THE MALAY PENINSULA CROSSROADS OF THE MARITIME SILK ROAD (100 BG- 1300 AD)

BY

MICHEL JACQ;HERGOUALC'H

TRANSLATED BY VICTORIA HOBSON

BRILL LEIDEN • BOSTON • KOLN 2002 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xix LIST OF DOCUMENTS xxi LIST OF FIGURES xxiii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xxxvii INTRODUCTION 1

CHAPTER I. THE IMPACT OF GEOLOGY, RELIEF AND CLIMATE ON THE HISTORIC DESTINY OF THE MALAY PENINSULA 3 A. GEOLOGICAL HISTORY 4 I. The Position of the Malay Peninsula in Relation to the Continent of Asia 4 II. The Sunda Platform: The Geological History of the Malay Peninsula 5 III. The Rocks and Soils of the Malay Peninsula 6 B. THE GREAT RELIEF ZONES 8 I. The Mountain Ranges 8 1. The Tenasserim Range 8 2. The Nakhon Si Thammarat Range 9 3. The Kedah-Singgora Range 10 4. The Bintang Range 11 5. The Kledang Range 12 6. The Main Range 12 7. The Mount Benom Range 13 8. The TahanRange 13 9. The Eastern Range 13 II. The Plains 14 III. The Rivers 15 C. THE CLIMATE 17 I. The System of the Monsoons 18 II. A Breakdown of the System of the Monsoon Winds and Ocean Currents 19 III. Other Features of the Climate 21 viii TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER II. THE MALAY PENINSULA: OBSTACLE OR SOURCE OF CONTACTS AND PROFIT AMONG THE ASIAN CIVILIZATIONS? 23 A. THE PEOPLES OF THE MALAY PENINSULA 23 B. THE MALAY PENINSULA AS OBSTACLE 30 I. The Transpeninsular Routes 30 1. Various accounts concerning the real possibility of the use of transpeninsular routes 34 2. How were the transpeninsular routes used? 41 3. What were these possible routes across the isthmus?.. 44 II. Circumpeninsular Navigation 50 III. The Merchant Ships of the Southern Seas 57 C. THE PENINSULA AS SOURCE OF CONTACTS AND PROFITS 61 I. Landing Places 61 II. "The Strange and the Precious" 64 III. Mineral Resources 65 1. Gold 66 2. Tin 66

CHAPTER III. CONTACTS BETWEEN THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT AND THE MALAY PENINSULA BEFORE INDIANIZATION 73 A. NEW DEFINITIONS OF INDIANIZATION 74 B. INTER-REGIONAL CONTACTS IN SOUTHEAST ASIA IN THE EARLY PERIOD 74 C. CONTACTS BETWEEN INDIA AND SOUTHEAST ASIA IN THE EARLY PERIOD 80 I. BanDonTaPhet 80 II. Khao SamKeo 82 III. Khuan Luk Pat 84 IV. Kuala Selinsing... 89

CHAPTER IV. THE FIRST ACCOUNTS OF INDIANIZATION IN THE MALAY PENINSULA: FROM THE FIRST CENTURIES OF THE ERA TO THE END OF THE 4™ CENTURY 95 TABLE OF CONTENTS ix

CHAPTER V. PANPAN, FROM THE 5™ TO THE 8™ CENTURY: HISTORY AND BRAHMANICAL RELIGIOUS REMAINS 107 A. HISTORIC REFERENCES TO PANPAN IN THE ASIAN CONTEXT 107 B. BRAHMANICAL RELIGIOUS REMAINS 116 I. Images of Visnu 116 1. TheChaiya Visnu 116 2. Visnu images similar to the Chaiya Visnu ?. 118 3. The Satingpra Visnu 120 4. Two Wiang Sa statues of Visnu 120 5. TheKhaoSi Vichai Visnu 121 6. Bases of statues of Visnu 122 7. Two Khao Si Vichai images of Visnu from Group B.. 122 8. The Wat Chom Thong (Sichon) Visnu 123 9. The Wat Phra Narai (Tha Sala) Visnu 123 10. Other vestiges from Group C 123 11. TheTakuaPa Visnu 124 12. The Wat Phra Phikanet head of Visnu 127 II. Lihgas 128 III. Ablution Basins and Pedestals 131 IV. Ganesa 133 V. Brahmanical Architectural Remains 134

CHAPTER VI. PANPAN, FROM THE 5™ TO THE 8™ CENTURY: BUDDHIST RELIGIOUS REMAINS 143 A. IMAGES OF TRADITIONAL BUDDHISM 143 1. The Wiang Sa Buddha 143 2. The Sichon head of Buddha 144 3. Statue of Buddha 145 4. Bronze head and torso of Buddha 145 5. Bronze statuette of Buddha from Wat Chom Thong (Sichon) 145 6. Statue of seated Buddha from Wat Phra Barommathat (Chaiya) 146 7. Stone statuette of Buddha from Satingpra 146 8. Statues of Buddha in the Dvaravati style 147 9. Wheels of the Law 148 X TABLE OF CONTENTS

B.MAHAYANA IMAGES 149 1. Stone statue of Avalokitesvara from Chaiya 149 2. Bronze A valokitesvara from Khuan Saranrom 150 3. Stone head from Khao Nam Ron (Chaiya) 151 4. Stone statue of Avalokitesvara 152 5. Stone statue of Avalokitesvara from Wat Phra Barommathat (Chaiya) 153 6. Fragment of a statue from Khao Si Vichai (Phunphin) 154 C. VOTIVE TABLETS 155 D. VOTIVE STUPAS 158

CHAPTER VII. LANGKASUKA: FROM THE 5™ TO THE END OF THE 8™ CENTURY 161 A. LANGKASUKA IN THE ANCIENT TEXTS 161 B. ON THE SITE OF LANGKASUKA: REMAINS LINKED TO RELIGIOUS RITES 166 I. The Site of the Ancient City 166 II. A Possible Geography of Langkasuka in the Early Period 168 III. Archaeological Remains Linked to Religious Rites 171 ARCHITECTURE 171 OBJECTS OF BUDDHIST DEVOTION 175 1. The votive stupas i 175 2. The votive tablets 179 SCULPTURE 183 1. Buddhist works 184 2. Brahmanical works 187 ARTISTIC INFLUENCES ON LANGKASUKA 188 C. ON THE SITE OF LANGKASUKA: REMAINS FROM COMMERCIAL ACTIVITY 191

CHAPTER VIII. JIECHA (SOUTH KEDAH): FROM THE 51" TO THE END OF THE 8™ CENTURY. CHITU : AT THE BEGINNING OF THE 7™ CENTURY 193 JIECHA (SOUTH KEDAH) 193 A. SOUTH KEDAH IN THE EARLY TEXTS 193 TABLE OF CONTENTS xi

B. THE POSSIBLE GEOGRAPHY AND ECONOMY OF SOUTH KEDAH IN THE EARLY PERIOD 197 I. The Coastal Landscape of South Kedah in the Early Period 197 II. Agricultural Activity in South Kedah in the Early Period 198 III. The Consequences of Agricultural Activity on the Morphology of the Landscape of South Kedah 199 IV. An Estimate of the Population of South Kedah in the Early Period 200 C. THE FIRST ARCHAEOLOGICAL VESTIGES OF SOUTH KEDAH. 202 I. Architectural Remains 203 II. The Inscriptions 207 1. Engraved stone from site NB2 (Iw) 207 2. Inscribed tablet from site SB2 (2w) 209 3. Deposit Reliquary of site SB 14 (Ww) 210 4. The Cherok Tokun inscription 213 5. The Mahanavika Buddhagupta inscription 214 6. The Kampong Sungai Mas inscription 216 7. The Bukit Meriam inscription 219 III. Other Archaeological Objects 223 1. Statuette of Buddha from site SB 3 (16Aw) 223 2. Head of Buddha 225 3. The Kampong Sungai Mas pedestal 226 4. Top of a bronze reliquary 226 5. The Ipoh Buddha 227 6. The Tanjung Ramboutan (Perak) statuette of Buddha 227 7. Presentation bowl 228 CHITU 229

CHAPTER IX. SRIVIJAYA AND THE MALAY PENINSULA: FROM THE END OF THE 7™ TO THE 8™ CENTURY 233 A. SRIVIJAYA: MYTH OR REALITY? 233 B. SRIVIJAYA's HOLD OVER THE PENINSULA: LITERARY AND EPIGRAPHIC AL INDICATIONS (7TH TO 8TH CENTURIES) 240 I. In South Kedah (Jiecha) 240 II. InPanpan 241 III. In Langkasuka 247 C. TOWARDS A REAPPRAISAL OF SRIVIJAYA'S HOLD OVER THE MALAY PENINSULA 248 xii TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER X. THE TURN OF THE 9TH CENTURY IN THE MALAY PENINSULA: THE ASIAN POLITICAL CONTEXT AND THE ENTREPOT PORTS 257 A. THE POLITICAL CONTEXT OF ASIA IN THE 9TH CENTURY 258 I. The Middle East 258 II. Central Asia 262 III. China 264 IV. Campa 267 V. Srivijaya 270 VI. ThePalas 270 VII. South India 272 VIII. Sri Lanka 275 B. THE ENTREPOT PORTS OF THE 9™ CENTURY 280 I. LaemPho 280 1. Discovery, location, excavation 280 2. Archaeological discoveries 281 II. Yarang 283 III. Ko Kho Khao 284 1. Discovery and location 284 2. Archaeological discoveries 285 IV. Kampong Sungai Mas 294 1. Discovery and location 294 2. Excavation 296 3. Archaeological discoveries 296

CHAPTER XI. THE TURN OF THE 9'" CENTURY IN THE MALAY PENINSULA: RELIGIOUS REMAINS 301 A. ARCHITECTURAL REMAINS 301 I. The East Coast of the Peninsula 301 Panpan 301 1. WatKeo 302 2. Wat Long 305 3. Wat Phra Barommathat 305 4. Other architectural vestiges 307 5. Other hills 307 6. Hills of Phunphin 307 7. Monuments from the southern limits of Panpan 308 Langkasuka 308 II. The West Coast of the Peninsula 308 TABLE OF CONTENTS xiii

LKoKhoKhao-TakuaPa 308 2. South Kedah 310 B. SCULPTURAL REMAINS 311 I. Remains on the East Coast 311 Panpan 311 1. Avalokitesvara from Wat Phra Barommathat 311 2. Another Avalokitesvara from Wat Phra Barommathat. 312 3. Small Mahayana Buddhist bronzes 313 4. Avalokitesvara fromPhunphin 314 5. Buddha from Tham Khuha Sawan 315 6. Votive tablets 316 The Southern part of Panpan 318 1. Votive tablets 319 2. Head of Buddha from Wat Khanaram (Na San) 319 3. Avalokitesvara from Na San 319 4. Avalokitesvara from Nong Hoi 321 5. Two other two-armed Avalokitesvaras 321 6. Bronze images from the vicinity of Satingpra 322 7. Gilt bronze image of Buddha from Satingpra 323 8. Ganesa fromNa San 324 9. Agastya from Satingpra 324 10. Siva from Nong Hoi 325 Langkasuka 326 1. Buddha from Wat Khuhaphimuk (Yala) 326 2. Bronze votive stiipa from Wat Khuhaphimuk 326 3. Avalokitesvara from Betong 327 4. Votive tablets 327 5. Votive stupas 328 II. Remains on the West Coast 328 The region ofTakua Pa 328 1. The Phra Narai group of statues 328 2. Ganesa from Ko Kho Khao 331 3. Somaskanda from Ko Kho Khao 331 4. Bronze statuette of Buddha from Ko Kho Khao 331 5. Votive tablets 331 The caves of the Trang Region 331 Two caves in Perils (Malaysia) 332 The cave ofGua Berhala in Kelantan (Malaysia) 332 South Kedah 332 Perak 333 xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Avalokitesvara from Bidor 333 2. Small bronze throne 334 3. Two lost bronze images 334 4. Stone votive stupa 335 5. Agastya from Jalong 335 Vicinity ofPulau Ketam near Klang (Selangor, Malaysia) 335 1. Bronze Avalokitesvara 336

CHAPTER XII. THE SITUATION IN THE MALAY PENINSULA IN THE 10™ AND 11™ CENTURIES: THE APPEARANCE OF TAMBRALINGA 339 A. THE POLITICO-COMMERCIAL ASIAN CONTEXT IN THE 10TH AND 11THCENTURIES 340 I. China 340 II. The Middle East 342 III. South India, Srivijaya and Java 345 IV. Tambralinga Seen through the Texts 348 1. Chronicles written in Pali 348 2. The Chinese texts 351 V. The Colas in the Malay Peninsula 355 VI. Burma in the Malay Peninsula 358 B. ARCHAEOLOGICAL REMAINS THAT BEAR WITNESS TO THE l 0TH AND 11 ™ CENTURIES IN THE MALAY PENINSULA 361 I. Theories Concerning Commercial Activities in this Period 361 1. East coast 361 2. West coast 363 3. The Vicinity of Mergui-Tenassarim 364 II. Architectural Remains 366 1. In the Chaiya region 366 2. In Langkasuka 367 3. In South Kedah 367 III. Sculptural Remains 371 1. Buddha from WatKeo 371 2. Bronze statuettes of Buddha 373 3. Works in the Dvaravati style 375 4. Visnu in the Khmer Khleang style 380 5. Eleven-headed Avalokitesvara from Satingpra 381 6. Cola images 382 TABLE OF CONTENTS xv

7. Votive tablets 386

CHAPTER XIII. THE COMMERCIAL BOOM IN THE MALAY PENINSULA IN THE 12™ AND 13™ CENTURIES: IN TAMBRALINGA 391 A. THE ASIAN POLITICAL CONTEXT IN THE 12™ AND 13™ CENTURIES 392 I. China 392 II. The Middle East 395 III. India 395 IV. Insulinde (The East Indies) 396 V. Other Regions of Southeast Asia 397 1. Burma 397 2. Cambodia 397 B. TAMBRALINGA IN THE 12™ CENTURY 399 I. Historical Facts Related to the 12lh Century 399 II. Archaeological and Topological Facts Related to the 12lh Century 402 1. Khmer statuettes in bronze 402 a. A Bronze statuette of Prajnaparamita 402 b. Another bronze statuette of Prajnaparamita 403 c. Ganesa 403 d. Hevajra 404 e. Bronze ornaments 404 f. Bronze Buddha from Wat Nangtra 404 2. Votive tablets 406 3. Khmer ceramics 407 4. Chinese ceramics 408 The Topological evolution of the east coast 408 ThaRua 409 Ban Thai Samphao and Wat Rang 411 Satingpra 411 Other sites with Chinese ceramics on the east coast... 415 Pulau Tioman 417 Sites with Chinese ceramics on the west coast 418 5. The local ceramics of the kilns of KokMoh 418 6. Middle Eastern ceramics and glass 420 C. TAMBRALINGA FROM THE END OF THE 12™ TO THE BEGINNING OF THE 13™ CENTURY 421 xvi TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. Historical Facts 421 II. The Archaeological Facts 429 1. Stupa from Wat Phra Borommathat 429 2. An Inscription from Nakhon Si Thammarat 431 3. Stone brackets from ThaRua 431 4. Stones from MokLan 432 5. The Nakhon Si Thammarat school ojsculpture 433 6. The Chaiya school of sculpture 436 a. The Buddha of Grahi 436 b. The head of Buddha from Wat Phra Barommathat (Chaiya) 439 c. Stuccoed ornaments from Tham Khuha Sawan 441

CHAPTER XIV. THE COMMERCIAL BOOM IN THE MALAY PENINSULA IN THE 12™ AND 13™ CENTURIES: IN JIECHA (SOUTH KEDAH) 443 A. THE ENTREPOTS PORT SITES 443 I. Kampong Pengkalan Bujang 444 1. Discovery and location 444 2. Excavation 444 3. Archaeological finds 446 a. Ceramics 446 b. Glass 448 c. Beads 449 d. Miscellaneous objects 449 4. Observations 449 II. Kampong Simpor Tambang 451 1. Discovery and location 451 2. Archaeological discoveries 452 3. Observations 453 III Kampong Sireh 453 1. Discovery and location 453 2. Archaeological discoveries 454 3. Observations 455 IV. Evaluation of the Topographical Evolution of the Region from the 12Ih to the 14th Century 455 B. THE ARCHITECTURAL REMAINS 457 I. Brahmanical Architectural Remains 457 II. Unidentified or Unexcavated Remains 468 TABLE OF CONTENTS xvii

C. ARCHAEOLOGICAL DISCOVERIES 472 I. The Inscriptions 472 II. Sculptures 473 III. Imported Ceramics 475 IV. Middle Eastern Glassware 478 V. Beads 483

CONCLUSION 489 BIBLIOGRAPHY 497 CHRONOLOGY 579 INDEX 585 DOCUMENTS 609 FIGURES 655