Estambul Y Sus Revoluciones: Camino Hacia La Modernidad

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Estambul Y Sus Revoluciones: Camino Hacia La Modernidad Estambul y sus revoluciones: camino hacia la modernidad Frédéric Hitzel* i hoy me toca a mí, mañana te tocará a ti”. Esta advertencia, que es “Sfrecuente encontrar grabada en los epitafios de las estelas funerarias otomanas, recuerda al buen musulmán que todos los hombres están desti­ nados a morir, en un tiempo límite fijado por Dios. Este término predes­ tinado no puede adelantarse ni atrasarse, tal como lo dice otra fórmula funeraria común en los cementerios de Estambul: “Puesto que le llegó su fin, no podría haber piedad para él”. Este precepto se aplica a todo ser humano, incluso a los sultanes otomanos que, desde su capital de Estambul, gobier­ nan el más vasto imperio musulmán, que se extiende desde las riberas del Adriático hasta los confines de África del Norte (excepto Marruecos), pa­ sando por la península arábiga. Sin embargo, es obvio: el soberano otomán no era el primer fiel que llegaba. Era la sombra de Dios en la Tierra, lo que hacía de él una pieza esencial del sistema institucional. Su muerte plantea­ ba la delicada cuestión de su sucesión. Si bien la mayoría de los sultanes murieron en el trono, algunos fueron depuestos, y otros asesinados. Esto es lo que ocurrió al sultán Selim III, quien tuvo que ceder el trono a su primo Mustafá IV en 1807, antes de ser salvajemente ejecutado el año siguiente. El trágico final de su reinado, sobre el que volveremos más adelante, marcó fuertemente la historiografía turca. En efecto, más que cualquier otro sul­ tán antes que él, Selim III fue testimonio de una voluntad de renovación del Estado otomano, que hizo de él el verdadero precursor de los sultanes y * Traducción del francés de Arturo Vázquez Barrón. 30 DOSSIER grandes visires reformadores del siglo XIX.1 Además, su reinado coincidió con algunos grandes acontecimientos de finales de los siglos XVIII y XIX. Comienza con él una nueva fase de la historia del Estado otomano cuando, por su parte, en la otra orilla del Atlántico, México estaba viviendo su pro­ ceso de independencia. Así como los siglos XVI y XVII fueron brillantes para el Imperio Otomano y su capital Estambul, que se había convertido en uno de los faros del Viejo Mundo, de igual manera los últimos años del siglo XVII anuncian un cambio de dirección que empezó con el repliegue de las tropas otomanas ante Viena en 1683. El siglo siguiente marca el verdadero inicio de la ofensiva de las gran des potencias europeas, tanto en el ámbito militar y diplomático como en el económico, sin contar con la influencia occidental que empieza a ejer­ cerse en los espectros técnico y cultural. En el plano militar, rusos y austria­ cos logran victorias que obligan a un repliegue de las fronteras del imperio; en el económico, franceses y, en menor grado, ingleses y holandeses, incre­ mentan su penetración en el Mediterráneo. Por último, todas estas nacio­ nes ejercen un nuevo tipo de presión al favorecer a las minorías cristianas del imperio (armenios y griegos), injerencia de carácter social que luego se va a transformar en apoyo político. Este declive del Imperio Otomano va a aparecer de manera notable en el momento de la guerra ruso­turca (1768­1774), que marca el inicio de lo que suele llamarse la “Cuestión de Oriente”.2 Desde la firma del desastroso tratado de Kutchuk Kainardji (julio de 1774), que consagra los progresos militares, diplomáticos y políticos de Rusia, el nuevo sultán Abdul­Hamid I (1774­1789) trabaja para renovar el Estado otomano y, en primer lugar, para constituir un ejército y una flota capaces de proteger las fronteras del impe rio. Es así como, desde 1774, confía al barón François de Tott, un gen til hombre 1 El mejor estudio sobre Selim III es el de Stanford J. Shaw, Between Old and New, The Ottoman Empire Under Sultan Selim III, 1789-1807. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1971. 2 La “Cuestión de Oriente” corresponde a un conjunto de hechos que se desarrollaron entre 1774 (Tratado de Kutchuk Kainardji) y 1923 (Tratado de Lausana). Sus principales rasgos son el desmem­ bramiento progresivo del Imperio Otomano y la rivalidad de las grandes potencias para establecer su control e influencia sobre el Imperio Balcánico y los países de la ribera del Mediterráneo. Ver Edo­ uard Driault, La Question d’Orient. Depuis ses origines jusqu’à nos jours. París: 1898; J. Ancel, Manuel his- torique de la Question d’Orient. París: 1923; M. S. Anderson, The Eastern Question, 1774-1923. Londres­ Nueva York: 1966. 31 DOSSIER húngaro al servicio de Francia, la creación de una artillería moderna.3 Con la ayuda de un renegado escocés llamado Campbell, apodado “Mustafá el inglés” (Ingiliz Mustafa), de un oficial de artillería francés, Antoine­Charles Aubert, y de una compañía de doce maestros obreros enviados por la corte de Versalles, Tott organizó un nuevo cuerpo de artillería de tiro rápido, de pocos efectivos, pero bien entrenados, bien dirigidos y dotados con caño­ nes, algunos proporcionados por Francia; por otra parte, crea en Estambul una fundición de cañones y una escuela de ingenieros, dirigidas a partir de 1784 por dos oficiales del cuerpo de ingenieros militares, de La Fitte­Clavé y Monnier de Courtois.4 Se renueva la marina bajo la enérgica batuta de un almirante mayor, Djezayirli Ghazi Hasan Pacha, quien da inicio en los diferentes arsenales del imperio a la construcción de navíos modernos, para lo cual recurre a técni­ cos extranjeros dirigidos por dos ingenieros franceses del puerto de Lorient, Le Roy y Durest, y cuatro armadores originarios de Tolón. Se hacen es­ fuerzos para reclutar y entrenar marinos; al mismo tiempo se llevan a cabo me jo ras en las carenas de las naves y surgen las primeras lanchas cañoneras. Para lelamente a este reordenamiento en el ámbito militar, el sultán dirige su atención y esfuerzos al mejoramiento de las condiciones económicas: alienta las industrias locales, le apuesta a vigorizar la industria textil, en fuerte competencia con los productos europeos favorece la fabricación de artesanías. Estas medidas se topan con la oposición de los conservadores, de los religiosos (ulemas) y de ciertos jefes militares.5 A los reformadores con­ vencidos, aunque poco numerosos, se les acusa además, en razón del lla mado que se hace a técnicos europeos, a menudo franceses, de minar las bases 3 Su estancia en Oriente dará origen a un relato, verdadero best-seller de la época: Baron F. de Tott, Mémoires sur les Turcs et les Tartares. Ámsterdam: 1784, 3 vol., reedición de Ferenc Tóth, en las edicio­ nes Honoré Champion, 2004. Ver también F. Tóth, La guerre russo-turque (1768-1774) et la défense des Dardanelles. L’extraordinaire mission du baron de Tott. París: Économica, 2008. 4 Auguste Boppe, “La France et le militaire turc au XVIIIe siècle”, Feuilles d’histoire du XVIIe au XXe siècle, VII (1912), pp. 386­402 y 490­501; A. Arcelin, “Une mission militaire en Turquie (1784­ 1788)”, Revue de la Société littéraire, historique et archéologique du département de l’Ain, 1873­1874, pp. 8­25; Frédéric Hitzel, “Les écoles de mathématiques turques et l’aide française (1775­1798)”, Actes du sixième congrès international d’histoire économique et sociale de l’Empire ottoman et de la Turquie (1326-1960), Aix­en­Provence (1­4 julio, 1992), Collection Turcica, VIII, 1995, pp. 813­825. 5 Uriel Heyd, “The Ottoman ‘Ulema and Westernization in the time of Selim III and Mahmud II”, Studies in Islamic History and Civilization, Scripta Hierosolymitana, 10, 1961, pp. 63­96. 32 DOSSIER reli gio sas y sociales del Estado. Esta oposición a las reformas tiene el apoyo velado de los rusos y los austriacos, a los que no les interesa mucho que el Estado otomano elimine sus debilidades y con ello aumente su poderío. Catalina II manifiesta, por lo demás, sus intenciones de manera abierta: en 1779, sus tropas penetran en Crimea, el viejo territorio musulmán del Norte del Mar Negro (anexión confirmada por el tratado de Aynali Kavak, de enero de 1784). El mismo año, el feldmariscal Potemkine funda la puerta marítima de Sebastopol en el emplazamiento de un pueblo tátaro, sentando así las bases del principal puerto de guerra ruso que permitía el acceso al Mediterráneo. En Estambul, aunque encerrado y aislado en el palacio de Topkapi, el jo ven príncipe Selim, nacido el 24 de diciembre de 1761, sigue de cerca todos estos acontecimientos. Quienes lo mantienen al corriente de las refor­ mas de su tío Abdul­Hamid I son sus esclavos y sus amigos, así como tam­ bién su médico veneciano, el doctor Lorenzo, a sueldo al mismo tiempo de las embajadas francesa y austriaca, particularidad ésta que es necesario ha­ cer notar. Bajo su influencia, incluso antes de subir al trono, entendía la necesidad de reformar el imperio, pero la idea que se hacía de ella seguía siendo­­ tradicional. Para él, era preponderante poner fin a los abusos y a la ine­­ficiencia, restaurar el espíritu de disciplina y de servicio, pero sin dejar de respetar el marco tradicional. Deseoso de conocer a los otros regímenes del mundo, en particular el de Francia, debido al lugar que tenían en Estambul los técnicos de aquella nación, el príncipe Selim mantiene una correspondencia secreta con el rey Luis XVI, modelo del monarca cultivado que desea llegar a ser.6 Pero el 7 de abril de 1789, cuando a los 28 años sube al trono con el nombre de Selim III y se apresta a solicitar la ayuda del rey de Francia para reorganizar sus ejér­ citos y recuperar los territorios otomanos dejados en manos de Rusia, ocu­ rren dos acontecimientos que se contraponen a sus proyectos: en Francia, los Estados Generales, que marcan el inicio de la Revolución Francesa, están a punto de ser convocados, y estalla un nuevo conflicto social entre el Imperio otomano y Rusia.
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