texture Embroidered Stitches Raised Course Uneven Soft Patches Smooth Bulging Soft Cushioned Quilt
95 Smooth Bulging Raised Soft Cushioned
96 Principles of Design Crazy Quilt (Quilt 1) Element Result
Balance Embroidered Stitches Asymmetrical Patches Asymmetrical Symmetrical Quilt Symmetrical Contrast Embroidered Stitches High Patches High Quilt None Emphasis Embroidered Stitches Equal Patches Equal in Each Patch Quilt Burgundy Border Movement Embroidered Stitches Jagged Zigzag Patches Jagged Zigzag Quilt Shifts from Left to Right in Square Motion Variety Embroidered Stitches Extensive; Appears in Color Patches Extensive; Appears in Color, Shape, and Size Quilt Exclusive; Border is Equal in Shape and Size Pattern Embroidered Stitches Plain Patches Flower Striped Dotted Geometric Square Fan Coral Ombré Cherry Blossom Plaid Gingham Checkered Ditsy Floral Quilt Plain
97
Appendix E:
Elements of Art Crazy Quilt (Quilt 2) Element Result
Line Embroidered Stitches Straight Diagonal Vertical Horizontal Curved Patches Straight Diagonal Closed Curves Parallel Horizontal Zigzag Quilt Straight Shape Embroidered Stitches Blanket Stitches Herringbone Stitches Chevron Stitches Featherstitches Patches Rectangle Irregular Rectangle Triangle Irregular Triangle Square Irregular Square Closed Curve Semicircle Irregular Rhombus Irregular Pentagon Lune Quilt Square Form Embroidered Stitches Cylinder Patches Two Dimensional, Flat Quilt Two Dimensional, Flat Value Embroidered Stitches Light Patches Dark Medium Light Quilt
98 Dark Space Embroidered Stitches Negative Patches Positive Quilt Positive Color Embroidered Stitches Lilac Red Pink Orange Yellow Blue Pink Green Fuchsia Brown Patches Periwinkle Burgundy Buttercup Yellow Green White Orange Amber Navy Dark green Brown Taupe Mauve Magenta Beige Quilt Black Texture Embroidered Stitches Raised Course Uneven Soft Patches Smooth Bulging Soft Quilts Smooth Bulging
99 Principles of Design Crazy Quilt (Quilt 2) Element Result
Balance Embroidered Stitches Asymmetrical Patches Asymmetrical Quilts Symmetrical Contrast Embroidered Stitches High Patches High Quilts None Emphasis Embroidered Stitches Equal Patches Equal in Each Patch Quilt Black Border Movement Embroidered Stitches Jagged Zigzag Patches Jagged Zigzag Quilt Shifts from Left to Right in Square Motion Variety Embroidered Stitches Extensive; Appears in Color Patches Extensive; Appears in Color, Shape, and Size Quilt Exclusive; Border is Equal in Shape and Size Pattern Embroidered Stitches Plain Patches Stripe with Small Floral Vertical Stripe Geometric Floral Dot Cube Ditsy Floral Daisy Moiré Coral Inorganic Fan Quilt Solid
100 Appendix F:
Elements of Art Crazy Quilt (Quilt 3) Element Result
Line Embroidered Stitches Straight Diagonal Vertical Horizontal Curved Patches Straight Diagonal Closed Curves Parallel Horizontal Zigzag Quilt Straight Shape Embroidered Stitches French Knots Blanket Stitches Herringbone Stitches Cretan Stitches Chevron Stitches Featherstitches Chain Stitches Patches Rectangle Irregular Rectangle Triangle Irregular Triangle Square Irregular Square Closed Curve Semicircle Irregular Rhombus Irregular Pentagon Quilt Square Form Embroidered Stitches Cylinder Patches Two Dimensional, Flat Quilt Two Dimensional, Flat Value Embroidered Stitches Light Patches Dark Medium Light Quilt
101 Dark Space Embroidered Stitches Negative Positive Patches Positive Quilt Positive Color Embroidered Stitches White Pink Yellow Burgundy Red Lilac Purple Teal Green Light Green Dark Green Orange Brown Patches Burgundy Purple Periwinkle Navy Blue Brown Taupe Beige Olive Dark Green Amber Mauve Buttercup Yellow Pale Pink Magenta Black Quilt Burgundy
102 Texture Embroidered Stitches Raised Course Uneven Soft Patches Smooth Bulging Soft Quilt Smooth Bulging Soft
103 Principles of Design Crazy Quilt (Quilt 3) Element Result
Balance Embroidered Stitches Asymmetrical Patches Asymmetrical Symmetrical Quilt Symmetrical Contrast Embroidered Stitches High Patches High Quilt None Emphasis Embroidered Stitches Equal Patches Equal in Each Patch Quilt Burgundy Border Movement Embroidered Stitches Patches Jagged Zigzag Quilt Shifts from Left to Right in Square Motion Variety Embroidered Stitches Extensive; Appears in Color Patches Extensive; Appears in Color, Shape, and Size Quilt Exclusive; Border is Equal in Shape and Size Pattern Embroidered Stitches Plain Patches Circle and Zigzag Lines Polka dot Vertical Stripe Pin Dot Plaid Ditsy floral Leaf Gingham Clover Horizontal Stripe Bamboo Flower and Swirling Lines Interlocking Cs Paisley Ombré Circle
104 Quilt Plain
105 Appendix G:
Elements of Art
Line “the path of a moving point, that is, a mark made by a tool or instrument as it is
drawn across a surface” (Ocvirk, 1962, p. 159).
Shape “an area having a specific character defined by an outline, or by a contrast of color, value, or texture with the surrounding area” (Ocvirk, 1962, p.161).
Form “The arbitrary organization or inventive arrangement of all of the visual elements
according to principles which will develop an organic unity in the total work of art”
(Ocvirk, 1962, p. 159).
Value “The characteristic of a color in terms of lightness and darkness. This is determined by the amount or quantity of light reflected by a color” (Ocvirk, 1962, p.
162).
Space “The interval between pre-established points” (Ocvirk, 1962, p.161).
Texture “[Invented] two-dimensional patterns sometimes derived from actual textures,
frequently varied to fit pictorial needs, and often freely created without reference to any
item” (Ocvirk, 1962, p. 162).
106 Principles of Design
Balance “A feeling of equality in weight, attention, or attraction of the various visual
elements within the pictorial field as a means of accomplishing organic unity”(Ocvirk,
1962, p. 157).
Contrast “compare or appraise in respect to differences” (“Contrast”. 2018. In Merriam
Webster.com. Retrieved on June 4, 2018 from https://www.merriam-
webster.com/dictionary/contrast).
Emphasis “force or intensity of expression that gives impressiveness or importance to something” (“Emphasis”. 2018. In Merriam Webster.com. Retrieved on June 4, 2018 from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/emphasis).
Movement “the quality (as in a painting or sculpture) of representing or suggesting motion” (“Movement”. 2018. In Merriam Webster.com. Retrieved on June 4, 2018 from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/movement).
Variety “a number or collection of different things especially of a particular class”
(“Variety”. 2018. In Merriam Webster.com. Retrieved on June 4, 2018 from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/variety).
Pattern “The obvious emphasis on certain visual form relationships and certain
directional movements within the visual field. It also refers to the repetition of elements
or the combinations of elements in readily recognized systematic organization” (Ocvirk,
1962, p. 160).
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