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This Thesis Has Been Submitted in Fulfilment of the Requirements for a Postgraduate Degree (E.G This thesis has been submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for a postgraduate degree (e.g. PhD, MPhil, DClinPsychol) at the University of Edinburgh. Please note the following terms and conditions of use: This work is protected by copyright and other intellectual property rights, which are retained by the thesis author, unless otherwise stated. A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the author. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the author. When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given. Creating a Man, a Mouse or a Monster? – Masculinity as Formulated by Syrian Female Novelists through the Second Half of the 20th Century Lovisa Berg Doctor of Philosophy Edinburgh University 2016 2 Declaration This is to certify that the work contained within this thesis has been composed by me and is entirely my own work. No part of this thesis has been submitted for any other degree or professional qualification. Lovisa Berg 3 4 Acknowledgments I would like to thank my supervisor Doctor Nacim Pak-Shiraz for the guidance she has given me and the time she has spent on my thesis. I am also thankful to my second supervisor, Doctor Thomas Pierret, for his help. I am extremely grateful to Professor Kamal Abu Deeb for his friendship, unwavering support and willingness to discuss the strangest of ideas. Special thanks should be given to those who knowingly or un-knowingly have helped me to get access to the novels used in this thesis. Without their help, I would not have been able to complete the project. I would also like to deeply thank my parents, Lis and Nils Gustav, for their constant, invaluable support in all aspects, and last, but not least, my sister Clara who always believed there would be “a book”. 5 6 Abstract This literary study examines the formulation of masculinity in Syrian novels authored by women. The thesis covers the period between 1959 and 2000, corresponding to both the development of the female-authored novel in Syria and the creation of the modern Syrian state. This research engages with studies of masculinity in general and literary masculinity studies in particular. Drawing on the seminal work of Raewyn Connell as well as engaging with studies on masculinity and feminine narratology in Swedish, English and Arabic, the thesis analyses the formulation of literary masculinity through the fictional societies’ ideal masculinity on the one hand, and the female characters’ views and reactions to masculinity on the other. From a general survey of the field, 34 novels undertaking the formulation of gendered relations were identified and chosen for this study. From this selection, five themes emerged, forming the foundation of this thesis’ main chapters. The five themes explore, in turn, how stereotypes are utilised to critique gender roles, ways in which male and female characters collaborate to formulate gender norms, how female characters capitalise on patriarchy in order to enhance their lives, male characters as symbols for social and political change and finally, the difficulties included in the performance of masculinity. Each theme is exemplified through one novel, which is analysed in detail. Throughout the five chapters, the main novel chosen for analysis is put into conversation with other novels with similar themes but from different decades. This allows for an examination of changing ideals of masculinity in addition to the theme itself. The first theme, how stereotypes are utilised to critique gender roles, is studied through a close reading of al-Ẓahr al-‘ārī (The Naked back) by Hanrīyit ‘Abbūdī. The analysis illustrates how the expected normative behaviour of men and women is utilised in order to comment on the formulation of gender roles. The chapter further demonstrates ways in which what is seen as gender specific behaviour can be appropriated by the opposite gender. This is further developed through the examination of female writers taking over the male voice through a first person male narrator. The second theme, ways in which male and female characters collaborate to formulate gender norms, is discussed through a close reading of the novel Khaṭawāt fī al-ḍabāb (Steps in the fog) by Malāḥa al-Khānī. This chapter illustrates the similar expectations 7 that both male and female characters have on their sons and fellow male characters. This includes taking on the role of provider and protector, even in the cases where the female characters are able to look after themselves. The third theme, how female characters capitalise on patriarchy in order to enhance their lives, is elaborated through a close reading of Ayyām ma‘ahu (Days with him) by Kūlīt Khūrī. This theme demonstrates how the female character constructs herself and her world around the idea of a perfect male, whom she thinks will save her. The analysis examines what is seen as ideal traits in a man. It further discusses the change of the female character and how her initial utilisation of patriarchal structure transforms into a critique of the same structure. The fourth theme, male characters as symbols for social and political change, is seen through a close reading of Dimashq yā basmat al-ḥuzn (Damascus, o smile of sadness) by Ulfat al-Idlibī. The chapter connects between changing social ideals and ideal masculinity. Through Bayrūt 75 (Beirut 75) by Ghāda al-Sammān, the fifth theme, the difficulties included in the performance of masculinity, is studied. The problematic masculinity presented is then put in contrast with what appears to be a suggestion that a performance of femininity could be an alternative to unsuccessful masculinity. Whereas the novels differ in their presentation of masculinity and the utilisation of ideal masculinity, they agree on a set of core traits summarised in a hegemonic ideal of masculinity as an ability to provide and protect. The ways in which this should be performed is however closely connected to the female characters’ ideas of emancipation and women’s rights. The female writers’ formulation of masculinity can hence be said to mirror the development of the female characters and their awareness of women’s rights. The thesis hopes that its original contribution to knowledge is the identification and examination of constructed masculinities in Syrian female-authored fiction. Moreover, this thesis studies a body of Syrian fiction previously largely unstudied in Western academia, and in a framework of Swedish, English and Arabic secondary sources. 8 Lay Summary This thesis sets out to identify ways in which female Syrian authors have formulated masculinity in their published work between 1959 and 2000. The research covers a total of 34 novels and examines through them how masculinity is created in relation to the male and female characters and the fictional societies in which they exist. The novels are furthermore compared in order to demonstrate how masculinity has been created throughout the period studied as well as how masculinity has been used as a way of promoting and demoting certain ideas. The study commences with a discussion of literary masculinity and states that the concept of masculinity will be used as the ways a (fictional) society expects a grown male to behave in order to gain respect. It then discusses women writers’ different usages of male characters as ways of obtaining a wider possibility of scenarios, a political stand or higher credibility in their fiction. The study further discusses the, often negative, reactions Syrian women writers have met by critics discussing both their fiction and their male characters. Despite the negative voices, the thesis demonstrates the importance of Syrian women writers’ contribution to the development of the literary climate in Syria during the second half of the 20th century. This research further establishes the connection between the literary circles and the political arena and the role of the social realism most writers committed to during the period studied. This is a topic of particular interest since masculinity formation is closely connected to gendered behaviour and, in a wider perspective, the social structures of a society. In order to examine the use and creation of masculinity, tools formulated by female narratology are used, particularly in relation to character formation. Having laid out the foundations for the study, the thesis focuses on five different themes derived from ways that masculinity has been formulated and used in the novels. The five themes explore, in turn, how stereotypes are utilised to critique gender roles, ways in which male and female characters collaborate to formulate gender norms, how female characters capitalise on patriarchy in order to enhance their lives, male characters as symbols for social and political change and finally, the difficulties included in the performance of masculinity. Each theme is developed in a 9 chapter where a main novel is analysed in detail and then compared with other novels engaging with the same theme. The first theme, how stereotypes are utilised to critique gender roles, is discussed in chapter two. The chapter demonstrates female writers’ appropriation of the male voice and argues that the appropriation of the male voice gives weight to the discussion of masculinity, both as a critique of gender roles and as a discussion of society’s expectations on masculinity. The chapter further illustrates how women’s construction of men through first person narrators destabilises the preconception of gender by introducing concepts such as male femininity and female masculinity. The second theme, ways in which male and female characters collaborate to formulate gender norms, is examined in chapter three.
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