Notes
Introduction
1. Louis-Antoine de Bougainville, A Voyage Round the world Performed by Order of his most Christian Majesty in the Years 1766, 1777, 1768, and 1769, trans John Reinhold Forster (London: Nourse & Davies, 1772), 214. 2. Ibid. 3. Joseph Roach, Cities of the Dead: Circumatlantic Performance (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996), esp. introduction, 25–31. 4. Ibid., 25. 5. The epistemological and ideological complexities surrounding the historical anthropology of reconstructing the ‘native’ point of view were demonstrated in the famous Obeyesekere-Sahlins debate revolving around the question of Captain Cook’s divinity in the eyes of the Hawaiians; see Chapter 1, note 24. For a discus- sion of the broader historiographical implications of integrating the indigenous point of view, see the editor’s introduction to Robert Borofsky (ed.), Remembrance of Pacific Pasts: An Invitation to Remake History (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2000). A recent exhibition at the Victoria and Albert museum provides a sustained attempt to show both perspectives of cross-cultural encounters; see Anna Jackson and Amin Jaffer (eds), Encounters: The Meeting of Asia and Europe, 1500–1800 (London: V&A Publications, 2004), esp. chs 15, 25 and 26. 6. See Erika Fischer-Lichte, ‘Theatricality: A Key Concept in Theatre and Cultural Studies’, Theatre Research International, 20:2 (1995), 85–9. 7. Introduction to Tracy Davis and Thomas Postlewait (eds), Theatricality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 3. 8. Ibid., 4. 9. Foreword to Josette Féral (ed.), Substance, 31: 2/3 (2002), special number on theat- ricality, 3. 10. Mieke Bal, Travelling Concepts in the Humanities: A Rough Guide (Toronto: Univer- sity of Toronto Press, 2002), 23. 11. For a more comprehensive survey, see the introduction to: Davis and Postlewait, Theatricality, 2003. 12. Fischer-Lichte, ‘Theatricality: A Key Concept’. 13. Tracy Davis dates the coinage of the noun ‘theatricality’ to the year 1837, when Thomas Carlyle used the term to denote insincerity or inauthenticity; see Davis and Postlewait, Theatricality, 130. 14. Elizabeth Burns, Theatricality (London: Longman, 1972), 13. 15. See Jonas Barish, The Antitheatrical Prejudice (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981). 16. For a discussion of the rise of theatricality and eighteenth-century culture see John O’Brien in his introduction to a special issue on theatre and theatricality of the journal The Eighteenth Century: Theory and Interpretation, 43:3 (Fall 2002), esp. 191–4. See also my article, ‘Metaphors of Spectacle: Theatricality, Perception and Performative Encounters in the Pacific’, in Erika Fischer-Lichte et al. (eds), Wahrnehmung und Medialität (Tübingen/Basel: Francke, 2001), 215–31. 17. Jonathan Culler, ‘The Semiotics of Tourism’, The American Journal of Semiotics, 1:1/2 (1981), 137.
218 Notes 219
18. See Jürgen Habermas, The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity: Twelve Lectures, trans Frederick Lawrence (Cambridge, MA.: MIT Press, 1987); Niklas Luhmann, The Reality of the Mass Media, trans Kathleen Cross (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2000). 19. Stephen Greenblatt, Marvellous Possessions: The Wonder of the New World (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), 91. 20. Ibid., 6. 21. Ibid. 22. Graham Huggan, The Postcolonial Exotic: Marketing the Margins (London: Rout- ledge, 2001), 13. 23. Bernard Smith, Imagining the Pacific: In the Wake of the Cook Voyages (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1992), 189–90. 24. Ibid., 191. 25. Denis Diderot, ‘Supplement to Bougainville’s Voyage or Dialogue between A. and B.’, Diderot Interpreter of Nature: Selected Writings, trans Jean Stewart and Jonathan Kemp (Westport, CT: Hyperion Press, 1937; rep. 1979). 26. David Lodge, Paradise News (London: Penguin, 1991), 163. 27. This point was made at the time by no other than Herman Melville, who, in a lecture entitled ‘The South Seas’ (1858) argued that ‘South Seas’ and ‘Pacific Ocean’ were ‘equivalent terms’ but with quite different associations. The former, he suggests, connotes ‘a name with many pleasant and venerable books of voyages, full of well-remembered engravings’. The Piazza Tales and Other Prose Pieces, 1839–1860 (Evanston and Chicago: Northwestern University Press, 1987), 410. Rod Edmond argues that by the mid-nineteenth century the term ‘South Seas’ had become outmoded because of shifts in geographical perceptions and trade practices; see his Representing the South Pacific: Colonial Discourse from Cook to Gauguin (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 16. 28. Paul Sharrad, ‘Imagining the Pacific’, Meanjin, 49:4 (Summer 1990), 597–606. 29. Ibid., 597. 30. Ibid., 601. 31. The Tongan writer Epeli Hau’ofa suggests replacing the old triad of Polynesia, Melanesia and Micronesia by the more precise geographical and less racially loaded terms, ‘East Oceania’, ‘West Oceania’ and ‘North Oceania’ respectively; ‘Epilogue: Pasts to Remember’, in Robert Borofsky (ed.), Remembrance of Pacific Pasts: An Invitation to Remake History (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2000), 471. 32. Bill Pearson, Rifled Sanctuaries: Some Views of the Pacific Islands in Western Literature (Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1984). 33. Neil Rennie, Far-Fetched Facts: The Literature of Travel and the Idea of the South Seas (Oxford. Clarendon Press, 1995); Vanessa Smith, Literary Culture and the Pacific. Nineteenth-Century Textual Encounters (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1998); Edmond, Representing the South Pacific. 34. C. Geertz, ‘History and Anthropology’, New Literary History, 21:2 (1990), 324. 35. Marshall Sahlins, Historical Metaphors and Mythical Realities: Structure in the Early History of the Sandwich Islands Kingdom (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1981); Islands of History (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1985), and How ‘Natives’ Think: About Captain Cook, for Example (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1995). 36. Mr Bligh’s Bad Language: Passion, Power and Theatre on the Bounty (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992). 37. G. Dening, Performances (Chicago University Press, 1996), 105. 220 Notes
38. Anne Salmond, Two Worlds: First Meetings between Maori and Europeans, 1642–1772 (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1991), and Between Worlds: Early Exchanges between Maori and Europeans, 1773–1815 (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1997). 39. See N. Thomas, In Oceania: Visions, Artifacts, Histories (Durham, NC: Duke Univer- sity Press, 1997), and Colonialism’s Culture: Anthropology, Travel and Government (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1994). 40. N. Thomas, Double Vision: Art Histories and Colonial Histories in the Pacific (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999). 41. Johann Reinhold Forster, Observations made during a Voyage round the World, ed. Nicholas Thomas, Harriet Guest and Michael Dettelbach (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1996); George Forster, A Voyage Round the World, ed. Nicholas Thomas and Oliver Berghof, 2 vols (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2000). 42. See, in particular, N. Thomas, Cook: The Extraordinary Voyages of Captain James Cook (New York. Walker, 2003); and Anne Salmond, The Trial of the Cannibal Dog: Captain Cook in the South Seas (London: Allen Lane, 2003).
Chapter 1 Pacific overtures: trumpets, beaches and women
1. Anthony Pagden, European Encounters with the New World from Renaissance to Romanticism (New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 1993), 2. 2. See, for example, Gerhard Neumann, ‘Erkennungs-Szene: Wahrnehmung zwischen den Geschlechtern im literarischen Text’, in Kati Röttger and Heike Paul (eds,) Differenzen in der Geschlechterdifferenz/ Differences within Gender Studies (Berlin: Erich Schmidt, 1999), 202–221. 3. Andrew Sharp, The Voyages of Abel Janszoon Tasman (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968), 121. 4. Anne Salmond, Two Worlds: First Meetings Between Maori and Europeans, 1642–1772 (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1991), 22. 5. Ibid., 73. 6. Stephen Greenblatt, Marvellous Possessions: The Wonder of the New World (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992), 90–1. Greenblatt also notes that Vasco da Gama employed similar devices a few years later when trying to communicate with the natives of South Africa, p. 180, n.10. 7. Sharp, Voyages of Tasman, 44–5. 8. Ibid., 45. 9. Sharp glosses this term from a Malay word Orangkaja, ‘meaning an East Indies chief’. Evidently it was used by the Dutch as a generic term for natives, comparable to the ‘Indians’ used in the first accounts of Cook, Banks and others before local terms were developed; ibid., 44, note 1. 10. Ibid., 44. 11. Nicholas Thomas, Entangled Objects: Exchange, Material Culture, and Colonialism in the Pacific (Cambridge, MA.: Harvard University Press, 1991), 108–9. 12. For more on Omai, see Chapter 2. 13. William Anderson, ‘Journal’, in J. C. Beaglehole (ed.), The Journals of Captain James Cook on his Voyages of Discovery: The Voyage of the Endeavour, 1768–1771 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1955), iii. 838. 14. J. C. Beaglehole (ed.), The Journals of Captain James Cook: The Voyage of the Resolution and Adventure, 1772–1755 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1961), 208. Notes 221
15. Ibid. 16. Ibid., 190 and 207. 17. George Forster, A Voyage round the World, ed. Nicholas Thomas and Oliver Berghof (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2000), i. 375. 18. James Cook and James King, A Voyage to the Pacific Ocean; Undertaken by Command Performed under the Direction of Captains Cook, Clerke, (London: T. Cadell, 1784), iii. 174. 19. Greg Dening, Mr Bligh’s Bad Language: Passion, Power and Theatre on the Bounty (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 179. 20. Ibid. 21. James Cook, A Voyage Towards the South Pole, and Round the World , 3rd edn (London: T. Cadell, 1779). 22. Ibid., i. 192–3. 23. Ibid., ii. 47–8. 24. The question of whether Cook was actually perceived as a divine being was the subject of one of the famous intellectual debates between the Sri Lankan-born anthropologist Gananath Obeyesekere and the American anthropologist Marshall Sahlins. Obeyesekere took issue with Sahlin’s claim that Cook had been deified by the Hawaiians as the god Lono. See Gananath Obeyesekere, The Apotheosis of Captain Cook: European Mythmaking in the Pacific (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992), and Sahlins’s reply: How ‘Natives’ Think: About Captain Cook for Example (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1995). The dispute has engendered its own metacommentary, see, for example, Rod Edmond, Representing the Pacific, esp. ch. 2; and Greg Dening, Performances (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1996), 76. 25. Bernard Smith, Imagining the Pacific: In the Wake of the Cook Voyages (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1992), 73. 26. George Forster, A Voyage round the World, i. 427–28; cited in Smith, Imagining the Pacific, 72. 27. Smith, Imagining the Pacific, 73. 28. In a recent study, Lee Wallace has taken issue with the resolutely heterosexual perspective that South Seas’ encounter narratives and their commentators have assumed. See her Sexual Encounters: Pacific Texts, Modern Sexualities (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2003), in which she argues the anxieties induced by these encounters were directed more at the native and European male than at the female body. I will return to this provocative argument in the final chapter. 29. Louis–Antoine de Bougainville, A Voyage Round the World Performed by Order of his most Christian Majesty in the Years 1766, 1767, 1768 and 1769, translated by John Reinhold Forster (London: Nourse & Davies, 1772), 218–19. 30. Charles–Félix–Pierre Fesche, ‘Journal’, in Etienne Taillemite (ed.), Bougainville et ses compagnons autour du monde 1766–1769: Journaux de navigation, 2 vols (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1977), ii. 80; my translation, C.B. 31. Apart from the failure of the Europeans to overcome the strictures of civiliz- ation, Fesche is also, and perhaps most concerned that the French failed as Frenchmen to live up to their popular reputation as gallant and passionate lovers. 32. George Robertson, The Discovery of Tahiti: A Journal of the Second Voyage of the H.M.S ‘Dolphin’ round the World, 1766–1768, ed. Hugh Carrington (London: Hakluyt Society, 1948), 148. 33. Ibid., 154. 222 Notes
34. Robertson, Discovery, 166. Bougainville records some months later almost exactly the same scene in almost the same turn of phrase: Bougainville, Voyage Round the World, 217–18. 35. Ibid. 36. Robertson, Discovery, 180. 37. Bougainville, A Voyage Round the world, 219. 38. Ibid., 227–8. 39. Philibert Commerson, ‘Notes de Commerson’, in Taillemite, Bougainville et ses compagnons, ii. 496–7; my translation, C.B. 40. Fesche, ‘Journal’, 81–2. 41. Ibid., 82. 42. Ibid. 43. See Sahlins’s essay ‘Supplement to the Voyage of Cook, or: le calcul sauvage’, in Islands of History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985). 44. The reference here is to Marcel Mauss’s famous study, Essai sur le don (1925) and its subsequent development by Claude Lévi–Strauss. Both Mauss and Lévi– Strauss cite extensively ethnographic literature documenting women as objects of ‘archaic’ gift economies which have been cited in turn by feminist scholars as proof of underlying gender inequalities. The locus classicus of this critique is Gayle Rubin’s article, ‘The Traffic of Women: Notes on the Political Economy of Sex’, in Rayna R. Reiter (ed.), Toward an Anthropology of Women (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1975), 157–210. 45. Anne Salmond, The Trial of the Cannibal Dog: Captain Cook in the South Seas (London: Allen Lane, 2003), 382. 46. Sahlins, Islands of History, xii. 47. Ibid., 19. 48. This ‘mixed economy’ must be compared to the exchange of nails, toys, trinkets and iron tools for foodstuffs (in the main pigs, fowls and fruit), which went on almost every day during the sojourns of the various ships that called. While this was certainly an economy of material goods from the European perspective, the Polynesians doubtlessly integrated it into a political economy of status. 49. J. C. Beaglehole (ed.), The Endeavour Journal of Joseph Banks (Sydney: Angus & Robertson, 1962), i. 277. 50. J. C. Beaglehole, The Journals of Captain James Cook, i. 93–4. A great deal of commentary has accrued around this scene. Beaglehole agrees with Cook that it was probably some kind of ceremony. However, he also quotes a critical contem- porary William Wales, who, on the basis of an eyewitness from the Endeavour, blames ‘that old demirep’ Purea for contriving the whole thing, which was not even consummated as the couple in question were too terrified. He also reports that ‘Purea’ suffered severe reprobation from ‘most of the natives’ for her actions. William Wales, Remarks on Mr. Forster’s Account of Captain Cook’s last Voyage round the World (London 1778), n.52; cited in Beaglehole, The Journals of Captain James Cook, i. 94, n.1. 51. Neil Rennie, Far-Fetched Facts: The Literature of Travel and the Idea of the South Seas (Oxford: Clarendon Press,1995), 99. 52. John Hawkesworth (ed.), An Account of the Voyages , 3 vols (London: W. Strahan & T. Cadell, 1773), ii.128. 53. Rennie notes that Hawkesworth made the man slightly smaller and the girl some- what older, which ‘suggest some concern to moderate, if not expurgate, the ‘Spectacle’ for the British public’; Far-Fetched Facts, 99. 54. Ibid., 101. Notes 223
55. Ibid., 100. 56. While Charlotte Hayes actually existed, the events related in the book cannot, for obvious reasons, be historically verified. In Westminster’s Magazine, March 1774, 111, there is a reference to Charlotte Hayes. Referring to a debuting actress cum ‘Gentlewoman’: ‘she was very lately a boarder with the celebrated Charlotte Hayes; a circumstance which will inform our readers that her figure is pleasing and also that she is young and handsome.’ Cited in The London Stage, 1660–1800, pt 4, vol. 3, under 26 March 1774, Covent Garden. My thanks to Martin Meisel for providing me with this reference. 57. Anon., Nocturnal Revels (London: Goadby, 1779), ii. 21–2. Further citations will be given in the body of the text. 58. Hawkesworth, Account, ii. 128. 59. Beaglehole suggests that the word is derived from ti moro–iti or te ai moro iti, both of which refer to copulation, The Journals of Captain Cook, i. 127. 60. Hawkesworth was at this point relying more heavily on Banks’s journal than on Cook’s. In his long description of Tahitian customs from 17 July 1769, Banks notes: ‘Besides this they dance especialy the young girls whenever they can collect 8 or 10 together, singing most indecent words using most indecent actions and setting their mouths askew in a most extraordinary manner, in the practise of which they are brought up from their earlyest childhood; in doing this they keep time to a surprizing nicety, I might almost say as true as any dancers I have seen in Europe tho their time is certainly much more simple. This excercise is however left off as soon as they arrive at Years of maturity for as soon as ever they have formd a connection with a man they are expected to leave of Dancing Timorodee as it is calld.’ J. C. Beaglehole (ed.), The Endeavour Journal of Joseph Banks, 1962, 351. 61. Hawkesworth, Account, ii. 207. 62. J. C. Beaglehole, ed., Journals of Captain Cook, iii. 978. 63. Beaglehole, Journal of Joseph Banks, 351. 64. G. Forster, A Voyage Round the World, ii. 1777, 400–1. 65. This is evidently a reference to the dance interludes and divertissements which were a standard part of opera performances. 66. Michael Taussig, Mimesis and Alterity: A Particular History of the Senses (New York: Routledge, 1993), xvii. 67. For a discussion of colonial mimicry, see Chapter 7. 68. Robertson, Discovery, 193. 69. Greenblatt, Marvellous Possessions,3. 70. In Polynesian cultures mana refers to a complex system by which prestige and authority are attained and lost. 71. ‘This morn several Canoas came on board among which were two in which were people who by their dress and appearance seemd to be of a rank superior to those who we had seen yesterday. These we invited to come on board and on coming into the Cabbin each singled out his freind, one took the Captn and the other me, they took off a large part of their cloaths and each dress’d his freind with them he took off: in return for this we presented them with each a hatchet and some beads.’ The Endeavour Journal of Joseph Banks, entry for 14 April 1769. For Jonathan’s reappearance, see Robertson, Discovery, 193. 72. William Pearson has attempted to systematize first encounters between Europeans and Polynesians. According to his topology, the exchange of clothing could be the third stage in a possible six-stage process beginning with the display on shore of white tapa cloth and culminating in full-scale festivities on land; ‘The reception 224 Notes
of European voyagers on Polynesian islands, 1568–1797’, Journal de la Société des Oceanistes, 26 (1970), 121–54. 73. J. C. Beaglehole (ed.), Journal of Joseph Banks, entry for 9 June, 1769, i., 288. Beaglehole transliterates the Tahitian term as Heiva no metua, literally a ceremony for a parent, meaning here the funeral for the deceased mother. 74. Ibid., 289. 75. Ibid. 76. Works of P. Pindar, i. (London: 1816), 464. See also Bill Pearson, Rifled Sanctuaries: Some Views of the Pacific Islands in Western Literature to 1900 (Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1984), 18.
Chapter 2 Staged authenticity: the South Seas and European theatre, 1785–1830
1. See, for example, William Ellis, An authentic narrative of a voyage performed by Captain Cook, 2 vols (London 1782); and, A[n] authentic narrative of four years resid- ence at Tongataboo, one of the Friendly Islands, by Vason George in 1796, with an appendix by an eminent writer (London 1810). 2. For the importance of visual verification in travel accounts, see Barbara Stafford, Voyage into Substance: Art, Science, Nature, and the Illustrated Travel Account, 1760–1840 (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press 1984); and Judith Adler, ‘Origins of Sight- seeing’, Annals of Tourism Research, 16:1 (1989), 7–29. 3. In a recent article, Paul Ranger has discussed theatrical representations of Cook’s voyages to advance the argument that in Georgian London the stage was just such a medium of documentation, ‘Transformations and Theophanies: Documentary on the Georgian Stage’, Theatre Notebook, 56:3 (2002), 156–172. 4. Astrid Betz records at least half a dozen further performances of Muzzarelli’s ‘dance pantomime’ between 1784 and 1791; see her, Inszenierung der Südsee (Munich: Herbert Utz, 2003). Muzzarelli was a leading choreographer and disciple of Angiolini. I am assuming that Vassallo is the author of the libretto, although it is not made entirely explicit in the extant copy. The libretto contains no mention of the composer, which is entirely consistent with the approach to musical performance of the time. 5. See p. 37. 6. Greg Dening, Performances (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1996), 148–49. 7. Hawkesworth, An Account of the Voyages (London: W. Strahan & T. Cadell, 1773), ii. 168–9. 8. On Vico, see Edward Said, ‘We must take seriously Vico’s great observation that men make their own history, that what they can know is what they have made and extend it to geography’, Orientalism (New York: Vintage Books, 1978), 4–5. 9. Sergio Moravia, Beobachtende Vernunft: Philosophie und Anthropologie in der Aufklärung (Frankfurt am Main: Fischer, 1989), 12. Italian original: La Scienza dell’uomo nel Settecento (Bari 1970). 10. Denis Diderot, ‘Sur les femmes’, Oeuvres, ed. André Billy (Paris: Gallimard, 1951), 987; my translation. 11. Both Rousseau and Diderot were intrigued by what could be called feminine theatricality in the area of ‘staging’ or faking orgasm. See Rousseau’s Lettre à d’Alembert for an extended discussion of the subject and Diderot’s essay ‘Sur les femmes’. Notes 225
12. See Das weinende Saeculum: Colloquium der Arbeitsstelle 18. Jahrhundert, ed. die Arbeitsstelle 18. Jahrhundert Gesamthochschule Wuppertal (Heidelberg: Winter, 1983). 13. Umilissimo Vassallo, Cook o sia Gl’Inglesi in Othaiti Dramma per Musica (Naples: 1785). All page references to quotations from the text will be given immediately afterwards in brackets. Translations are mine. 14. Hawkesworth, Account, ii. 479. 15. George Robertson, The Discovery of Tahiti: A Journal of the Second Voyage of the H.M. ‘Dolphin’ round the World, 1766–1768, ed. Hugh Carrington (London: Hakluyt Society, 1948), 227. William Pearson remarks: ‘Such tenderness at the departure of visitors, which embarrassed later English travellers and made them suspect hypo- crisy, was not universal to Polynesia, but it was the practice in the Society group.’ ‘European Intimidation and the Myth of Tahiti’, in Barrie MacDonald (comp.) Essays from the Journal of Pacific History, (Palmerston North: Massey University, 1979), 132. First published in The Journal of Pacific History 5 (1969), 199–217. 16. Hawkesworth, Account, ii. 104f. 17. Cook o Gl’Inglesi in Otahiti: ballo storico-pantomimo in cinque atti, inventato, composto e diretto dal Lauchlin Dusqueney / Cook oder die Engländer auf Otahaiti: ein historisch- pantomimisches Ballett in fünf Akten, erfunden und zusammengesetzt von Lauchlin Dusquesney (Berlin, no publ., 1801). 18. Omai is by far the most intensively studied theatrical text to treat a Pacific theme. William Huse first pointed out the link between the illustrations of John Webber, the official artist on Cook’s third voyage, as the basis of the scene and costume designs; ‘A Noble Savage on the Stage’, Modern Philology, 33:3 (1936), 303–16. Ralph G. Allen focused more on de Loutherbourg’s contribution: ‘De Louther- bourg and Captain Cook’, Theatre Research, 4:3 (1962), 195–211. Bernard Smith, European Vision and the South Pacific, 2nd edn (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985) (first pub. 1960); and Rüdiger Joppiens, ‘Philippe Jacques de Loutherbourg’s Pantomime Omai, or, a Trip round the World and the Artists of Captain Cook’s Voyages’, in T. C. Mitchell, ed., British Museum Yearbook 3 (1979), 81–136, have provided considerable extra information on de Loutherbourg’s designs. Joppien was the first to study intensively the recently discovered costume-designs by de Loutherbourg, see 107, n.50. The most recent addition to the growing liter- ature on the pantomime is an exhibition catalogue from the National Library of Australia curated by Michelle Hetherington, Iain McCalman and Alexander Cook, Cook & Omai: The Cult of the South Seas, exhibition catalogue (Canberra: National Library of Australia, 2001). See also Paul Ranger, ‘Transformations and Theophanies: Documentary on the Georgian Stage’, Theatre Notebook, 56:3 (2002), 156–72. 19. Jean François Arnould, La Mort du Capitaine Cook, à son troisième voyage au nouveau monde. Pantomime en quatre actes (Paris: Lagrange, 1788), 3. My translation. 20. Ibid. 21. The Death of Captain Cook: A Grand Serious-Pantomimic-Ballet, (London: T. Cadell, 1789). Page references to quotations from the English version will be given in brackets in the body of the text. 22. For an account of the historical persons, see Marshall Sahlins, How ‘Natives’ Think, About Captain Cook for Example (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1995), 49, 67–68. 23. Arnould, La Mort du Capitaine Cook, 9–10; italics in the original; all translations from the French are my own. 24. Ibid., 17. 226 Notes
25. James Cook and James King, A Voyage to the Pacific Ocean (London: T. Cadell, 1784), 172. 26. Marshall Sahlins, How ‘Natives’ Think, 85. 27. The Mutiny on the Bounty was also the subject of a pantomime, The Pirates, Or the Calamities of Captain Bligh, produced only seven weeks after Bligh’s return, on 3 May 1790. For an account, see Greg Dening, Mr Bligh’s Bad Language: Passion, Power and Theatre on the Bounty (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 286ff. 28. This is not to say that the theatrical treatment ends here. A pantomime entitled La mort du Capitaine Cook, ou, Les insulaires d’O-Why-E was premiered at the Théâtre Olympique in 1814, authored by François Jeune. For a by no means exhaustive overview of Captain Cook dramatizations, see Marlies Thiersch, ‘Cook Plays Now and Then’, in Walter Veit (ed.), Captain James Cook Image and Impact: South Seas Discoveries and the World of Letters (Melbourne: Hawthorn Press, 1972), vol. 2, 43–53. See also Astrid Betz, Inszenierung der Südsee, 73–75. 29. Intelligenzblatt der Allgemeinen Literatur-Zeitung, 15.4.1795, cols 314–18; 20 June1795, 498–500; here 500. 30. Augustus von Kotzebue, La Perouse: A Drama in Two Acts, trans. Benjamin Thomson, (London: Vernor & Hood, 1799), 3. A rival translation appeared the same year by Anne Plumptre, who, like Thomson, translated several of Kotzebue’s better known plays into English. All page references to quotations are from Thomson’s version and will be given in parentheses after the citation. 31. See Jürg Mathes (ed.) August von Kotzebue, Schauspiele (Frankfurt a.M.: Athenäum 1972), 566. 32. Ibid., 115f. 33. Ibid., 569. 34. Ibid., 569–70. 35. On the tradition of the sacrificial woman in Western literature, see Elisabeth Bronfen, Over her Dead Body: Death, Femininity and the Aesthetic (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1990); and in the opera, Catherine Clément, Opera, or the Undoing of Women (Minneapolis. University of Minnesota Press, 1989). 36. John Fawcett, Obi; or, Three Finger’d Jack (London, 1800). Reprint in Peter J. Kitson and Debbie Lee (eds), Slavery, Abolition, and Emancipation: Writings in the British Romantic Period, vol. 5, Drama, ed. Jeffrey Cox (London: Pickering & Chatto, 1999). John Davy (1763–1824) joined the orchestra of the Covent Garden theatre in the 1790s, John Moorehead (?-1804) was an Irish violinist. 37. The Times, 2 March 1801, 3. 38. London Chronicle, 28 Feb.–3 March, 1801; cited in Betz, Inszenierung der Südsee, 97. 39. This summary is based on an account given in The Dramatic Censor, 28 February 1801, 133–6. 40. Ibid., 138. 41. Ibid., 139. 42. Evening Paper, 19 May 1824. 43. Gavan Daws, Shoal of Time: A History of the Hawaiian Islands (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1968), 73. 44. The Times, 20 May 1824, 2 col.e. 45. The reference here is to General James Oglethorpe, who took a party of Creek Indians to London as a publicity stunt for the new colony of Georgia. Even more noteworthy were the famous ‘Four Indian Kings’ with ties to the Iroquois confed- eracy, who created a genuine sensation in the London of the early eighteenth Notes 227
century. Their ‘progress’ has many parallels to that of the Hawaiians. See Eric Hinderaker, ‘The “Four Indian Kings” and the Imaginative Construction of the First British Empire’, William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd series, 53:3 (1996), 487–526; and Joseph Roach, Cities of the Dead: Circumatlantic Performance (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996), ch. 4, ‘Feathered Peoples’. 46. Unidentified newspaper clipping held by the National Library of Australia, acces- sion number s8467. Citations from this source will be marked NLA. 47. Ibid. 48. See The Times, 31 May 1824, 2 col. c. 49. NLA. 50. The description of the performance at Covent Garden is taken from a clipping in NLA. 51. Cited in Johann N. Schmidt, Ästhetik des Melodramas (Heidelberg: Carl Winter 1986), 54. 52. See Martin Meisel, Realizations: Narrative, Pictorial, and Theatrical Arts in Nine- teenth Century England (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983). According to Meisel, a ‘realization’ is a frozen moment of significant action. 53. The Times, 12 July 1824, 5, col. c. 54. Daws, Shoal of Time, 74. 55. See Neil Rennie, Far-Fetched Facts: The Literature of Travel and the Idea of the South Seas (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995); and Rod Edmond, Representing the South Pacific: Colonial discourse from Cook to Gauguin (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997). 56. For a detailed discussion of the ballet, see Betz, Inszenierung der Südsee, 107–15.
Chapter 3 Comedians and crusaders: anti-theatrical prejudice in the South Seas
1. James Wilson, A Missionary Voyage to the Southern Pacific Ocean, 1796–1798, intro. by Imgrad Moschner (First pub. London 1799; Graz: Akademische Druck– und Verlagsanstalt, 1966), 73. 2. For a comparative overview of the different missions and islands, see I. C. Campbell, A History of the Pacific Islands (Christchurch: Canterbury University Press, 1989), ch. 5; for a discussion of the Catholic approach to missionization, see Andrew Hamilton, ‘Nineteenth–Century French Missionaries and Fa’a Samoa’, The Journal of Pacific History, 33:2 (1998), 163–77. 3. Niel Gunson, Messengers of Grace: Evangelical Missionaries in the South Seas, 1797–1860 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978), 181. 4. Ibid., 48. 5. Ibid., 181. 6. Ibid. 7. Jonas Barish, The Anti–Theatrical Prejudice (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981), 317. 8. Gunson, Messengers of Grace, 181. 9. George Burder, Lawful Amusements: A Sermon, preached at the Thursday-Evening Lecture Fetter Lane January 10, 1805 (London: Biggs & Co., 1805). Page references will be given in brackets after the citation. 10. Gunson, Messengers of Grace, 183. 11. Cited in Vanessa Smith, Literary Culture and the Pacific: Nineteenth-Century Textual Encounters (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 82. 228 Notes
12. The best summary of the ethnographic material is still Douglas Oliver, Ancient Tahitian Society (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1974), ii. 913–64. 13. See Edward Handy, History and Society in the Society Islands (Honolulu: Bishop Museum, 1930), 62. The feather girdle became an object of considerable import- ance in internal Tahitian politics. It incorporated the pennant Samuel Wallis presented to Oberea, and later the hair of Richard Skinner, one of the mutineers of the Bounty. Its possession gave Pomare I substantial power when he finally assumed the role of king of the Tahitian group. See Oliver, Ancient Tahitian Society, iii. 1213–16; and Lamb, Preserving the Self in the South Seas, 1680–1840 (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2001), 150. 14. Lamb, Preserving the Self, 150. 15. Oliver, Ancient Tahiti, ii. 917. 16. William Ellis, Polynesian Researches, new edn, [1831] (Rutland, Vermont: Charles E. Tuttle, 1969), i. 236. 17. See J. C. Beaglehole (ed.), The Journals of Captain James Cook on his Voyages of Discovery. The Voyage of the Endeavour 1768–1771 (Cambridge: Cambridge Univer- sity Press 1955), 128. Cook’s account is lifted practically verbatim from Banks’s journal, where he describes the arioi in the section ‘Manners & Customs of the South Sea Islands’. 18. For these and further epithets, see Oliver, Ancient Tahitian Society, ii. 913. 19. George Forster, A Voyage Round the World, in His Britannic Majesty’s Resolution. Commanded by Capt. James Cook, during the years 1772, 3, 4, and 5, 2 vols, (London: B. White 1777), ed. N. Thomas and O. Berghof, i. 392. 20. Ibid. 21. J. R. Forster, Observations made during a Voyage round the World, ed. Nicholas Thomas et al. (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1996), 289–90. 22. Ibid., 290. 23. Transactions of the Missionary Society (London 1801), i. 216–17. 24. Ellis, Polynesian Researches, i. 233–4; and Oliver, Ancient Tahitian Society, ii. 917. 25. Hiram Bingham, A Residence of 21 years in the Sandwich Islands; on the Civil, Religious, and Political History of those Islands, 3rd edn [1849] (New York: Praeger, 1969), 123. 26. Ibid., 124f. 27. For an account of hula in the second half of the nineteenth century, see Chapter 4. 28. Information on the baptism is taken from the annual circular of the Winward Division of Tahitian Mission, 18 May 1819. SOAS, South Seas Odds, Box 6. The text is by H(enry) Bicknell and was printed on the mission press. Cited hereafter as Bicknell. 29. Bicknell, n.p. 30. Bicknell. 31. Missionary Sketches, no. 3, [1818] 2nd edn August 1820, n.p. All subsequent quota- tions are from this article. 32. V. Smith, Literary Culture, 58. 33. Gunson, Messengers of Grace, 11. 34. V. Smith, Literary Culture, 58. 35. Ebenezer Prout, Memoirs of the Life of the Rev. John Williams, Missionary to Polynesia (London: John Snow, 1843), 537. 36. See Kati Röttger, ‘The Devil’s Eye: Goethe, Faust, and the Laterna Magica’, in Christopher Balme, Robert Erenstein and Cesare Molinari (eds), European Theatre Iconography (Rome: Bulzoni, 2002), 243–52. Notes 229
37. Prout, Memoirs, 537–8. 38. Cited in V. Smith, Literary Culture, 59. 39. Prout, Memoirs, 538. 40. SOAS South Seas Odds Box 11, folder 8. 41. Ship Ahoy!: The Story of the Missionary Ships John Williams I. to IV: A Demonstration for Boys. Arranged by rev. Hugh Parry (London: LMS, n.d.), 11. 42. The list ‘Other John Williams Material’ is contained in SOAS South Seas Odds Box 11, folder 6. 43. ‘The John Williams Tableaux: Pioneer Missionary to the South Seas, 1817–1839. Stage Plans and Prolocutor’s Notes’. Typescript (London: Livingstone Press, 1933), 3. Subsequent page references to quotations will be given in the text. 44. ‘John Williams Moving Tableaux: Notes for Producing Moving Tabs; unpub. typescript, 4. SOAS South Seas, Odds, Box 11, Folder 6. 45. John Williams, A Narrative of Missionary Enterprises in the South Seas (London: J. Snow, 1837), 119. Williams probably borrowed the idea from a similar anecdote found in John Martin and William Mariner’s Account of the Natives of the Tonga Islands (1817), where King Finow of Tonga is astounded by a similar demonstra- tion of the written word, in this case his own name; see preface to Neil Rennie, Far–Fetched Facts: The Literature of Travel and the Idea of the South Seas (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), v.
Chapter 4 Dressing the hulas and taming the haka: performing identity in Hawai‘i and New Zealand
1. Peter Hulme, Colonial Encounters: Europe and the Native Caribbean, 1492–1797 (London and New York: Methuen, 1986), 2. 2. See, in particular, Homi Bhabha, ‘On other things’, in his The Location of Culture (London: Routledge, 1994); Jonathan Culler, The Pursuit of Signs: Semiotics, Liter- ature, Deconstruction (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1981), 216. 3. Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, Destination Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 62, 74. 4. Ibid., 55. 5. Edward Said, Orientalism (New York: Vintage, 1978), 63. 6. Augustin Krämer, Hawai‘i, Ostmikronesien und Samoa: Meine zweite Südseereise (1897–1899) zum Studium der Atolle und ihrer Bewohner (Stuttgart: Strecker & Schröder, 1906), 125–7. My translation. 7. For an account of the coup d’état, see Gavan Daws, Shoal of Time: A History of the Hawaiian Islands (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1968). Today, there is still ongoing discussion of reparations on the model of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act of 1971, or the reparations paid to Maori tribes in New Zealand in the 1990s, but understandable reluctance on the part of the US authorities to begin such negotiations. In 1983, the Native Hawaiians Study Commission set up by President Ronald Reagan reported to Congress that there was no ‘official’ US government involvement in the coup d’état and hence no liability. 8. The discursive means by which this knowledge came about cannot be reflected on here. For a discussion of this question, see Elizabeth Buck, Paradise Remade: Politics of Culture and History in Hawai‘i (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1993). 9. Nathaniel Emerson, Unwritten Literature of Hawai‘i: The Sacred Songs of the Hula (Washington DC: Government Printing Office, 1909), 11–12. 230 Notes
10. Ibid., 216. 11. For a critical discussion of the early sources, see Dorothy B. Barrère, Mary Kawena Pukui and Maron Kelly, Hula: Historical Perspectives, (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1980), 22–55. 12. Martha Beckwith, ‘The Hawaiian Hula dance’, Journal Of American Folklore, 29:113 (1916), 410–11. 13. Beckwith notes: ‘Because of this artificial form of innuendo, many of the songs quoted by Dr. Emerson are to-day unintelligible without a key. Many depend not only upon knowledge of an historical allusion, but upon some specious analogy, either of sound or of image, which carries the trick of punning and metaphor to a very high pitch, and makes an art of riddling.’ Ibid., 412. 14. Barrère, et al., Hula: Historical Perspectives, 21. 15. For a theoretical discussion of the problem of representation of performance and theatrical iconography, see Christopher B. Balme, ‘Interpreting the Pictorial Record: Theatre Iconography and the Referential Dilemma’, Theatre Research Inter- national, 22:3 (October 1997), 190–201. 16. Roland Barthes, The Responsibility of Forms: Critical Essays on Music, Art, and Repres- entation (New York: Hill & Wang, 1985), 92. 17. James Cook and James King, A Voyage to the Pacific Ocean (London: Strahan & Cadell, 1784), iii. 27; cited in Roger G. Rose (ed.), Hawai‘i: The Royal Isles, exhibition catalogue (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1980), 186. 18. On this voyage Cook and his crew had little opportunity to witness ceremonial hula performances; see Rose, Hawai‘i: The Royal Isles, 185. 19. See also the drawings executed by Louis Choris while on board Otto von Kotzebue’s Pacific voyage (1815–18). Although not published until 1822, his drawings and the lithographs executed after them refer to a performance Choris witnessed in 1816. Female dancers are clad in what folklorists and ethnographers consider to be traditional costume: a skirt made of tapa cloth and anklets plus the hand-held rattle. Choris makes an interesting gender distinction between women and men: the former, he says, performing it ‘as an amusement; the men, on the contrary, are professional dancers, and are paid’. Louis Choris, Voyage Pittoresque autour du Monde (Paris: Firmin Didot, 1822), 18; cited in Johannes C. Andersen, Maori Music, with its Polynesian Background [AMS Reprint 1978] (New Plymouth: T. Avery, 1934), 103. 20. See Andersen, Maori music, 104; and Rose, Hawai‘i: The Royal Isles, 186, fig. 142. Arienne Kaeppler terms the image Hula kuhi lima in traditional attire; Adrienne Kaeppler, Polynesian Dance (Honolulu: Alpha, Delta Kappa, 1983), 37, fig. 13. 21. Jacques Arago, Souvenirs d’un aveugle: Voyage autour du monde (Paris: Hortet et Ozanne,1839), iii. 124. My translation. 22. Ibid., iii. 126. 23. Marshall Sahlins, Islands of History (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1985), xii. 24. Rose, Hawai‘i: The Royal Isles, 186. 25. Theodore-Adolphe Barrot, Unless Haste is Made, trans. Rev. Daniel Dole (Kailua: Hawai‘i Press 1978), 50. 26. See M. K. Costa, ‘Dance in the Society and Hawaiian Islands as Presented by the Early Writers, 1767–1842’, unpub. MA thesis, University of Hawai‘i, 1951, 58. The history of hula, particularly its ill fortune under the missionaries, has been extensively documented and need not be repeated here. For different perspectives, see also (in chronological order) Emerson Unwritten Literature of Hawai‘i, 1909; Barrère et al., Hula: Historical Perspectives, 1980; Kaeppler, Polynesian Dance, 1983; and most recently, Buck, Paradise Remade, 1993, 112ff. Notes 231
27. Ambrotype was one of the earliest photographic procedures and involved printing on glass a positive image on a wet plate collodion. It was superseded by negative plates and film. 28. Barrère et al., Hula: Historical Perspectives, 41. 29. Rose, Hawai‘i: The Royal Isles, 1980, 187. 30. Kaeppler, Polynesian Dance, 23. 31. For an in-depth study of the touristic context of hula, see Jane C. Desmond, Staging Tourism: Bodies on Display from Waikiki to Sea World (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1999). 32. For the origin of the grass skirts, see Barrère et al. Hula: Historical Perspectives, 72. 33. As most tourists to Hawai‘i quickly learn, Hawaiian band music is closely linked to a Prussian Heinrich (Henri) Berger (1844–1929) who became the acclaimed bandmaster of the Royal Hawaiian Band, serving under both King David Kalakaua and Queen Lili’uokalani. Berger, a highly regarded musician in the Prussian army, was first sent to Hawai‘i in 1872 on loan from Germany to conduct the King’s band, but assumed full leadership in 1877 and became a naturalized Hawaiian subject in 1879. As well as conducting and composing, he also devoted himself to arranging and publishing traditional Hawaiian music. Among many other compositions he composed the national anthem, ‘Hawai‘i Pono‘i’. 34. Kaeppler, Polynesian Dance, 24. 35. Frank Davey specialized in producing photographs and stereos for the growing tourist market. See Lynn Davis, Na Pa’i Ki’i: The Photographers in the Hawaiian Islands, 1845–1900, Bishop Museum Special Publication No. 69 (Honolulu, Hawai‘i: Bishop Museum Press, 1980). See also Jane C. Desmond, Staging Tourism, ch. 2. 36. For a discussion of the image of the Maori as a warrior people as an invention catering to a European discursive construction, cf. the article by Toon van Meijl, ‘The Maori as Warrior: Ideological Implications of a Historical Image’, European Imagery and Colonial History in the Pacific, ed. Toon van Meijl and Paul van der Grijp (Saarbrücken: Verlag für Entwicklungspolitik Breitenbach, 1994), 49–63. 37. For a discussion of Seddon’s imperial ambitions, especially in the South Pacific, see Keith Sinclair, A History of New Zealand (Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, 1980), 217–21. 38. R[obert] A. Loughnan, Royalty in New Zealand: The Visit of their Royal Highnesses The Duke and Duchess of Cornwall and York, June 10th–27th 1901. A Descriptive Narrative (Wellington: John Mackay, Government Printing Office, 1902), v. 39. The relationship of the Maori to the British Crown has been, and still is, a vexed one and cannot be easily summarized. In the nineteenth century, a number of Maori leaders still viewed the British sovereign as an impartial place of appeal for their conflicts with the white-settler governments. 40. Jennifer Shennan has pointed out the importance of these early large-scale hui for the exchange of performance ideas: ‘Such gatherings may have sharpened an appreciation for the contrast between area styles and conventions within the dance forms, but there may also have been incentive for encouraging uniformity in some features.’ The Maori Action Song (New Zealand Council for Educational Research, Wellington,1984), 23. 41. Royalty in New Zealand, 63. 42. Ibid. 43. Ibid., 74. 44. The leader of the group is Mrs Kemp, wife of a Wanganui chief who fought with the NZ militia during the land wars of the 1860s. 232 Notes
45. Royalty in New Zealand, 76. 46. Ibid., 99. 47. Ibid., 99.
Chapter 5 Kindred spirits: spectacles of Samoa in Wilhelminian Germany
1. Theodor W. Adorno, Gesammelte Schriften (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1978), xvi. 281. My translation. 2. On Carl Hagenbeck, see Nigel Rothfels, Savages and Beasts (Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002). Despite Hagenbeck’s European-scale operations, there is not a lot of research available in English. The German literature on the other hand is considerable. The most comprehensive study to date is Hilke Thode-Arora, Für fünfzig Pfenning um die Welt: Die Hagenbeckschen Völkerschauen (Frankfurt am Main/ New York: Campus 1989). 3. Hermann Joseph Hiery, Das deutsche Reich in der Südsee (1900–1921): Eine Annäherung an die Erfahrungen verschiedener Kulturen (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1995), 26–34. 4. See the very early study by Emil Wächter, Der Prestigegedanke in der deutschen Politik von 1890–1914 (Aarau: Sauerländer, 1941). 5. Quoted in Hiery, Das deutsche Reich, 28–29 (my translations). Bennigsen’s confla- tion of Melanesians and Polynesians is intentional and caters to the prevailing discourse that saw ‘handsome’ Polynesians closer to Europeans than the ‘savage’ Melanesians. 6. E. F. Reye, Samoanische Zeitung, 13 January 1906, p. 6. My translation. 7. The positive connotations attached to the Samoans’ light skin colour should not be underestimated as a determining factor in the discursive construction of the Samoans in the European mind. Amateur anthropologists, such as the colonist W. von Bülow, were convinced of the Aryan origins of the Samoans; see Robert Tobin, ‘Venus von Samoa: Rasse und Sexualität im deutschen Südpazifik’, Kolonialismus als Kultur, ed. Alexander Honold and Oliver Simons (Tübingen: Francke, 2000), 197–220, here 203–4. 8. The proceedings of the Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte were published in the Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, 22 (1890), 387– 94. Henceforth cited as ZfE. Page references to quotations are given in text. All translations are my own. 9. For an account of the troupe, see Roslyn Poignant’s study of Cunningham’s activities: Professional Savages: Captive Lives and Western Spectacle (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2004), 198–201. 10. See Virchow’s complaints in ZfE 22 (1890), 404f.; and Sibylle Benninghoff- Lühl, ‘Die Ausstellung der Kolonisierten: Völkerschauen von 1874–1932’, Andenken an den Kolonialismus: Eine Ausstellung des Völkerkundlichen Instituts der Universität Tübingen, ed. Volker Harms (Tübingen: Attempo, 1984), 52–65, here 58. 11. Benninghoff-Lühl, ‘Die Ausstellung der Kolonisierten’, 59. 12. ZfE 22 (1890), 589. 13. For a critical view of Virchow, see Andrew Zimmerman, ‘Adventures in the Skin Trade: German Anthropology and Colonial Corporeality’, in Glenn H. Penny and Matti Bunzl (eds), Worldly Provincialism: German Anthropology in the Age of Empire (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press; 2003), 156–78, here Notes 233
158. Zimmerman discusses Virchow’s ‘antihumanistic’ stance more fully in his book-length study, Anthropology and Antihumanism in Imperial Germany (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001). 14. According to Carl Marquardt’s account, the dates were: 1895–96, 1897; 1900, 1901 and 1910–11, Carl Marquardt’s ‘Die Futa’: Ein Sittenbild aus dem dunklen Afrika, (Berlin: Selbstverlag 1905), n.p. Samoans also featured at American international expositions over roughly the same period. See Eawan Johnston, ‘ “Polynesien in der Plaisance”: Das samoanische Dorf und das Theater der Südseeinseln auf der Weltausstellung in Chicago 1893’, in Eckhardt Fuchs (ed.), Weltausstellungen im 19. Jahrhundert (Leipzig. Leipziger Universitätsverlag, 2000), 89–102. 15. Rudolf Virchow, 1896 quoted in Jutta Steffen-Schrade, ‘Exkurs: Samoaner im Frankfurter Zoo’, Talofa! Samoa, Südsee Ansichten und Einsichten, ed. Gerda Kroeber- Wolf and Peter Mesenhöller (Franfurt am Main: Museum für Völkerkunde, 1998), 370. 16. See Sierra Ann Bruckner, ‘The Tingle-Tangle of Modernity: Popular Anthropology and the Cultural Politics of Identity in Imperial Germany’, PhD thesis, University of Iowa, 1999, 376f. 17. Denkschrift, 4. Bundesarchiv Potsdam, R1001, 5576, cited in Bruckner, 380; her translation. 18. Bruckner, ‘The Tingle-Tangle of Modernity’, 378–9. 19. Carl Marquardt, ‘Land und Leute der Samoa-Inseln’, Ausstellung Samoa: Unsere neuen Landsleute, programme booklet (Leipzig: Giesecke & Devrient, 1901), 2–3. 20. Quoted in Bruckner, ‘The Tingle-Tangle of Modernity’, 422, note 90. 21. A copy of this letter with Solf’s handwritten corrections is contained in the German Colonial Archives (GCA), folder 0454 and 0455, National Archives, Wellington. Most of the archival material cited in this chapter is found in the folder ‘Ceremonies and Etiquette’, 1906–1910, collected by German colonial offi- cials in Apia. It contains several hundred pages of newspaper clippings, letters and assorted materials, documenting in the main officially organized celebrations. The very existence of such a bureaucratic category ‘Ceremonies and Etiquette’ testifies to the increasing importance laid on such events. 22. Victor Turner, From Ritual to Theater: The Human Seriousness of Play (New York: Performing Arts Publications, 1982), 80. 23. Don Handelman, Models and Mirrors: Towards an Anthropology of Public Events (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982). 24. C. Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures (New York: Basic Books, 1973), 7. 25. Miinchner Neueste Nachrichten, 26 April, 1900, 2. My translation. 26. Samoanische Zeitung, 26 February, 1910, nos. 9, 7. 27. The following account of festivities is drawn mainly from a commemorative publication: Zur Erinnerung an die Festlichkeiten zur Feier der Wiederkehr des Tages der Deutschen Flaggenhissung 1900–1910 (Apia: E. Luebke, 1910). The author Erich Luebke was the publisher of the Samoanische Zeitung. Additional material has been drawn from newspaper reports. 28. See here Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, 4th edn (London: Verso, 1987). 29. Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger (eds), The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983). 30. On German festivity culture (Festkultur) of the late nineteenth and early twen- tieth century, see George L. Mosse, Die Nationalisierung der Massen: Politische Symbolik und Massenbewegungen in Deutschland von den Napoleonischen Kriegen bis zum Dritten Reich (Frankfurt a.M. and Berlin: Ullstein, 1976); Reinhold Grimm 234 Notes
and Jost Hermand (ed.), Deutsche Feiern (Wiesbaden: Athenäum, 1977); for the Sedan and Kaiser’s birthday celebrations, see Fritz Schellack, ‘Sedan- und Kais- ergeburtstagfeste’, in Öffentliche Festkultur: Politische Feste in Deutschland von der Aufklärung bis zum Ersten Weltkrieg, ed. Dieter Düding et al. (Reinbek: Rowohlt, 1988), 278–97. 31. Most of these monuments (except the Bismarck memorial) are still extant on the Mulinu’u peninsular in Apia and have been joined by Samoan additions. 32. See the article in the Samoanische Zeitung, 20 January 1906, announcing the Kaiser’s birthday celebrations: ‘As in former years, the anniversary of the birthday of His Imperial Majesty, Kaiser Wilhelm II, will be celebrated on the 26th and 27th, with the usual functions and festivities’ (my italics). 33. Quoted in Zur Erinnerung an die Festlichkeiten, n.p. 34. For vivid descriptions of ta’alolo of the period, see Siegfried Genthe, Samoa: Reiseschilderungen (Berlin: Allg. Verein für Dt. Literatur, 1908), 175f.; and Frank Lenwood, Pastels from the Pacific (London: Humphrey Milford and Oxford University Press, 1917), 56–9. 35. Schulz went so far as to have himself tattooed in the Samoan fashion. See Hans Fischer, Warum Samoa? Touristen und Tourismus in der Südsee (Berlin: Dietrich Reimer 1984), 274–5, who cites N. A. Rowe, Samoa under the Sailing Gods (London and New York: Putnam, 1930), 85. 36. The reference here is Erving Goffman’s concept of frame analysis, keying being the procedure whereby conceptual frames are changed. See his Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organisation of Experience (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974). 37. See here the recent publication: Bilder aus dem Paradies: Koloniale Fotografie aus 1875–1925, ed. Jutta Beate Engelhard and Peter Mesenhöller (Cologne: Gesellschaft für Völkerkunde, 1995). 38. Augustin Krämer, Die Samoa-Inseln: Entwurf einer Monographie mit besonderer Berücksichtigung Deutsch-Samoas (Stuttgart, E. Schweizerbart, 1902–03), ii. 315. My translation. 39. Samoanische Zeitung, 8 January 1910, n.p. 40. At the outbreak of World War I, New Zealand sent a military force to Western Samoa and occupied the islands. The German administration capitulated without putting up any significant armed resistance. For a detailed account of this period, see Hermann J. Hiery, The Neglected War: The German South Pacific and the influence of World War I (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1995).
Chapter 6 Birds of Paradise: American-Pacific dramas of displacement
1. For a discussion of other theatrical representations of the Pacific resulting from US military and political involvement in the region in the early twentieth century, see Margaret Werry, ‘The Greatest Show on Earth: Spectacular Politics, Political Spectacle, and the American Pacific’, Theatre Journal 58:3 (2005), 4–35. 2. Homi Bhabha, ‘The Postcolonial and the Postmodern: The Question of Agency’, in his The Location of Culture (London: Routledge, 1994). 3. Despite the play’s popularity, there is very little literature on it. An early discussion of the play and its fortunes can be found in a now out-of-print account of Hawai‘i and the Pacific, Anatomy of Paradise, by the social historian and novelist J. C. Furnas, first published in 1937 and revised in 1948: Anatomy of Paradise: Notes 235
Hawai‘i and the Islands of the South Seas, rev. edn (New York: W. Sloane Associates, 1948). Jane C. Desmond provides a brief analysis in her study of hula, Staging Tourism: Bodies on Display from Waikiki to Sea World (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1999), 65–6. For a more detailed discussion, see my article ‘Selling the Bird: Richard Walton Tully’s The Bird of Paradise and the Dynamics of Theatrical Commodification’, Theatre Journal, 57:1 (2005), 1–20. 4. Richard Walton Tully, ‘A Bird of Paradise: An American play in three acts’, no place (1911). All quotations are from the typescript held in the Library of Congress, page references are given in parenthesis in the text. This appears to be the only extant copy. The indefinitive article of the title was later changed to ‘The Bird of Paradise’. 5. Anon., ‘Bird of Paradise has Scenic Beauty’, The New York Times, 9 January 1912, VIII.4. 6. The Times, 21 August,1919, 8, col. d. 7. On the eve of the London production, The Times reported that in the previous season, i.e., 1918–19, it brought in receipts of over £40,000, which converts to approximately $100,000 at the exchange rate of the time. The Times, ibid. 8. See J. C. Furnas, Anatomy of Paradise: Hawai‘i and the Islands of the South Seas, rev. edn (New York: W. Sloane Associates, 1948), 416. 9. Fendler v Morosco, Opinion of Court of Appeals of New York, 18 March 1930, 16. Source:
W. LeBaron. It was filmed again in 1952, directed by Delmer Daves, and featuring Louis Jourdan as a French sailor who falls in love with the sister (Debra Paget) of his Polynesian friend (Jeff Chandler). The similarity with the original is again the volcanic sacrifice. 19. For the term ‘salvage paradigm’, see Chapter 7, note 18. 20. Tully, ‘The Bird of Paradise’, 1. 21. For an account of the coup d’état, see Gavan Daws, Shoal of Time: A History of the Hawaiian Islands (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1968). 22. Cited in Fendler v Morosco, 13. See note 8. 23. I do not want to argue that Tully was an active advocate of eugenics. His anxiety regarding racial ‘dilution’ with its attendant enervation of ‘the Anglo-Saxon race’ constitutes part of a wider set of beliefs that fed into the ‘science’ of eugenics. In his recent study, War against the Weak: Eugenics and America’s Plan to Create a Master Race (New York: Four Walls Eight Windows, 2003), Edwin Black demon- strates that the programme was not just racially motivated but was also directed at ‘inferior’ members of the ‘superior’ race, as the Nazi euthanasia programme so lethally demonstrated. 24. Los Angeles Times, 12 September 1911, II.5. 25. See Robert J. C. Young, Colonial Desire: Hybridity in Theory, Culture and Race (London: Routledge, 1995). 26. Melville’s anti-missionary diatribe can be found in Typee, ch. 26, where he excori- ates the local American missionaries in Honolulu. 27. Robert Lorin Calder, W. Somerset Maugham and the Quest for Freedom (London: Heineman, 1972), 138. 28. See Neil Rennie, Far-Fetched Facts: The Literature of Travel and the Idea of the South Seas (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), 220. 29. W. Somerset Maugham, ‘Rain’, in The Complete Short Stories of W. Somerset Maugham (London: Heinemann, 1972), i. 38. 30. For information on Colton and the background to the play, see Ward More- house, Matinee Tomorrow: Fifty Years of Our Theatre (New York: Whittlesey House, 1949), 194–5; and John Gassner, ‘Introduction’ to Rain,inBest American Plays, 1918–1958 (New York: Crown, 1961), 48. All quotations from the play refer to this edition, page references are given in parenthesis in the text. It was first published as Rain; a play in three acts, founded on W. Somerset Maugham’s story, ‘Miss Thompson’, by John Colton and Clemence Randolph (New York: Boni & Liveright, 1923). 31. The passage in question reads: ‘Most of all we would need to intensify the illusion in reconstructing the environments, less for their picturesque quality than for their dramatic utility. The environment must determine the character.’ Émile Zola, ‘Naturalism in the theatre’, trans. Albert Bermel, in Eric Bentley (ed.), The Theory of the Modern Stage (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1968), 368. 32. It is perhaps not irrelevant to note that the real Sadie Thompson was deported back to Honolulu not for her past life as a prostitute or her flirtations with US Marines, but because she evidenced an inordinate interest in the local Samoan men. She even propositioned a local policeman. 33. For an account of William Jennings Bryan and the Monkey Trial of 1925, see Sprague De Camp, The Great Monkey Trial (New York: Doubleday, 1968). The case returned to public consciousness in 1955 against the background of McCarthyism when the play Inherit the Wind by Jerome Lawrence and Robert E. Lee was premiered in Dallas, Texas, before transferring to New York. It was filmed in 1960, starring Spencer Tracy and Fredric March. Notes 237
34. For an account of moral ‘backsliding’ among the missionaries, see Niel Gunson, Messengers of Grace: Evangelical Missionaries in the South Seas. 1797–1860 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978), 152–9. 35. Colton’s only other notable success was the melodrama The Shanghai Gesture (1926), which was filmed by Josef von Sternberg in 1941 with Gene Tierney in the leading role. 36. Morehouse, Matinee Tomorrow, 196. 37. John Corbin, ‘Rain’, New York Times, 8 November 1922, 18. 38. Gassner, ‘Introduction’ to Rain,inBest American Plays, 48. 39. A. Barnstone, et al. (eds.) The Calvinist Roots of the Modern Era (Hanover and London: University Press of New England 1997), xxi. 40. See Donald Denoun et al. (eds) The Cambridge History of the Pacific Islanders (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 314–15. See also the attempt to reconstruct the indigenous response to the Pacific war in: The Pacific Theater: Island Representations of World War II, ed. Geoffrey M. White and Lamont Lindstrom, Pacific Islands Monograph Series, no. 8, (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1989). 41. Not only did the stories win the Pulitzer Prize, but so too did the musical play. The film version, also directed by Joshua Logan, was linked with technical innov- ations, such as the use of Todd-AO and Cinemascope and colour filters. For a discussion of these and other media-related ‘breakthroughs’, see Philip D. Beidler, ‘South Pacific and American Remembering; or, “Josh, We’re Going to Buy This Son of a Bitch!”’, Journal of American Studies, 27:2 (1993), 207–22. 42. See Patricia McGhee, ‘South Pacific Revisited: Were we Carefully Taught or Rein- forced?’, Journal of Ethnic Studies, 15:4 (1988), 125–30; here 129, note 8; and Beidler, ‘South Pacific and American Remembering’, for a discussion of the various technological innovations associated with South Pacific. 43. Bruce A. McConachie, ‘The “Oriental” Musicals of Rodgers and Hammerstein and the U.S. War in Southeast Asia’, in Marc Maufort (ed.), Cultural Pluralism in American Theatre and Drama (New York: Peter Lang, 1995), 57–74. 44. See Burgin’s discussion with Homi Bhabha in Visualizing Theory: Selected Essays from Visual Anthropology Review, 1990–94, ed. Lucien Taylor (New York: Rout- ledge), 453. 45. On this point, see Beidler, who argues that Michener’s Tales reveal not only the ‘terseauthority’oftheeye-witnessbutalsointertextualdebtstoMelville,Maugham, Conrad, Stevenson and others, as well as the genre of the pre-war South Seas adventure movie; Beidler, ‘South Pacific and American Remembering’, 209–11. 46. Jonathan Culler, ‘Semiotics of Tourism’, American Journal of Semiotics, 1:1 (1981), 127. 47. James A. Michener, Tales of the South Pacific (London: Corgi Books, 1964), 157. 48. South Pacific, in Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II, 6 Plays by Rodgers and Hammerstein (New York: Random House 1953). Page references to quotations will be indicated in brackets after the citation. 49. See the next chapter for a more detailed discussion of Bhabha’s theory of colonial mimicry. 50. Michener, Tales, 157–8. 51. The replacement of indigenous culture with signs of an Asian or ‘Oriental’ presence is reinforced in the stage version of the musical. The opening scene direction, describing the setting of Emile De Becque’s plantation, specifies a ‘teak- wood pagoda’, presumably a shrine for the Tonkinese labourers: Rodgers and Hammerstein, South Pacific, 273. 238 Notes
52. Michener,Tales, 164. 53. Ibid. 54. Ibid., 165. 55. Ibid. 56. Ibid., 168. 57. Ibid. 58. Ibid., 177. 59. See McGhee, ‘South Pacific Revisited’; note 50. 60. For a lavishly illustrated account of the visual culture of ‘Polynesian Pop’, see Sven A. Kirsten, The Book of Tiki: The Cult of Polynesian Pop in Fifties America (Cologne: Taschen, 2000).
Chapter 7 ‘As you always imagined it’: the Pacific as tourist spectacle
1. The official guide distributed in 1996, for example, featured prominently two attractive young women engaged in manufacturing tapa cloth. On the PCC Home Page we find the claim: ‘Visitors can experience the charm and beauty of seven authentically recreated South Pacific Island villages in just one day at the Polynesian Cultural Center’: http://www.polynesia.com/pcc/Info/Fact.html. Last accessed, 22 July 2004. 2. Dean MacCannell, ‘Staged Authenticity: Arrangements of Social Space in Tourist Settings’, Journal of American Sociology, 79:3 (1973), 589–603. MacCannell argues that the various forms of constructed tourist attractions dissolve the clear dicho- tomy between ‘staged’ and ‘authentic’, or between ‘front’ and ‘back’ situations as Erving Goffman terms them. In reality one should speak of a continuum linking the ideal poles of ‘staged’ and ‘authentic’ with at least four intermediary or cross- over categories between them (598). These categories are by no means immutable because the insatiable tourist appetite for ‘sights’ seems to provoke redefinitions of space to cater for this need. 3. For anthropological perspectives, see particularly Nelson Graburn (ed.) Ethnic and Tourist Arts: Cultural Expressions from the Fourth World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976); and Valene L. Smith (ed.), Hosts and Guests: The Anthro- pology of Tourism (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1989). 4. Richard Schechner, Between Theatre and Anthropology (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania University Press, 1985), particularly chs 1 and 2. The most prominent perform- ance studies scholar in this area is probably Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, Destin- ation Culture: Tourism, Museums, and Heritage (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press, 1998). Jane Desmond’s study of tourist destina- tions in Hawai‘i, Staging Tourism: Bodies on Display from Waikiki to Sea World (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1999), is also an exemplary combination of performance and cultural studies. 5. The following analysis is based on a succession of visits to the Center since the early 1990s. Visits took place in 1992, 1996, 1998 and 2000. As the performances and exhibits are regularly changed, some of the observations may no longer correspond with the current offerings. 6. Terry Webb, ‘Highly Structured Tourist Art: Form and Meaning of the Polynesian Cultural Center’, The Contemporary Pacific, 6:1 (1994), 59–86; here 73. Webb is a Hawai‘i-based anthropologist who has devoted much research to the PCC. A Mormon view is provided by Max E. Stanton, ‘The Polynesian Cultural Center: Notes 239
A Multi-Ethnic Model of Seven Pacific Cultures’, in Valene E. Smith (ed.), Hosts and Guests, 247–62. Stanton is a faculty member of the adjoining Brigham Young University. He argues that the PCC is constructed around the notion of ‘a model culture’ portraying ‘the best of those tangible, believable aspects of Polynesian culture with which the tourist can identify’ (251). See also James Whitehead, ‘The Polynesian Cultural Center in Hawai‘i, Journal of American Culture, 12:1 (Spring 1989), 1–6. Whitehead argues that the Mormon faith has had a beneficial effect on encouraging Polynesian dance forms at the Center in comparison to the early missionary repression of dance. 7. For a more elaborate typology, see Smith, Hosts and Guests. I am principally concerned with those involving formalized performative elements in a cross- cultural situation. Hence the commercially important theatre tourism involving organized trips to musicals and opera in Europe and the United States is not of interest here. 8. See Schechner, Between Theater, ch. 2. Schechner differentiates this category into theme parks (Disneyland, Land of Oz), museum villages mixing fantasy and history (little or no authenticity factor) and historical museum villages concerned with presenting authentic recreations. The recreation of the historical past is either nostaglia-driven and/or concerned with cementing and staging myths of foundation. 9. For a list, see Andrew Ross, The Chicago Gangster Theory of Life: Nature’s Debt to Society (London: Verso, 1994), ch. 1 ‘Cultural Preservation in the Polynesia of the Latter-Day Saints’, 44. In this chapter Ross provides arguably the most perceptive and critical assessment of the PCC published to date, in addition to a wide-ranging discussion of the cultural idea of the Pacific today. 10. This text is based on a transcript of performances recorded on videotape by the author, on 14 April 1996 and March 1998. Although the performer was different, the text was the same except for minor details. 11. My observation of performances on several different occasions suggests, however, that a representative ethnic cross-section of the audience is aimed at. 12. Fanon’s ideas on mimicry are most succinctly formulated in his psychological study, Black Skin White Masks, trans. Charles L. Markman (1956, tr.1967; New York: Grove Weidenfeld, 1982). 13. Homi Bhabha, ‘Of Mimicry and Man: The Ambivalence of Colonial Discourse’, in his The Location of Culture, (London: Routledge, 1994), 91. See also the discussion of mimicry in Chapter 1 in this volume. 14. See Henry Louis Gates Jr., The Signifying Monkey: A Theory of African-American Literary Criticism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988). I would like to thank Marvin Carlson for drawing my attention to the similarity between the Polynesian performances and Gates’s theory. 15. As mentioned in the previous chapter, there is little doubt that present percep- tions of the Pacific in the West have been decisively influenced by the Allied– Japanese conflict in World War II. The Japanese invasion of the Pacific and its attempt to established a new sphere of influence was not just an invasion in military terms, but it signalled a geopolitical realignment of a great magnitude for the Pacific. The idea of Asia in the Pacific has today even more significance, although now in economic and cultural terms. 16. For the term ‘Fourth World’, see Graburn, Ethnic and Tourist Arts, 1976. 17. Both cultures have experienced intensive cultural revivals over the past decade, as suggested in Chapter 4. For an assessment of the Hawaiian cultural renaissance, 240 Notes
see Elisabeth Buck, Paradise Remade: The Politics of Culture and History in Hawai‘i (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1993). 18. See James Clifford, ‘Of Other Peoples: Beyond the “Salvage” Paradigm’, The Politics of Representations, ed. Hal Foster (Seattle: Bay Press, 1987), 121–50; here 121. 19. See Webb, ‘Highly Structured Tourist Art’, and Stanton, ‘The Polynesian Cultural Center’, who both note the use of anthropologists from BYU. 20. Diana Taylor, The Archive and the Repertoire: Performing Cultural Memory in the Americas (Durham, NC, and London: Duke University Press, 2003), 19. 21. Jonathan Culler, ‘Semiotics of Tourism’, The American Journal of Semiotics, 1:1/2 (1981), 127; see also John Frow, ‘Tourism and the Semiotics of Nostalgia’, October, 57 (1991), 125. 22. John Urry notes: ‘Indeed acting as a tourist is one of the defining characteristics of being “modern” and is bound up with major transformations in paid work.’ The Tourist Gaze: Leisure and Travel in Contemporary Societies (London: Sage, 1990), 2f. MacCannell links the feelings of ‘shallowness’ and ‘inauthenticity’ of the ‘moderns’ with their interest in ‘the sacred in primitive society’; ‘Staged Authen- ticity’, 589f. Frow defines tourism among other things as a quest for an authentic domain of being: ‘It is thus a marker of the spiritual self-reflexivity of modernity and directly parallel to the self-consciousness of intellectuals about their own alienation’; Frow, ‘Tourism’, 129. 23. There is in addition an IMAX cinema on site, which varies the Polynesian theme in another medium. Andrew Ross notes: ‘I was intrigued by the contradictory presence of this massive high-tech film complex on a site dedicated to theat- rical ex-primitivism’; ‘Cultural Preservation’, 81. The IMAX cinema features very prominently in all the publicity material and is evidently considered by the management to be a major draw-card. 24. The shift in gender roles from the aggressive male Maori warrior to the demure, domesticated Polynesian women underlines basically traditional topoi in the history of European perceptions and iconography of Polynesians. There is certainly no attempt to represent contemporary roles. A recent brochure from 2004 highlights a Tahitian female dancer, one of the oldest Pacific topoi. See: http://www.polynesia.com/travel_agents/brochures_images.html. Last accessed 22 July, 2004. 25. Pacific Island students make up in fact only about 30 per cent of students at the BYU campus and most are of Hawaiian origin. See Ross, ‘Cultural Preservation’, 44. 26. See Webb on the function of the Marquesas as a symbol of cultural destruction. Since the publication of his article the Marquesan village has developed an elab- orate performance routine involving a mock pig hut where (male) tourists are able to ‘hunt and kill’ a pig played by a Marquesan villager. 27. Ross, ‘Cultural Preservation’, 51. 28. By performative sign I mean more than the conventional definition of the sign in theatre semiotics, which views all signs on stage as signs of signs and is thus a special form of fictionalization. A performative sign is defined by its dependency on human agency and is closer to what Judith Butler, expanding on speech act theory, defines as performativity: the process of reiteration and with it, the potential for different modes of subjectivity. 29. The term epistemological framing is derived from the notion elaborated by Erving Goffman that all social behaviour requires conceptual and perceptual frames within which human beings agree to regulate fundamental modes of behaviour. Notes 241
Goffman’s classic definition is as follows: ‘I assume that definitions of a situation are built up in accordance with principles of organization which govern events – at least social ones – and our subjective involvement in them; frame is the word I use to refer to such of these basic elements as I am able to identify.’ Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organization of Experience (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974), 10. 30. See Frederik Errington and Deborah Gwertz, ‘Tourism and Anthropology in a Post-Modern World’, Oceania, 60:1 (1989), 37–54; here 49. The ‘hazers’ are the four members of the initiation ritual who carry out the procedure, consisting mainly of berating and humiliating the initiates. 31. Ross, ‘Cultural Preservation’, 47.
Chapter 8 Translocations and transgressions: the postcolonial Pacific
1. Although it is difficult to establish a fixed set of criteria for postcolonial theatre, the two fullest studies of the phenomenon, Helen Gilbert and Joanne Tomp- kins, Post-Colonial Drama: Theory, Practice, Politics (London: Routledge, 1996); and Christopher Balme, Decolonizing the Stage: Theatrical Syncretism and Post-Colonial Drama (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999), independently of each other identify shared formal strategies. 2. For a detailed discussion of the term ‘syncretic theatre’, see Christopher B. Balme, Decolonizing the Stage: Theatrical Syncretism and Post-Colonial Drama (Oxford: Clar- endon Press 1999). 3. These plays represent only a fraction of the production of Pacific Island drama produced over the past decade. The most detailed survey to date is the German- language dissertation by Astrid Betz, Die Inszenierung der Südsee,pt3.See also Christopher Balme and Astrid Carstensen, ‘Home Fires: Creating a Pacific Theatre in the Diaspora’, Theatre Research International 26:1 (2001), 35–46; David O’Donnell and Bronwyn Tweddle, ‘Naked Samoans: Pacific Island Voices in the Theatre of Aotearoa/New Zealand’, Performance Research, 8:1 (2003), 51–60; David O’Donnell and Bronwyn Tweddle, ‘Toa Fraser: Shifting Boundaries in Pacific Island Comedy’, Australasian Drama Studies, 42 (April 2003), 123–37. For an account of the Hawai‘i scene, see Dennis Carroll, ‘Hawai‘i’s “Local” Theatre’, The Drama Review, 44:2 (2000), 123–51. 4. James Clifford, ‘Diasporas’, Cultural Anthropology, 9:3 (1994), 302–338; here 311. 5. See, for example, Emmanuel S. Nelson (ed.), Writers of the Indian Diaspora: A Bio- Bibliographical Critical Sourcebook (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1993). There has been little research into the specifics of theatre in diasporic situations. A first attempt can be found in the special number of Theatre Journal, 50:1 (March 1998), ‘Theatre, Diaspora and the Politics of Home’, ed. Loren Kruger. 6. The term diaspora should not be restricted to Pacific Island migrants. The Indian population in Fiji constitutes a diaspora as do the various Chinese populations in the Pacific. 7. All but one of the island states named here (Tonga) were either colonial territories or protectorates of New Zealand and enjoy the status of a ‘special relationship’ to the former colonial power. 8. See Christopher Balme, ‘New Maori Theatre in New Zealand’, Australasian Drama Studies, 15/16 (1989/90), 149–66. 242 Notes
9. John Kneubuhl, Think of a Garden and Other Plays (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1997), 23. Page references to further citations will be given in brackets. 10. For the production in Wellington, the Samoan-born director Nathaniel Lees won the prestigious Chapman Tripp Theatre Award for Best Director. 11. It’s mission statement reads: ‘Pacific Underground’s aims and objectives include: to use the entertainment industry to tell the stories of Pacific Islanders who live here to create an awareness of issues facing them, to promote the talents of young Polynesian artists, and to develop Polynesian Theatre which is accessible to the whole community, Polynesian and non-Polynesian.’ Since 1992 it has produced theatre in education shows as well as acclaimed main bills such as Fresh Off The Boat, Sons, and A Frigate Bird Sings. Zeal Theatre is a theatre company founded in 1988 which creates original, devised productions dealing with relevant social issues for a cross-section of Australian society. 12. Goffman notes: ‘Expecting to take up a position in a well-framed realm, he finds that no particular frame is immediately applicable, or the frame that he thought was applicable no longer seems to be. He loses command over the formulation of viable response. He flounders.’ Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organisation of Experience (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974), 378f. 13. All quotations from Tatau are transcripts from a videotape of the production, kindly provided by Pacific Underground. 14. Alfred Gell, Wrapping in Images: Tattooing in Polynesia (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), 97. 15. Ibid., 93f. 16. Henceforth the word fa’afafine will be used as an overall term and not just as a designation of and for Samoan transgendered persons. 17. For a detailed discussion of the category, see Niko Besnier, ‘Polynesian Gender Liminality Through Time and Space’, in Gilbert Herdt (ed.), Third Sex, Third Gender: Beyond Sexual Dimorphism in Culture and History (New York: Zone Books, 1994), 285–328. For a discussion within the context of cross-dressing, see also Laurence Senelick, The Changing Room: Sex, Drag and Theatre (London: Routledge, 2000), 460–1. 18. Denis Diderot, ‘Supplement to Bougainville’s Voyage or Dialogue between A and B’, in Diderot Interpreter of Nature: Selected Writings, trans. Jean Stewart and Jonathan Kemp (Westport, CT: Hyperion Press, 1937; rep. 1979), 160. 19. George Mortimer, Observations and remarks made during a voyage to the islands of Teneriffe, Amsterdam, Maria’s Islands near van Diemen’s land, Otaheite, Sandwich Islands, Owhyee, the Fox Islands on the North West Coast of America, Tinian, and from thence to Canton (Dublin 1791; facs. edn., Amsterdam: N. Israel and Da Capo Press, 1975), 47. 20. Referring to the inhabitants of the Friendly Isles (Tonga), Forster notes: ‘The outlines of their bodies are not so beautifully feminine, as those of the chiefs in the Society-Isles [i.e. Tahiti, C.B.]’ J. Forster, Observations, ed. Nicholas Thomas et al. (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1996), 157. 21. See Lee Wallace, Sexual Encounters: Pacific Texts, Modern Textualities (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2003). On Gauguin and the ma¯hu¯, see Stephen F. Eisenman, Gauguin’s Skirt (London: Thames and Hudson, 1997). 22. See Bligh’s description of ma¯hu¯ in: William Bligh, The Log of the Bounty, 2 vols ed. and introduced by Owen Rutter (London: Golden Cockerel Press, 1937), ii. 17. 23. Bengt Danielsson, Love in the South Seas, trans. F. H. Lyon (London: Allen & Unwin, 1956). Notes 243
24. Bengt Danielsson et al., ‘Polynesia’s Third Sex: The Gay Life starts in the Kitchen’, Pacific Islands Monthly, 49:8 (August 1978), 10–13. 25. There is no space to chart the wider story of media representations of fa’afafine. Apart from a spate of magazine articles, two longer film documentaries contrib- uted to publicizing and popularizing fa’afafine among television and film audi- ences: Fa’afafine: Queens of Samoa, directed by Caroline Harker, was first broad- cast on New Zealand Television One, on 29 September 1995. For a critique, see Wallace, Sexual Encounters, ch. 6. The independently produced documentary film Paradise Bent: Boys will be Girls in Samoa was directed by the Australian-based film- maker Heather Croall. It was shown around the world at various ethnographic and gay/lesbian film festivals before being broadcast on television in Australia and Europe. For a discussion, see Johanna Schmidt, ‘Redefining Fa’afafine: Western Discourses and the Construction of Transgenderism in Samoa’: http://www.the-sisterhood.net/transworldnews/id56.html. Last accessed 19 May 2006. 26. Oscar Kightley and David Fane, ‘A Frigate Bird Sings’, unpublished typescript, 1995, 1. The following analysis is based on the script and a video of the original production, recorded on 29 February 1996. 27. Ibid., 53. 28. Ibid. 29. Transcript of an interview with Nat Lees, Television New Zealand, 29 February 1996. 30. Niko Besnier, ‘Transgenderism, Locality, and the Miss Galaxy Beauty Pageant in Tonga’, American Ethnologist, 29:3 (2002), 534–66; here 534. The following remarks draw on Besnier’s article as well as video footage of the beauty pageant. My thanks to Niko Besnier for making this material available. 31. Ibid., 540. 32. See Jocelyn Linnekin, ‘Cultural Invention and the Dilemma of Authenticity’, American Anthropologist, 93:2 (1991), 446–9. 33. Within this ‘traditional’ frame there appears to be a comfortable coexistence between fa’afafine and women as well. Generally speaking, as Niko Besnier notes, Polynesian gender-liminal persons form friendship networks with other women in the first instance and not with men, Besnier, ‘Polynesian Gender Limin- ality’, 297. 34. Judith Butler, Bodies that Matter: On the Discursive Limits of ‘Sex’ (New York and London: Routledge, 1993), 232. 35. Mary Ann Percy, ‘Having a fa’afafine Time in Samoa’, in the Sunday Star, 3 Feburary 2002, n.p. 36. Lisa Taouma in programme notes, cited in: http://www.in-transit.de/2003/ content/en/program/divasiva.html. Last accessed 19 April 2004. 37. For this argument, see O’Donnell and Tweddle, ‘Naked Samoans’; see note 3. On the fale aitu, see Caroline Sinavaiana, ‘Comic Theater in Samoa as Indigenous Media’, Pacific Studies, 15.4 (1992), 199–209. 38. Vilsoni Hereniko, ‘Clowning as Political Commentary: Polynesia, Then and Now’, Contemporary Pacific, 6:1 (1994), 1–28; here 13. 39. Donald Sloan, Polynesian Paradise: An Elaborated Travel Journal Based on Ethno- logical Facts (London: Robert Hale, 1941), 78. Cited in Hereniko, ‘Clowning as Political Commentary’, 13. 40. All citations from Naked Samoans Go Home are from a videotape of a live perform- ance kindly provided by Armstrong Creative, whom I would like to thank for their assistance. 244 Notes
41. Laurie Atkinson, ‘Crazy Samoans Pack a Punch’, The Dominion Post, 26 September 2003: http://www.nakedsamoans.com/reviews.html. Last accessed 24 April 2005. 42. There is still little scholarly discussion of Mau. See their website: www.mau.co.nz. 43. The use of Maori rituals of encounter in performance was pioneered by the Maori theatre movement in the 1980s. See my book, Decolonizing the Stage, especially chs 2 and 7. Selected Bibliography
Further sources are cited in the notes.
Primary sources
Anonymous, Nocturnal Revels: or, The History of King’s-Place and other Modern Nunneries containing their Mysteries, Devotions, and Sacrifices. Comprising also, the Ancient and Present State of Promiscuous Gallantry: with the Portraits of the most Celebrated Demi-reps and Courtesans of this Period: as well as Sketches of their Professional and Occassional Admirers. By a Monk of the Order of St. Francis. 2 vols (London: Goadby, 1779). Arnould, Jean-François Mussot, La Mort du Capitaine Cook, à son troisieme voyage au Nouveau Monde. Pantomime en quatre actes (Paris: Lagrange, 1788). ——, The Death of Captain Cook: A Grand Serious-Pantomimic-Ballet, In Three Parts. As now exhibiting in Paris with uncommon Applause with the original French Music, New Scenery, Machinery, and other Decorations (London: T. Cadell, 1789). Colton, John and Randolph, Clemence, Rain, in John Gassner (ed.), Best American Plays: Supplementary Volume, 1918–1958 (New York: Crown Publishers, 1961). Hammerstein, Oscar and Joshua Logan, South Pacific, in Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II, 6 plays by Rodgers and Hammerstein (New York: Random House, 1953). Hassell, Gladys M., The Ship of Peace: A South Sea Dialogue for three adults, three boys and two girls (London: The Livingstone Press, no date). O’Keeffe, John, A Short Account of the New Pantomime called Omai, or, A Trip round the World; performed at the Theatre-Royal in Covent Garden (London: T. Cadell, 1785). Kightley, Oscar, and Fane, David, ‘A Frigate Bird Sings’, unpublished typescript (Wellington: Playmarket, 1995). Kneubuhl, John, Think of a Garden and Other Plays (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1997). Kotzebue, Augustus von, La Perouse: A Drama in Two Acts, trans. Benjamin Thomson (London: Vernor & Hood, 1799). ——, Schauspiele, ed. Jörg Matthes (Frankfurt a.M.: Athenäum, 1972). Parry, Rev. Hugh, Ship Ahoy! The Story of the Missionary Ships John Williams I. to IV: A Demonstration for Boys (London: Missionary Society, no date). ‘The John Williams Tableaux: Pioneer Missionary to the South Seas, 1817–1839: Stage Plans and Prolocutor’s Notes’. Typescript (London: Livingstone Press, 1933). Tully, Richard Walton, ‘The Bird of Paradise. A Love Story of Hawai‘i. Unpublished MS. 1911. Vassallo, Umilissimo, Cook o sia Gl’Inglesi in Othaiti Dramma per Musica (Naples, 1785).
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McConachie, Bruce, ‘The “Oriental” Musicals of Rodgers and Hammerstein and the War in Southeast Asia’, in Marc Maufort (ed.), Staging Difference: Cultural Pluralism in American Theatre and Drama (New York: Peter Lang, 1995). Meleisea, Malama, The Making of Modern Samoa: Traditional Authority and Colonial Administration in the History of Western Samoa (Suva, Fiji: Institute of Pacific Studies of the University of the South Pacific, 1987). Melville, Herman, ‘The South Seas’, in The Piazza Tales and other Prose Pieces, 1839– 1860 (Evanston and Chicago: Northwestern University Press, 1987). Moorehead, Alan, The Fatal Impact: An Account of the Invasion of the South Pacific, 1767–1840 (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1968). Mortimer, George, Observations and remarks made during a voyage to the islands of Tener- iffe, Amsterdam, Maria’s Islands near van Diemen’s land, Otaheite, Sandwich Islands, Owhyee, the Fox Islands on the North West Coast of America, Tinian, and from thence to Canton (London, 1791; repr. Amsterdam: N. Israel & Da Capo Press: 1975). Moyle, Richard (ed.), The Samoan Journals of John Williams, 1830 and 1832 (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1984). O’Donnell, David, and Tweddle, Bronwyn, ‘Naked Samoans: Pacific Island Voices in the Theatre of Aotearoa/New Zealand’, Performance Research, 8:1 (2003), 51–60. Oliver, Douglas, Ancient Tahitian Society, 3 vols (Canberra: Australian National Univer- sity Press, 1974). Pagden, Anthony, European Encounters with the New World from Renaissance to Roman- ticism (New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 1993). Pearson, Bill, Rifled Sanctuaries: Some Views of the Pacific Islands in Western Literature to 1900 (Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1984). Penny, Glenn H., and Bunzl, Matti (eds), Worldly Provincialism: German Anthropology in the Age of Empire (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press; 2003). Rennie, Neil, Far-Fetched Facts: The Literature of Travel and the Idea of the South Seas (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995). Roach, Joseph, Cities of the Dead: Circumatlantic Performance (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996). Robertson, George, The Discovery of Tahiti: A Journal of the Second Voyage of the H.M. ’Dolphin’ round the World, 1766–1768, ed. Hugh Carrington (London: Hakluyt Society, 1948). Ross, Andrew, The Chicago Gangster Theory of Life: Nature’s debt to Society (London: Verso, 1994). Sahlins, Marshall, Islands of History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985). ——, How ’Natives’ Think: About Captain Cook, for Example (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995). Said, Edward, Orientalism (New York: Vintage Books, 1978). Salmond, Anne, Two Worlds: First Meetings between Maori and Europeans, 1642–1772 (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1991). ——, The Trial of the Cannibal Dog: Captain Cook in the South Seas (London: Allen Lane, 2003). Schechner, Richard, Between Theatre and Anthropology (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania University Press, 1985). Sharp, Andrew, The Voyages of Abel Janszoon Tasman (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968). Sharrad, Paul, ‘Imagining the Pacific’, Meanjin, 49:4 (1990), 597–606. Sinavaiana, Caroline, ‘Comic Theater in Samoa as Indigenous Media’, Pacific Studies, 15:4, (1992), 199–209. Smith, Bernard, European Vision and the South Pacific, 2nd edn (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985; first pub. 1960). 250 Selected Bibliography
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Note: Figures in italics indicate illustrations.
A Frigate Bird Sings, 203–5 Bingham, Hiram (missionary), 84–5, Adorno, Theodor W., 122, 133, 134 95, 109 Anderson, William (ship’s surgeon), 39 Bird of Paradise, The (see also Richard Angiolini, Gasparo (choreographer), 56, Walton Tully), 16, 146, 147, 148–55 224 passim, 163, 174, 177, 235 passim anthropology, 12–13, 50, 128–9, 232–3 adaptations, 153, 235–6 Antitheatrical prejudice, 5, 75–6, 77, 93 and Federal Theater Project, 152 Arago, Jacques (artist), 105–7 and hula, 153–4 Souvenirs d’un aveugle: Voyage autour du London productions, 149, monde, 106 plagiarism charges, 149–50 arioi (Tahitian cult), 15, 75, 79–84, 87, racial themes, 154–5 161, 163 stage effects, 148 Arnould-Mussot, Jean François (see use of Hawaiian musicians, 149, 150–1 Death of Captain Cook, The) Bismarck, Otto von, 124, 142 authenticity, 5, 47–8, 55–6, 61, 175–6, opposition to colonialism, 125 179, 181, 186–90 Bligh, Captain William, 13, 60, 61 Botany Bay, 61, 65 Bougainville, Louis-Antoine de, 1, 7, 9, Bailey and Barnum circus, 127 10, 12, 14, 29, 32, 50, 72, 79 ballet, 48, 50, 56, 58, 66, 67, 72 Bourdieu, Pierre, 7 Banks, Sir Joseph, 12, 36, 40, 49 Brook, Peter, 204 performing in a Tahitian rite, 44–5 Bryan, William Jennings (US politician), on the arioi,81 161 Barrot, Théodore-Adolphe (French Burder, George (cleric), 77, 161 consul), 108 Butler, Judith, 17, 201, 208, 240 Barthes, Roland, 104 Butoh, 213, 215 Bartolozzi, Francesco (artist), 41 Beaglehole, J. C., 12 Cannibalism, 79, 166 Belasco, David (theatre manager and Catholicism (see missionaries) author), 148 Choris, Louis (artist), 230 Benjamin, Walter, 42 Cipriani, G. B. (artist), 27, 28 Bennigsen, Rudolph von (colonial Clifford, James, 154, 186, 192–3 governor), 125 Collier, Jeremy (Anglican cleric), 77, 78 Berger, Henry (aka Heinrich, bandmaster colonial ceremony (see also Samoa), 16, in Hawai‘i), 111, 231 135–6 Berlin, Irving (composer), 151 colonial discourse, 12, 96 Berliner Geselllschaft für Anthropologie, colonial mimicry, 8, 22, 42, 106–7, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte (Berlin 167–8, 176, 182–4, 239 Society for Anthropology, Columbus, Christopher, 19, 21, 26 Ethnology and Prehistory), 127–9 Commerson, Philibert (naturalist), 33 Bhabha, Homi, 22, 96, 147, 182 commodification, 8–9, 17, 147, 153, 172 Bicknell, Henry (missionary), 86 Comoran (German cruiser), 135, 140, 142
251 252 Index
Cook, Captain James, 5, 7, 9, 10, 12, 13, Evangelical movement (see missionaries), 14, 19, 20, 36, 38, 43, 49, 79, 105, exoticism, 8–9, 47, 61, 155, 216 as a dramatic character, 51–5, 57–60 fa’afafine, xiii, 17, 192, 200–10, 211, 243 A Voyage to the Pacific Ocean,58 passim A Voyage towards the South Pole,25 fa’a Samoa, 207 death, 60, 218, 221 fakaleiti, 200, 205 deification as Lono, 26, 58, 221 fale aitu, 192, 209, 210 observes Tahitian sexual behaviour, 36 Fane, David, 202, 210, 212 on the arioi,81 Fanon, Frantz, 182 use of music and fireworks, 23–4 Fawcett, John, 66, 67 Cook o sia Gl’inglesi in Othaiti, 14, 48–56 Fendler, Grace Altman, 149–50, 155 Covent Garden Theatre, 58, 66, 70–1 Fesche, Charles-Félix-Pierre, 29–30, 33 cross-cultural encounter Fiji, 11, 124, 164, 177, 178, 241 (see theatricality) folkloristic performance, 97, 101, 113, Cunningham, Robert A. (impresario), 117, 119–20 127, 130 Forster, Georg(e), 24, 27–8, 40, 74, 81, Forster, Johann Reinhold, 24, 202 dance pantomime, 56 on drama in Tahiti, 82 Dancing (see also haka, hula, Samoa, Foucault, Michel, 96 Tahiti) 41, 55–6, 59–60 Freycinet, Louis, 105 and sexuality, 38–42 Furneaux, Tobias (ship’s officer), 42 Death of Captain Cook, The, 48, 57–61, 67, 72 Gauguin, Paul, 11, 202, 209, 242 Dening, Greg, 13, 49 Geertz, Clifford, 12, 136 Deutsche Kolonialgesellschaft, 130 Genealogies of performance, 1–2, 6, 12, diaspora, 191, 192–3, 196–7, 200, 204, 13, 100, 172 208, 241 Goddefroy & Son (German trading Diderot, Denis, 50, 224 company), 124 Supplément au voyage de Bougainville, Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 64 10, 53, 201 Goffman, Erving, 143, 197, 234, 240–1, displacement, 16, 147, 149, 151, 153, 242 157–63, 165, 167, 169, 171, 173 Gore, John (ship’s officer), 49, 52–5 Diva Siva – Fa’afafine Cabaret, 209 Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere Dolphin, HMS, 30–1, 34, 35, 42–3 (see Japan and Pacific), dramma per musica, 48, 50 Greenblatt, Stephen, 7–8, 22, 43 Drury Lane Theatre, 70 Duff, HMS, 74, 79, 91, 159 Hagenbeck, Carl (impresario) 15, 123, Dusquesney, Lauchlin (choreographer), 126–7, 232 56 Haka (see also Maori), 15, 20–1, 94, 95, 115–21, 116, 118, 174, 185 Eagels, Jeanne (American actress), 161, and All Blacks, 95 162 Hau’ofa, Epeli, 193, 219 see also Rain Hawai‘i, 11, 14, 15, 16, 67, 95–115 Ellis, William (missionary), 80–1 passim, 164 Emerson, Nathaniel (folklorist), 102, 230 and tourism, 153 Endeavour, HMS, 43, 49, coup d’état of 1893, 101, 229 Erramanga, 25–7, 27, 28, 91 missionary activity, 84–5, 95, 103–4, ethnographic spectacles (see 108, 114 Völkerschauen) Hawaiian Quintette, 150–1, 153 Index 253
Hawkesworth, Dr John, 36–7 Kotzebue, August Friedrich Ferdinand Account of the Voyages, 7–8, 37, 38, 39, von, 61, 78 41, 48–9, 51, 53, 54–5, 79 Brother Moritz, the Eccentric,62 Hayes, Charlotte, 37–8, 42, 48, 223 La Perouse, 14, 62–6 heiva (Tahitian ceremony), 7, 23, 44–5, Misanthropy and Repentance,62 59, 74, 201 Pizzaro: The Death of Rolla, 62, 70–1, 78 Hodges, William (artist), 25, 27, 28 The Stranger,78 hui (Maori ceremony), 116, 119 Virgin of the Sun,78 hula, xii, 15, 94, 98–115 passim, 106, Kotzebue, Otto von, 90 108, 174, 185, 230–1 passim Krämer, Augustin, 98–101, 113, 114, 144 and tourism, 95, 97, 110–11, 113–14, 121, 231 La Mort du Capitaine Cook (see Death of costume, 99–100, 104–15 Captain Cook) from a missionary perspective, 84–5, La Pérouse, Jean François Galaup de, 61 104, 230 La Pérouse: or, the desolate island halau (dance-houses), 103 (pantomime), 66–7 hula kahiko (ancient hula), 101, La Perouse (drama) see Kotzebue, August 102–4, 115 von iconography, 104–15 La Perouse, Il naufragio di (ballet), 67 kumu hula (hula teachers), 110 Lauvergne, Bathélemy (artist), 107–8, 108 mele (chants), 102 Lees, Nathaniel, 203, 204, 205, 242 Merrie Monarch Festival, xii, 95, 111 Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim, 27 religious character Lévi–Strauss, Claude, 222 lieto fine,53 infanticide, 79–80, 87 Liholiho (Hawaiian King Kamehameha invention of tradition, 142, 185, II), 68, 84 187, 207 visit to England, 14, 68–72 attending puppet theatre Japan and the Pacific, 16, 146, 164, 239 performance, 69,70 attending theatre performance, 70–2, Ka’ahumanu (Hawaiian Queen regent) 71 (1768–1832), 85, 95 funeral, 72 Kaiser Wilhelm II, 125, 140 Liliuokalani, (Hawaiian Queen), 101, 146 birthday celebrations, 137–8, 142, Lodge, David, 10 143, 234 Logan, Joshua, 165, 166, 168 Kalakaua (Hawaiian king), 104, 110, London Missionary Society (LMS) (see 111–12, 120 missionaries) Kamehameha I (Hawaiian king), 68, 101 Loti, Pierre, 72, 165 Kamehameha II (see Liloliho) Loughnan, Robert (NZ historian), Kamehameha III, 108, 109 117–18, 120 Kamehameha, (Hawaiian Queen), 69–72 Loutherbourg, Philippe Jacques de, 225 Kauffmann, Angelica, 28 kava ceremony, 204, 215 Madame Butterfly, 155, 171 Kealakekua Bay (Hawai‘i) (see also Magellan, Ferdinand de, 20 Captain Cook, death), 24 m¯ah¯u, 200, 201, 202, 242 Kightley, Oscar, 202, 210–11, 212 Mai (aka Omai), 23 Kneubuhl, John, 194 mana, 43, 223 Think of a Garden, 192, 194–6, 202 Maori, 95, 185, 194, 212, 216, 231 passim Kolomoku, Walter (Hawaiian musician), and 1901 Royal tour, 115–21 150 and attack on Abel Tasman, 20–1 254 Index marae, 213–14 Evangelical movement, 76–7 maro’ura (Tahitian cult object), 80, 228 London Missionary Society (LMS), 74, Marquardt brothers, Carl and Fritz 75, 79, 91, 92, 138 (impresarios), 16, 122, 123, 129–30, Marist brotherhood, 75, 139 132–3 opposition to dancing, 75, 77, 78, Marquesas Islands, 13, 124 opposition to the arioi, 80–1, 83–4 at the Polynesian Cultural Center, opposition to theatre, 77–8 188, 240 Spanish missionaries in Mexico, 86 Marsden, Samuel (missionary), 88 use of drama and music, 89–93 Marx, Karl, 7, 8 use of magic lantern, 90–1 Mata’afa Josefo (Samoan chief), 124, Morosco, Oliver (theatre manager), 127, 136, 137, 138, 140 148–9 Matavai Bay (Tahiti), 1, 19, 23, 32, 43, Mortimer, George, 201–2 48, 74 Murnau, Friedrich Wilhelm, 165 Mau (NZ performance group), 18, 192, Mutiny on the Bounty, 60, 226 213–16 Muzzarelli, Antonio (choreographer), 48, Boneflute, 213 56, 224 Paradise, 213–16, 214 Mau (political movement), 194, 195 Naipaul, V. S., 22 Maugham, W(illiam) Somerset, 16, 93, Naked Samoans (NZ performance 146, 155–6 group), xii, xiii, 17–18, 192, 210–12 Miss Thompson (aka Rain), 156 New Caledonia, 124, 164 East of Suez, 159 New Guinea (see Papua New Guinea) The Trembling of the Leaf: Little Stories New Zealand, Aotearoa, 10, 13, 15, 18, of the South Seas, 156, 165 20–1, 95, 96, 115–21 passim, 124, Mauss, Marcel, 222 145, 185, 191–7 passim, 199–200, Melanesia, 208, 211–13 passim, 217 compared to Polynesia, 11, 232 nose-flute, 41, 59, 113, 114, 185 Melville, Herman, 72, 155, 160, 165, Noverre, Jean-Jacques, 56 202, 219, 236 Mencken, H. L., 163 Oberea (aka Purea or Porea), 23, 36, 37, Metonymy (in performance), 96–8, 119, 41, 48, 51–5 144, 174, 191, 207 and feather girdle (maro‘ura), 49 Meyerbeer, Giacomo, Obi, or Three-finger’d Jack,66 L’Africaine, 155, 171 Omai (see Mai) Michener, James, 166–7 Omai, or a Trip around the World, 14, 48, Tales of the South Pacific, 164, 167 57, 67, 225 Mielziner, Jo (US stage designer), 171 opera (see also dramma per musica), 48, Miller, Arthur, 194 49, 50–1, 53, 55–6, 58, 65, 78–9 mimesis (see also colonial mimicry), 91 Ozai (ballet), 72 and alterity, 20, 42–5 mimetic capital, 7–8, 14, 38, 42, 61, 65, Pacific Arts Festival, xii, 213 67, 106, 153, 216 Pacific Underground, 192, 196, 198, 204, Missionaries, 15, 73, 74–94, 162, 197 209, 210, 242 American Board of Commissioners for pantomime (theatrical genre), 48, 56–8, Foreign Missions, 75, 84 59, 60, 61, 66–7, 71 and baptism, 85–7 pantomime as movement, 56, 80, 81, 105 and theatricality, 76–7 Papasea waterfalls, 134, 143, 208 Catholic, 75, 86, 90 Papua New Guinea, 164, 179 destruction of idols, 87–9, 88 and Chambri people, 188–90 Index 255
Paradise, and displacement, 157, 158, 160–2, and the Pacific, 9–10, 53, 169 163 Paris is Burning, 208 and naturalism, 157–8 Parkinson, Sydney (artist), 40 anti-Calvinist tendencies, 163 Pérouse (see La Pérouse) plot summary, 156–7 Pindar, Peter (pen-name of John premiere, 162–3 Wolcot), 45 representation of Samoans, 158–9 Plato, 77 see also Maugham, W. Somerset poi (Maori performance form), 117, 120 reciprocity (performative), 11–12, 23–4, Polynesia and Polynesians, 10, 17, 20, 36, 39 22, 40, 75, 80, 84, 89, 99, 120, 125, Reeves, William Pember (NZ politician), 128–9, 147, 171, 172, 173, 181, 182, 115 190 ritual and performance, 19, 21, 23, 24, compared to Melanesia, 11, 170 42, 55, 58, 60, 85–6, 135, 178–9, French Polynesia, 164 186, 189–90, 192, 197, 199–200 sexual practices in, 35, 45 Robertson, George (ship’s master), 31–2, Polynesian Cultural Center (PCC), 17, 42–3, 51 175–6, 177–90, 191 Rodgers, Richard and Hammerstein, and authenticity, 17, 175–6 Oscar, 16, 146, 165, 166 and mimicry, 181–5 passim see also South Pacific performance types, 177–9 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 50–1, 54, 79 relationship to Mormon church, 178, Lettre à d’Alembert, 77, 224 239 Hawaiian demonstration and Sahlins, Marshall, 13, 35, 107 performance, 185 Said, Edward, 96 Maori demonstration and Orientalism, 97–8 performance, 185 Salmond, Anne, 13, 20, 35 Samoan village and performance, 175, Samoa, 11, 174, 197–217 180–4, 191 and American (Eastern) Samoa, 146, Tongan village and performance, 181, 156–7, 194–6 184–5, 191 and ethnographic shows (see also Polynesian transgenderism (see fa’afafine Völkerschauen), 16, 122–3, 127–34, and m¯ah¯u) 131, 133 Pomare I (Tahitian king, aka Tu, or and missionaries, 89 Otoo) (c.1742–1791), 23, 74, and myth of paradise, 135–6 Pomare II (Tahitian king Tu and tourist performances, 132, 143, 182 Tu-nui-ea-i-te-atua) (1782–1821), and colonial ceremonies, 133, 134–45, 83, 88 137 conversion, 86–7 and cricket, 132 Ponifasio, Lemi (see also Mau), 18, 192, and dance (siva, poula), 140, 142, 213 143–4, 208 poula (Samoan dance), 144 as a German colony, 124–5, 135–6 powhiri (Maori welcome ceremony), 214 at the Polynesian Cultural Center, puppet theatre, 57, 58, 69–70 181–3 Purea (see Oberea) exploration, 61 Schechner, Richard, 176 Raiatea, (see Tahiti) Schröder, Friedrich Ludwig Rain (drama by John Colton and (actor-manager), 64–5 Clemence Randolph), 16, 93, 146, Schultz, Erich (German colonial officer), 156–63 138, 143 256 Index
Seddon, Richard (NZ premier), 115 and perception, 4–5, 29, 170 Sherwin, J. K. (artist), 27 and sexuality, 29–35, 38, 201, 204, siva (see Samoan dance) 205, 208 Smith, Bernard, 9–10, 12, 27 Thomas, Nicholas, 13, 22–3 Society Islands (see Tahiti) Timorodee (see also dancing and Solf, Wilhelm (colonial governor), 125, sexuality), 39–40, 41, 81, 223 133, 134, 136, 138, 139, 140 Tonga, 21–3, 124, 242 Solomon Islands, 164 and Miss Galaxy beauty contest, 205–7 South Pacific (musical), 16, 146, 155 Tonkin, Tonkinese, 146, 164, 165–6, and commodification, 147, 165, 167, 168–70 169, 172 tourism and tourist performance, 153, and orientalism, 169, 171 167, 174–90 passim, 209, 238 passim interracial themes, 17, 171–2 Treaty of Waitangi, 124 Melanesian and Polynesian characters, Tu (Tahitian chief and king, see 166, 170, 171 Pomare I) Tonkinese characters, 165, 165–6, 167, Tully, Richard Walton, 16, 59–60, 146, 168–70 149, 153, 171, 235 Stevenson, Robert Louis, 72, 143, 237 see also Bird of Paradise, The Turner, Victor, 39 ta’alolo (Samoan ceremony), 138, 140, 142, 143 Ukeke, Ioane (hula master), 111, 112 Tahiti and Tahitians, 1, 11, 13–14, United States of America, 15, 24, 53, 80–2, 86–7, 124, involvement in the Pacific, 16, 146–7 174 and dancing, 23, 38–42, 55–6, 60, Vassallo, Umilissimo (librettist), 48, 49, 201, 223 50, 52–3, 55, 224 and emotions, 54 vaudeville, 57 as erotic paradise, 30–4 Vico, Giambattista, 49, 224 tableaux vivants,92 Vidor, King, 153 Tamasese Le Alofi (Samoan chief), 122, Virchow, Rudolf, 127–9, 130 129, 133, 134, 136, 138, 145 Völkerschauen, 15, 122, 126–7, 130, tapu, 35, 68, 103, 214 131, 174 Tasman, Abel, 19, 20–3 Tatau – Rites of Passage, 192, 196–200, Wallis, Samuel, 9, 30, 40, 41, 49, 51 198 waiata (Maori chant), 185 tattooing, 80, 93, 105–6, 192, 197–9 Webber, John, 105, 225 Taussig, Michael, 42 Wesley, John, 77 Taylor, Diana, 186 Wendt, Albert, 193 Taylor, Laurette (see also Bird of Paradise, Wilder, Thornton, 194 The), 149, 150, 151, 153, 235 Williams, John (1796–1839), 79, 89–91 The Pirates, Or the Calamities of Captain A Narrative of Missionary Enterprises in Bligh, 226 the South Seas,93 theatricality, 2–3, 218 passim as trader, 89–90 and authenticity, 5–6, 174 death, 91 and citationality, 201, 208, 216 dramatization of his life, 91–3 and colonialism, 123, 135, 144–5, Williams, Tennessee, 194 and cross-cultural encounter, 13, 22–3, Wilson, Captain James, 74 27, 43, 44, 216–17 and duplicity, 76, 77 Zeal Theatre, 192, 196, 198, 242 and eighteenth century, 4, 27 Zola, Émile, 157–8