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I contrasting phenomena were implicitly

T conceptualised as negative, positioned as

R intrinsically undesirable. So, for example,

A tended to be valorised as an Positive psychology – unmitigated good, and as a categorical impediment to wellbeing. Some scholars did paint a more nuanced the second wave picture; for instance, Seligman (1990, p.292) cautioned that one must be ‘able Tim Lomas delves into the dialectical nuances of flourishing to use pessimism’s keen sense of reality when we need it’. However, in terms of the broader discourse of the field, and its cultural impact, a less nuanced binary t is nearly 20 years since Martin wellbeing – could be brought together message held sway. Seligman used his American and considered collectively. Thus, as While seemingly offering an upbeat IPsychological Association presidential a novel branch of scholarship focused message – linking positive to address to inaugurate the notion of specifically and entirely on ‘the science beneficial outcomes, such as health ‘positive psychology’. The rationale for its and practice of improving wellbeing’ (Fredrickson & Levenson, 1998) – this creation was Seligman’s contention that (Lomas et al., 2015, p.1347), it was valorisation of positivity was problematic, psychology had tended to focus mainly a welcome new addition to the broader for various reasons. Firstly, it often failed on what is wrong with people: on church of psychology. to sufficiently appreciate the contextual dysfunction, disorder and distress. There However, positive psychology was complexity of emotional outcomes. For were of course pockets of scholarship that not without its critics. A prominent instance, ‘excessive’ optimism can be held a candle for human potential and focus of concern was the very notion harmful to wellbeing (e.g. contributing excellence, like humanistic psychology. underpinning the entire field. Essentially, to underappreciation of risk), while Nevertheless, Seligman argued that on the positive psychology appeared to be pessimism may be beneficial, such as whole, concepts such as did promulgating a rather polarising positive – when it prompts proactive coping not attract much attention or credibility negative dichotomy. Certain phenomena (Norem, 2001). Of even greater concern in mainstream psychology. Emerging to were labelled as positive, and thus was Held’s (2002, p.965) suggestion that redress this lacuna, positive psychology presented as inherently desirable. The this emphasis on positivity contributed to soon became a fertile new paradigm, necessary corollary, of course, is that a ‘tyranny of the positive,’ to the cultural encompassing research into expectation that one should be a panoply of processes and upbeat, with social censure for qualities that could be people who could not find the deemed ‘positive’, from requisite positivity. Similarly, in overarching constructs such the work arena, Ehrenreich (2009) as flourishing to more specific accused organisations of concepts like . compelling forced jollity as a way Of course, none of this of hindering dissent and cajoling was radically new: many of more out of workers. these topics had been studied Perhaps most perniciously, empirically for years by this ‘tyranny’ fed into a pervasive scholars in disparate fields, cultural discourse in which and indeed had been debated negative emotional states are not for centuries, millennia even. simply seen as undesirable, but However, part of the appeal pathological. As Horwitz and of the new field was that it Wakefield (2007) suggest in The created a conceptual space Loss of , dysphoric where these diverse topics – emotions that were previously all of which shared the ‘family regarded as natural and inherent resemblance’ (à la Positive psychology has tended to promote a somewhat dimensions of the human condition Wittgenstein) of pertaining to polarising positive –negative dichotomy have largely been re-framed as

s Bauman, Z. (2013). Liquid : On the positive thinking fooled America and Queen's University Press. Worth, P. (2015). Second wave positive e

c frailty of human bonds. New York: the world . London: Granta. Henrich, J., Heine, S.J. & Norenzayan, A. psychology: Embracing the dark side of n

e John Wiley & Sons. Fredrickson, B. & Levenson, R.W. (1998). (2010). Most people are not WEIRD. life . London: Routledge. r e

f De Boinod, A.J. (2007). The meaning of Positive emotions speed recovery Nature, 466( 7302), 29 –29. Keene, D. (1967). Essays in idleness: The e

r tingo: And other extraordinary words from the cardiovascular sequelae of Held, B.S. (2002). The tyranny of the Tsurezuregusa of Kenkō . New York: from around the world . London: negative emotions. Cognition and positive attitude in America. Journal Columbia University Press. Penguin. , 12 (2) , 191 –220. of Clinical Psychology, 58 (9) , 965 –991. King, L.A. (2001). The hard road to the Dyrness, W.A. & Kärkkäinen, V-M. (2008). Gabriel, B. (2004). The unbearable Horwitz, A.V. & Wakefield, J.C. (2007). good life. Journal of Humanistic Global dictionary of theology . strangeness of being. In B. Gabriel & The loss of sadness . Oxford: Oxford Psychology, 41 (1) , 51 –72. Nottingham: IVP Academic. S. Ilcan (Eds.) Postmodernism and the University Press. Lazarus, R.S. (2003). The Lazarus Ehrenreich, B. (2009). Smile or die: How ethical subject. New York: McGill- Ivtzan, I., Lomas, T., Hefferon, K. & manifesto for positive psychology and

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disorders, and certainly as problematic. (McNulty & Fincham, 2011). Positive psychology arguably contributed, Even happiness and albeit unwittingly, to this process. sadness are not immune from such considerations. Meet the author Superficial forms of happiness Blending light and dark might forestall efforts to ‘When I was offered a lectureship in positive psychology The above critiques could be regarded pursue deeper states of in 2013, it was wonderful to become immersed in this as undermining positive psychology. fulfilment, or tranquillise exciting area. But part of me found the field somewhat However, my colleagues and I take a us into acquiescing to social daunting. It often gave the impression of being so different view: stimulated by these contexts that ultimately relentlessly upbeat that, if you weren’t swept up by this concerns, we feel the field is responding undermine our wellbeing. spirit of positivity, you could feel like an outsider. It soon receptively, evolving into what we Conversely, sadness may be transpired that some other colleagues and students felt describe as ‘second wave’ positive thoroughly appropriate, such something similar. psychology (SWPP) (Ivtzan et al., 2015; as in response to loss; it may As we opened up to these ideas, the field started to Lomas & Ivtzan, 2015; Wong, 2011). even have real salutary value, feel more real, more human, closer to the ambivalent, If the ‘first wave’ is characterised by a humane response to fluctuating blend of light and dark that characterises valorisation of the positive, SWPP perhaps, or a refined aesthetic most people’s lives. We hope that this second wave of recognises that wellbeing actually response to transient beauty. the field will be useful not only to those who are already involves a subtle, dialectical interplay As we dwell on such enjoying the warm sun of positivity, but also to all people, between positive and negative considerations, clear-cut even – or rather, especially – during times of darkness.’ phenomena. This recognition challenges determinations of ‘positive’ and that idea that wellbeing is coterminous ‘negative’ become harder to with constructs like ‘happiness’; rather, it make. Dr Tim Lomas becomes a more expansive term, one that It is not just that such is at the School of Psychology, includes negative emotions if these serve appraisals are difficult; the University of East London some broader sense of ‘being/doing well’. second principle of co-valence [email protected] For instance, Pollard and Davidson reflects the idea that many (2001, p.10) define wellbeing as ‘a state phenomena comprise positive of successful performance across the life and negative elements course integrating physical, cognitive and (Lazarus, 2003). This is social-emotional function’. One could see even so for arguably the most how ostensibly negative emotions, like cherished of all human phenomena: the greater the risk of heartbreak. As prudent , could subserve this love. While there are many forms of Bauman (2013, p.6) eloquently puts it, larger goal. More specifically, SWPP is love – from the of eros to the ‘to love means opening up to that most underpinned by four dialectical selflessness of agape – all are a dialectical sublime of all human conditions, one in principles: appraisal; co-valence; blend of light and dark. There are many which blends with into an alloy complementarity; and evolution. ways of viewing this dialectic, but all are that no longer allows its ingredients to The principle of appraisal states that variations on the poignant lamentation of separate’. it can be hard to categorise phenomena C.S. Lewis (1971): ‘To love at all is to be Finally, the principle of evolution as either positive or negative, since such vulnerable. Love anything and your heart contextualises the very idea of SWPP. Just appraisals are fundamentally contextually will be wrung and possibly broken.’ Thus, as SWPP is defined by an appreciation of dependent. For instance, as noted above, even while love contains , joy and dialectics, it is itself an example of a ‘excessive’ optimism can lead to bliss, it also harbours , anxiety, and dialectical process, in Hegel’s sense of miscalculations of risk, whereas fear. However, this recognition of co- thesis-antithesis-synthesis. One might pessimism may promote prudence. valence leads us inexorably to the third view mainstream psychology, with its Prosocial emotions like can principle: complementarity. The potential apparent concern with ‘negative’ aspects be harmful if it means one tolerates a dysphoria inherent in love is not an of human functioning, as the thesis. In situation that one might otherwise resist, aberration, but the very condition of it. critiquing this and embracing ostensibly such as an abusive relationship; The light and dark of love are inseparable, positive phenomena, positive psychology conversely, ‘anti-social’ emotions like complementary and co-creating sides of presented itself as the antithesis. However, can impel one to resist iniquities, the same coin. Consider that the stronger critics subsequently discerned flaws in and drive progressive social change and more intense one’s love for another, this antithesis. Crucially though, this does

psychology in general. Psychological doi:10.1080/17439760.2015.1127993 Maslow, A.H. (1972). The farther reaches York: Cornell University Press. Inquiry, 14 (2) , 173 –189. Lomas, T., Hefferon, K. & Ivtzan, I. (2015). of human nature . London: Maurice Pollard, E.L. & Davidson, L. (2001). Lewis, C.S. (1971). The four . New The LIFE model: A meta-theoretical Bassett. Foundations of child wellbeing action York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. conceptual map for applied positive McNulty, J.K. & Fincham, F.D. (2011). research in family and early childhood . Lomas, T. (2015). Positive cross-cultural psychology. Journal of Happiness Beyond positive psychology? Paris: UNESCO. psychology. International Journal of Studies, 16 (5) , 1347 –1364. American Psychologist, 67 (2) , Prusinski, L. (2013). Wabi-sabi, mono no Wellbeing, 5 (4) , 60 –77. Lomas, T. & Ivtzan, I. (2015). Second 101 –110. aware, and : Tracing traditional Lomas, T. (2016). Towards a positive wave positive psychology. Journal of Norem, J.K. (2001). The positive power of through cross-cultural lexicography. Journal Happiness Studies [Advance online negative thinking . New York: Basic Japanese history. Studies on Asia, of Positive Psychology [Advance online publication]. Books. 2(1) , 21 –45. publication]. doi:10.1007/s10902-015-9668-y Pesmen, D. (2000). Russia and soul . New Scheibe, S., Freund, A.M. & Baltes, P.B.

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not necessarily mean an abandonment window onto concepts that may be For a start, words are polysemous; as of positive psychology, a reversion to the particular to a given culture (Wierzbicka, such, each of these words would ideally original thesis. Rather, the next stage is 1997). Moreover, I speculate that this have its own entire article, delving into its ideally synthesis, in which the truths of lexicography might help people (from all multidimensional nuances. Moreover, both thesis and antithesis are preserved, cultures) to develop a richer interior while the explications here are based on while their flaws are overcome. SWPP is world, and experience and express new definitions offered by dictionaries and just such a synthesis, moving away from dimensions of wellbeing. This claim will scholars, my interpretations are inevitably a binary classification of phenomena – require a programme of empirical inquiry subjective and partial (particularly since valorising positivity while condemning to substantiate it. I’m from a WEIRD society myself!). negativity – towards a more nuanced In starting to build the lexicography, However, I’m hoping that this appreciation of the dialectical I undertook an analysis of 216 such lexicography will evolve with the help of complexities of wellbeing (King, 2001). words (Lomas, 2016). Moreover, through scholars throughout the world, who may grounded theory analysis, I developed be able to add to and refine it in a spirit of a conceptual ‘map’ of the terms, thereby collaboration. Indeed, a webpage has been Delving into the nuances expanding the nomological network of set up for this purpose: This exploration of the dialectical concepts within positive psychology. www.drtimlomas.com/ nuances of flourishing, the delicate The words were organised into three lexicography. With that in mind, we turn interplay of light and dark, can take many overarching categories, each of which to the words themselves. forms. One addresses another prominent contained two main themes: criticism of positive psychology: that its (comprising positive and complex conceptualisations of wellbeing are rather feelings); relationships (comprising From Wanderlust to yugen culturally specific, reflecting the North intimacy and prosociality); and character The theme of complex feelings American context in which the field (comprising personal resources and contains concepts and processes that are emerged (Lomas, 2015). While concepts spirituality). I shall finish here by beautifully ambivalent and co-valenced, in positive psychology have largely been elucidating this theme of complex and are thus emblematic of SWPP, derived from research with ‘WEIRD’ feelings, as its words provide a beautiful reflecting the dialectical nature of participants – Western, Educated, illustration of the kind of ambivalent flourishing. These are not all words for Industrialised, Rich and Democratic constructs that SWPP is concerned with. feelings per se , but include terms that (Henrich et al., 2010) – the field has often Before introducing this theme, there either: (a) relate in some way to complex tended to presume that these findings can are two general caveats relating to this feelings; or (b) embody a dialectical mode be generalised to other cultures. Mindful project. Firstly, it can be difficult to of appreciation. Regarding the latter, of these critiques, positive psychology is understand a word in without arguably the exemplary concept in this becoming increasingly appreciative of knowing how it relates to other linguistic respect is the Chinese notion of yin-yang cultural differences in constructions and terms in a system (the great insight of (陰陽 ), associated with Taoism. experiences of wellbeing. structuralism), or how it is deployed in Separately, yin means cloudy/overcast, For my own part, this burgeoning context. That said, this does not mean and yang ‘in the sun’ (shone upon). cross-cultural sensitivity has focused on that learning foreign words is impossible Together, they imply the two sides of a language. More specifically, I have begun or valueless if these conditions are not mountain (one sunlit, one in shadow), to create a lexicography of so-called met. Take, for instance, a word like and thus articulate the idea of ‘holistic ‘untranslatable words’ relating to karma , which has been adopted into duality,’ i.e. that reality comprises co- wellbeing, gathered from across the English to refer broadly to causality with dependent opposites. This notion is an world’s cultures. The general premise of respect to ethics. Most English speakers overarching motif for this entire class of the lexicography is that a culture’s values who use this word probably do not know terms: in their various ways, the words and traditions are encoded in its how it relates to other Sanskrit terms, nor here are a dialectical blend of positive and language, which in turn shapes the its wealth of meanings in the context of negative, light and dark, together creating experiences and understanding of that Hindu and Buddhist teachings. a rich and complex sensibility. culture’s members, a perspective broadly Nevertheless, such speakers evidently find Within this overall theme are a referred to as the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. the word useful, and arguably deploy it in number of subthemes. The first is an The more specific premise of the ways that are not completely discordant evocation of hope and . lexicography is that untranslatable words with its original meanings. Secondly, the Words here are truly co-valenced, a – words for which English purportedly definitions in this lexicography are tantalising blend of savouring the future, lacks an equivalent term – offer a unique neither complete nor final and canonical. combined with fear that it will not come

(2007). Toward a developmental Portuguese emotion. Emotion Personal or interpersonal University Press,. psychology of (life Review, 4 (2) , 203 –211. construal of happiness: A cultural Wong, P.T.P. (2011). Positive psychology longings). Developmental Suzuki, D.T. (1973). Zen and Japanese psychological perspective. 2.0: Towards a balanced interactive Psychology, 43 (3) , 778 –795. Culture . Princeton: Princeton International Journal of Wellbeing, model of the good life. Canadian Schwartz, E. (2007). Waldeinsamkeit: University Press. (Original work 2(4) , 354 –369. Psychology/Psychologie canadienne, Subjective in German published 1959) Watts, A.W. (1957). The way of Zen. 52 (2) , 69 –81. . International Journal Tanizaki, J. (2001). In Praise of London: Penguin Books. of the Humanities, 5 (4) , 201 –210. Shadows . New York: Random Wierzbicka, A. (1997). Understanding Seligman, M.E.P. (1990). Learned House. (Original work published cultures through their key words: optimism . New York: Pocket Books. 1933) English, Russian, Polish, German, Silva, Z.B. (2012). – a key Uchida, Y. & Ogihara, Y. (2012). and Japanese . New York: Oxford

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example of a foreign term that has imperfect beauty, and sabi (寂) to aged been adopted into English, arguably beauty. Whereas points because it fulfilled some unmet towards erosion, wabi-sabi reminds us need. Indeed, as De Boinod (2007, that in this process of changing, a certain p.5) says ‘[t]he English language dignity is nonetheless retained. Think of has a long-established and voracious the mysterious power of old ruins, and tendency to naturalize the best the reverential qualities of depth and foreign words.’ In Russian, prostor meaning they can evoke. This sense is captures a for spaciousness, depicted by Tanizaki (1933/2001, roaming free in limitless expanse, pp.11 –12) in his classic exposition of not only physically, but creatively Zen aesthetics In Praise of Shadows . He and spiritually (Pesmen, 2000). describes preferring a ‘pensive lustre to Finally, the strange German term a shallow brilliance, a murky light that, Waldeinsamkeit articulates the whether in a stone or an artifact, bespeaks of when alone in the a sheen of antiquity… We love things that woods, a mysterious state described bear the marks of grime, soot, and by (Schwartz, 2007, p.201) as the weather, and we love the colors and the ‘pseudo-magical pull of the untamed sheen that call to mind the past that made Waldeinsamkeit wilderness; a place of living nightmares them.’ caught between the dreamscape and Finally, we have yugen (幽玄 ), to pass. In Italian, magari – both an Fairyland’. described by Suzuki (1959/1973, adverb and an interjection – roughly Finally, there are words capturing pp.220 –221) as evoking obscurity, means ‘maybe,’ but also encompasses ‘in complex aesthetic states, evoked through mystery, unknowability, and yet not ‘utter my dreams’ and ‘if only,’ encapsulating contemplation of the transient mysteries darkness’. It reflects the notion that the both a hopeful wish and wistful . of life. Japanese is particularly rich in elusive mysteries of existence may Similarly, in Indonesian, the auxiliary these terms, possibly because Japanese nevertheless be sensed in some inchoate, verb belum means ‘not yet,’ but with an culture has traditionally been steeped in intuitive way. Moreover, yugen does not optimism that an event might yet happen. dialectical models of cognition and simply depict awareness of these strange In German, Vorfreude is an intense, joyful appreciation (Uchida & Ogihara, 2012). depths, but the sense that one is moved anticipation derived from imagining With these concepts, it feels like we are at to one’s core by these mysteries, without future . Rather more melancholic the very heart of SWPP, so I shall end by quite knowing why. The 13th-century is the Korean (한), a culturally vital dwelling on these in a little more depth. Japanese poet Kamo no Ch ōmei term expressing and regret, yet The first term of is aware (哀 characterises yugen thus: ‘It is like an also embodying a quiet patience, hoping れ). This expresses the bittersweetness of autumn evening under a colorless expanse that whatever adversity is causing the a brief, fading moment of transcendent of silent sky. Somehow, as if for some sadness will eventually be righted. beauty, while the compound mono no reason that we should be able to recall, Related to han are words pertaining to aware (物の哀れ) articulates the tears well uncontrollably’ (cited in longing and yearning that are at the heart of understanding that the world and its Dyrness and Kärkkäinen, 2008, p.65). of their respective cultures (Silva, 2012; beauty are transient in this way. As Western psychology arguably has Wierzbicka, 1997). In Portuguese, expressed by Yoshida Kenk o⁻ (1283 – constructs that are similar to yugen , like saudade is a melancholic longing or 1350), ‘If man were never to fade away the profound state of elevation Maslow for a person, place or thing that like the dews of Adashino… how things (1972) labelled ‘peak experiences’. These is far away, either spatially or in time; would lose their power to move us! The go far beyond mere hedonic pleasure or indeed, as Silva points out, it can reflect most precious thing in life is its even fulfilment, involving qualities like a vague wistfulness for phenomena that uncertainty’ (cited in Keene, 1967, p.7). and self-transcendence. However, may not even exist, like a better future. In Zen – a Buddhist tradition nearly what is especially unusual and potent Similarly, the German Sehnsucht translates synonymous with Japanese culture – about yugen is the apparently ‘ordinary’ as ‘life longings,’ and captures an ‘intense the pre-eminent symbol of mono no aware nature of the phenomena that can evoke desire for alternative states and is the , whose fragile it. This is reflected in this haiku by Basho, realizations of life,’ even (or especially) if efflorescence captivates attention during often regarded as the ultimate expression these are unlikely to be attained (Scheibe the bloom of spring. Crucially, of yugen (Watts, 1957): ‘On a withered et al., 2007, p.778). Toska in Russian and appreciation of its beauty is heightened by branch; A crow is perched; In the autumn in Welsh articulate a complex mix awareness of its transiency. Matsuo Basho evening.’ Conceptualisations of peak of nostalgia, wistfulness and longing for (1644 –1694), arguably the greatest master experiences tend to imply that these can one’s homeland. Likewise, in Japanese, of the haiku, captured this sense with only be experienced on some literal or natsukashii (懐かしい ) is a nostalgic particular genius: ‘Summer grasses –; the metaphorical (e.g. developmental) longing for the past, featuring a delicate only remains; of warriors’ dreams.’ Thus, summit. With yugen though, there is the blend of happiness for fond memories, yet as Prusinski (2013, p.23) says, ‘the beauty profound experience of the ordinary – sadness that those times are no longer. lies not in the object itself, but in the which is within everyone’s reach – being Related to words articulating longing whole experience, transformation, and revealed as extraordinary, as if lifting a veil are terms expressing desire for freedom. span of time in which the object is present on the sacred. Yugen is thus an apposite In German, Fernweh is described by and changing’. place to finish here, a perfect example of Gabriel (2004, p.155) as the ‘call of A second term at the heart of Japanese how untranslatable words can usher us faraway places,’ or for a aesthetics is wabi-sabi , an intriguing into new dialectical modes of place one has never been to. Here too is counterbalance to the ephemerality of appreciation, and reveal hitherto hidden the well-known Wanderlust , a wonderful mono no aware : wabi (侘) refers to dimensions of flourishing.

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