Notes Introduction 1. Louis-Antoine de Bougainville, A Voyage Round the world Performed by Order of his most Christian Majesty in the Years 1766, 1777, 1768, and 1769, trans John Reinhold Forster (London: Nourse & Davies, 1772), 214. 2. Ibid. 3. Joseph Roach, Cities of the Dead: Circumatlantic Performance (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996), esp. introduction, 25–31. 4. Ibid., 25. 5. The epistemological and ideological complexities surrounding the historical anthropology of reconstructing the ‘native’ point of view were demonstrated in the famous Obeyesekere-Sahlins debate revolving around the question of Captain Cook’s divinity in the eyes of the Hawaiians; see Chapter 1, note 24. For a discus- sion of the broader historiographical implications of integrating the indigenous point of view, see the editor’s introduction to Robert Borofsky (ed.), Remembrance of Pacific Pasts: An Invitation to Remake History (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2000). A recent exhibition at the Victoria and Albert museum provides a sustained attempt to show both perspectives of cross-cultural encounters; see Anna Jackson and Amin Jaffer (eds), Encounters: The Meeting of Asia and Europe, 1500–1800 (London: V&A Publications, 2004), esp. chs 15, 25 and 26. 6. See Erika Fischer-Lichte, ‘Theatricality: A Key Concept in Theatre and Cultural Studies’, Theatre Research International, 20:2 (1995), 85–9. 7. Introduction to Tracy Davis and Thomas Postlewait (eds), Theatricality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 3. 8. Ibid., 4. 9. Foreword to Josette Féral (ed.), Substance, 31: 2/3 (2002), special number on theat- ricality, 3. 10. Mieke Bal, Travelling Concepts in the Humanities: A Rough Guide (Toronto: Univer- sity of Toronto Press, 2002), 23. 11. For a more comprehensive survey, see the introduction to: Davis and Postlewait, Theatricality, 2003. 12. Fischer-Lichte, ‘Theatricality: A Key Concept’. 13. Tracy Davis dates the coinage of the noun ‘theatricality’ to the year 1837, when Thomas Carlyle used the term to denote insincerity or inauthenticity; see Davis and Postlewait, Theatricality, 130. 14. Elizabeth Burns, Theatricality (London: Longman, 1972), 13. 15. See Jonas Barish, The Antitheatrical Prejudice (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981). 16. For a discussion of the rise of theatricality and eighteenth-century culture see John O’Brien in his introduction to a special issue on theatre and theatricality of the journal The Eighteenth Century: Theory and Interpretation, 43:3 (Fall 2002), esp. 191–4. See also my article, ‘Metaphors of Spectacle: Theatricality, Perception and Performative Encounters in the Pacific’, in Erika Fischer-Lichte et al. (eds), Wahrnehmung und Medialität (Tübingen/Basel: Francke, 2001), 215–31. 17. Jonathan Culler, ‘The Semiotics of Tourism’, The American Journal of Semiotics, 1:1/2 (1981), 137. 218 Notes 219 18. See Jürgen Habermas, The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity: Twelve Lectures, trans Frederick Lawrence (Cambridge, MA.: MIT Press, 1987); Niklas Luhmann, The Reality of the Mass Media, trans Kathleen Cross (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2000). 19. Stephen Greenblatt, Marvellous Possessions: The Wonder of the New World (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), 91. 20. Ibid., 6. 21. Ibid. 22. Graham Huggan, The Postcolonial Exotic: Marketing the Margins (London: Rout- ledge, 2001), 13. 23. Bernard Smith, Imagining the Pacific: In the Wake of the Cook Voyages (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1992), 189–90. 24. Ibid., 191. 25. Denis Diderot, ‘Supplement to Bougainville’s Voyage or Dialogue between A. and B.’, Diderot Interpreter of Nature: Selected Writings, trans Jean Stewart and Jonathan Kemp (Westport, CT: Hyperion Press, 1937; rep. 1979). 26. David Lodge, Paradise News (London: Penguin, 1991), 163. 27. This point was made at the time by no other than Herman Melville, who, in a lecture entitled ‘The South Seas’ (1858) argued that ‘South Seas’ and ‘Pacific Ocean’ were ‘equivalent terms’ but with quite different associations. The former, he suggests, connotes ‘a name with many pleasant and venerable books of voyages, full of well-remembered engravings’. The Piazza Tales and Other Prose Pieces, 1839–1860 (Evanston and Chicago: Northwestern University Press, 1987), 410. Rod Edmond argues that by the mid-nineteenth century the term ‘South Seas’ had become outmoded because of shifts in geographical perceptions and trade practices; see his Representing the South Pacific: Colonial Discourse from Cook to Gauguin (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 16. 28. Paul Sharrad, ‘Imagining the Pacific’, Meanjin, 49:4 (Summer 1990), 597–606. 29. Ibid., 597. 30. Ibid., 601. 31. The Tongan writer Epeli Hau’ofa suggests replacing the old triad of Polynesia, Melanesia and Micronesia by the more precise geographical and less racially loaded terms, ‘East Oceania’, ‘West Oceania’ and ‘North Oceania’ respectively; ‘Epilogue: Pasts to Remember’, in Robert Borofsky (ed.), Remembrance of Pacific Pasts: An Invitation to Remake History (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2000), 471. 32. Bill Pearson, Rifled Sanctuaries: Some Views of the Pacific Islands in Western Literature (Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1984). 33. Neil Rennie, Far-Fetched Facts: The Literature of Travel and the Idea of the South Seas (Oxford. Clarendon Press, 1995); Vanessa Smith, Literary Culture and the Pacific. Nineteenth-Century Textual Encounters (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1998); Edmond, Representing the South Pacific. 34. C. Geertz, ‘History and Anthropology’, New Literary History, 21:2 (1990), 324. 35. Marshall Sahlins, Historical Metaphors and Mythical Realities: Structure in the Early History of the Sandwich Islands Kingdom (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1981); Islands of History (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1985), and How ‘Natives’ Think: About Captain Cook, for Example (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1995). 36. Mr Bligh’s Bad Language: Passion, Power and Theatre on the Bounty (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992). 37. G. Dening, Performances (Chicago University Press, 1996), 105. 220 Notes 38. Anne Salmond, Two Worlds: First Meetings between Maori and Europeans, 1642–1772 (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1991), and Between Worlds: Early Exchanges between Maori and Europeans, 1773–1815 (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1997). 39. See N. Thomas, In Oceania: Visions, Artifacts, Histories (Durham, NC: Duke Univer- sity Press, 1997), and Colonialism’s Culture: Anthropology, Travel and Government (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1994). 40. N. Thomas, Double Vision: Art Histories and Colonial Histories in the Pacific (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999). 41. Johann Reinhold Forster, Observations made during a Voyage round the World, ed. Nicholas Thomas, Harriet Guest and Michael Dettelbach (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1996); George Forster, A Voyage Round the World, ed. Nicholas Thomas and Oliver Berghof, 2 vols (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2000). 42. See, in particular, N. Thomas, Cook: The Extraordinary Voyages of Captain James Cook (New York. Walker, 2003); and Anne Salmond, The Trial of the Cannibal Dog: Captain Cook in the South Seas (London: Allen Lane, 2003). Chapter 1 Pacific overtures: trumpets, beaches and women 1. Anthony Pagden, European Encounters with the New World from Renaissance to Romanticism (New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 1993), 2. 2. See, for example, Gerhard Neumann, ‘Erkennungs-Szene: Wahrnehmung zwischen den Geschlechtern im literarischen Text’, in Kati Röttger and Heike Paul (eds,) Differenzen in der Geschlechterdifferenz/ Differences within Gender Studies (Berlin: Erich Schmidt, 1999), 202–221. 3. Andrew Sharp, The Voyages of Abel Janszoon Tasman (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968), 121. 4. Anne Salmond, Two Worlds: First Meetings Between Maori and Europeans, 1642–1772 (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1991), 22. 5. Ibid., 73. 6. Stephen Greenblatt, Marvellous Possessions: The Wonder of the New World (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992), 90–1. Greenblatt also notes that Vasco da Gama employed similar devices a few years later when trying to communicate with the natives of South Africa, p. 180, n.10. 7. Sharp, Voyages of Tasman, 44–5. 8. Ibid., 45. 9. Sharp glosses this term from a Malay word Orangkaja, ‘meaning an East Indies chief’. Evidently it was used by the Dutch as a generic term for natives, comparable to the ‘Indians’ used in the first accounts of Cook, Banks and others before local terms were developed; ibid., 44, note 1. 10. Ibid., 44. 11. Nicholas Thomas, Entangled Objects: Exchange, Material Culture, and Colonialism in the Pacific (Cambridge, MA.: Harvard University Press, 1991), 108–9. 12. For more on Omai, see Chapter 2. 13. William Anderson, ‘Journal’, in J. C. Beaglehole (ed.), The Journals of Captain James Cook on his Voyages of Discovery: The Voyage of the Endeavour, 1768–1771 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1955), iii. 838. 14. J. C. Beaglehole (ed.), The Journals of Captain James Cook: The Voyage of the Resolution and Adventure, 1772–1755 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1961), 208. Notes 221 15. Ibid. 16. Ibid., 190 and 207. 17. George Forster, A Voyage round the World, ed. Nicholas Thomas and Oliver Berghof (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2000), i. 375. 18. James Cook and James King, A Voyage to the Pacific Ocean; Undertaken by Command Performed under the Direction of Captains Cook, Clerke, (London: T. Cadell, 1784), iii. 174. 19. Greg Dening, Mr Bligh’s Bad