The Development of Radio and Radio Research Perspectives Towards a New Order

PENTTI KEMPPAINEN

In the past, broadcasting was controlled late an analytic model of what is happen- and regulated by the state and most radio ing today, they end up examining the com- channels were reserved for public service merce driven change. They choose a per- broadcasting. Today, all European count- spective which highlights two main featu- ries allow private radio and tv. Within this res of current change: firstly the degree to change public service broadcasting has which it is externally driven; second, the ele- been going through a crisis. Radio research ment of conflict between old and new play- methods relevant in the times of mono- ers over the establishment of ”the New poly radio are less effective in understand- Order”. The authors state that ing this rapid development. When choos- ing the perspective for studying present The new politics is clearly very much concerned and future development of radio becomes with industrial and commercial matters, just as necessary to put greater attention on the the old politics was primarily cultural and ideo- industrial-commercial aspect. logical. The new is supranationally oriented, The new situation has become familiar while the old was almost exclusively national. with media researchers. For instance Den- The new is less dominated by established politi- nis McQuail and the Euromedia Research cal parties and a broadcasting elite. Group have described the shift from ”the Old Order” to ”the New Order”. While Later a third feature of change is added: trying to look at the evidently new media fragmentation (McQuail, de Rosario, Tapper possibilities ”It only gradually became ap- 1992, 15) to the toolbag of ”the New Or- parent that something different and per- der” radio research. haps more fundamental was at stake – a In this new order there is a change of degree and kind of change which could perspective. Traditional radio had a tenden- not be easily fitted into established models cy of seeing things from the senders point and frameworks of research into mass me- of view; in the modern radio, the role of dia communication and media structures” the listener has become more important. (McQuail et. Al. 1990, 313) The listener is seen more and more as a By ”the Old Order” the writers descri- consumer, whose needs radio tries to sat- be the time when public service monopo- isfy. If this principle is taken as a postulate, lies were national, political and non-com- it follows that ”...broadcast markets, like mercial in nature. When the writers formu- other markets, are likely to do better job of

229 satisfying consumer demand efficiently if nen emphasizes that although the indica- they are competitive” (OECD 1993,12). tions local radio operating licences towards But there is also the opposite point of the democratisation of communications view. For instance, Gustafsson (1992, 73) have remained a dead letter, they have had referring to Icelandic experience states that an important significance in the produc- ”generally speaking, it seems that the likeli- tion of the political legitimacy, without hood for diversity in media output is great- which the breaking down of the public ser- est where advertising is not the dominant vice radio monopoly in the Finnish radio source of revenues” system would not have been possible. There are different angles to choose ”When the political choice has not had to from when analysing the process of de- be made between open economic libera- regulation, whether it is a cultural or an lism and public service public radio opera- economical process. In many countries the tion, but between the democratisation of forces of change correspond to democra- communications and the old public radio tic and cultural values. In commu- concept it has been easier for politicians to nications policy was liberalised in the name hide their heads in the sand.” (ibid., 43) of implementing free speech. As interna- Quite soon it was noticed that the libe- tional communications expanded there was ral principles did not hold. In a study by a desire to steer the main focus of mass the Ministry of Transport and Communi- communications towards national and par- cations (LkM 30/1990) which supervises ticularly local communications. Expecta- radio operations, it was stated after five tions toward democracy now focused on years of local radio activity that it was ap- the spontaneous organisation of citizens’ parent that ”some of the expectations societies and on the ”democratic potential” which relate particularly to extending the offered by new communications techno- implementation of free speech or promot- logy. Hujanen describes the phenomenon ing national culture have not yet been real- as an unholy alliance for which the motiva- ised”. In the same study it was already ob- ting force was on the one hand spontane- served that Finland should be prepared for ous citizens’ movements and on the other the arrival on the home market of foreign the developers of new communications media companies. technology, its producers and sellers and also communications researchers and ad- The Choice of the Public Broad- vertisers (Hujanen 1991, 35). According to Hujanen, it was the utopia of participation casters: Adapt, Adopt or Perish? and public access that made the concept When radio operation became a market in ’democratising communications’ so useful Europe public radio also had to transform. in the deregulation of PSB half way The pressure from commercial entrepre- through the 1970s. The democracy of neurs and some regulators forced the pub- communications changed from a positive lic service broadcasters to start thinking utopia to an ideology. The concept that about different strategies. The business originally organised emancipation of sub- approach towards radio emphasizes the cultures and marginal groups became a role of listener. This is new to the public tool in the organisation of consumption. service companies. What is the fate of the In the new context the concept lost its old public service broadcasting, or as it is spontaneity and became ideologised. Huja- posed by Brants and Siune (1992) will PSB

230 adapt, adopt or perish? What is its position Adopt? No; the tasks and status of the in ”the New Order”? In this new context public service do not permit the copying the PSB has to define its tasks and its of the commercial concept as it stands. At place. The tasks can be seen as two con- least not yet. Some better functioning fea- trasting options for the Public Service tures of commercial radio may be accep- Broadcasters (PSB): (1) a ”core service” ted, but not the concept of commercial ra- option, in which public broadcasters con- dio as a whole. That leaves us adapt. This centrate on filling the gaps left by the pri- is precisely what has occurred in the bulk vate sector or (2) a ”wider service” option, of European PSB radios, but without ad- in which public broadcasters provide much hering to the core service option referred broader programming services in direct to by Foster. competition with private operators (Foster The PSB is still going strong. Without 1992, 49). The dominant strategy of PSB losing their traditional public core service is, according to Hultén and Brants (1992, tasks the companies have offered new 128) not to adopt the same strategies as wider service programming in which chan- commercial competitors, but rather to try nels are profiled and the mode of expres- to do what public broadcasters define as sion is renewed. In encountering competi- the essence of their tasks: to offer a full tion the established radios have increased range of programmes and the best of their the amount of programmes they provide kind. In order to reach and hold the audi- and some have taken up advertising. Pro- ence it wants it must re-evaluate its pro- grammes have become less patronising and gramming and develop it into types of increasing consideration is being given to programme product that interest the lis- public taste. It has been necessary in a tener. The traditional structures of mass number of companies to cut production media will be changed, but Dries and costs, but this has not decreased the Woldt (1996, 25) see that Public service amount of output even though for instan- broadcasting will have to adapt to these ce Gronow, Lannegren and Maren (1992) changes. Competition will grow, but the perceive some indicators that companies new technologies will offer new possibili- are cautiously cutting down some of their ties for it to fullfil its public mandate. most expensive programme types, such as There is also an idea of polarisation of live music, radio plays and documentaries. radio to international and local levels The Act on Yleisradio (1993) consoli- which leaves the role of PSB unclear. For dated and strengthened the position and fi- instance, Wallis (1995,14) sees that national nancing of public service Yleisradio (YLE) radio channels have, with a few exceptions, as well as its autonomous programme po- no raison d’être in the future. For a radio licy of a full service based on statute in operating within the framework of a small Finland. The law states that the company national language this type of threatening shall be responsible for the provision of scenario does not seem as realistic as in the comprehensive broadcasting services for countries of Central Europe. In countries all citizens under equal conditions. One like Finland with a relatively small lan- can therefore say that in Finland the wider guage area the task of national radio is dif- service option for PSB was chosen. ferent. There is increasing need for na- At stake are not only programming, for- tional services in native languages. mats and audiences, there is also the ques-

231 tion of doing things in a new way. The en- In the last half of this decade radio ope- tire radio operation has begun to move to- rations have been experiencing the greatest wards a new structural model which public change since the transfer from the AM to service national radios are tending to fol- the FM band. The transfer to digital radio low. This new model is characterised by (DAB) and the digitalization of the entire ever more flexible practices in employment production chain and programme trans- contracts, the use of freelance and tempo- mission technology will bring with it a new rary workers and by mobility. This can be overall scenario. The activities of commer- seen also in Finland. Along with commer- cial radio are shared out within the frame- cial radio a new integrated production cul- work of the conditions set by the new dig- ture came to YLE’s radio operation as well. ital operating environment. Wavebands Work is done with less staff and the tradi- were allocated in 1995 in Wiesbaden where tional boundaries between duties are being Finland was given two band blocks, one for brought down. (see Foster 1993) national and one for regional broadcasting The change from traditional thinking operations. into market orientation has not been easy Has the development in the field of or unproblematic inside the PSB compa- European radio towards commercialism nies and when they finally start changing, reached its peak? Could there possibly be a there is a danger of overacting. One can trend shift towards PSB? Or has the reor- see many of the newcomers to the radio ganisation of radio emphasized the tradi- broadcasting business and even some of tional tasks of PSB? The answer depends the current management of traditional ra- on how you look at it. Do you have favour dio broadcasting as a class of fools who of the Competition Directorate or that of ”know the price of everything and the the political decision maker. The answers value of nothing”, as Wallis (1995, 11) sar- are different. Certainly, nowadays you cer- castically describes it, borrowing the tainly find more defenders of the PSB worlds of Oscar Wilde. than in the 80s. Is it true that the great quantity and va- At least, the question of freedom of riety of programmes and channels actually speech has temporarily vanished from the increase freedom of choice? Jauert and agenda of European radio policy as it was Prehn (1994) give a negative answer. They discussed in the mid-80s, when the radio talk about a media policy paradox in which field was originally deregulated. Even the consumer-oriented argument for deregula- most vehement defenders of democratic tion, i.e. great diversity in terms of pro- radio no longer claim that a radio network gramming and thus more scope for choice that churns out nothing but hit music rep- by the audience, now in fact turns out to resents the highest degree of free speech. have changed to its opposite: a standardi- On the contrary, in the debate between na- zation and simplification of radio output. tions anxiety about the position of PSB According to this reasoning there is actu- has begun to emerge. At their Fourth Mi- ally less choice with more channels. This nisterial Conference of the Council of Eu- can be compared with how competing rope on Mass Media Policy held in Prague journalists making thoughtful and often on 7-8 December 1994 the participants very personal choices can produce such si- adopted a resolution on the future of pub- milar news as Bennett (1996, 375) points lic service broadcasting. This Resolution out. No.1 marked a turn away from the steady

232 trend at the European level towards the de- the tasks of public service broadcasting, regulation of broadcasting. Porter (1995) which i.e. Raboy is aiming at. points out, however, that this is a non- Regarding the overall development of binding resolution and that even though radio operations, the crucial position is they have signed it governments can still however occupied by the authorities who act in a different way from what is said in oversee that operation: in Finland the Mi- the final resolution. nistry of Transport and Communications. As for the European Union, the prob- It is not likely that radio competition on lem of regulating media is, according to completely free market terms will be seen Kaitatzi-Whitlock (1996, 455), attributable in any European country. The issue is one to the EC’s ’impotence’ in dealing with of the degree of deregulation: should the such problems, notably due to its institu- regulator ensure as in Britain that there are tional and political development which is not too many similar products at the same inadequate to withstand the pressures of time in one market, or should he give a global competition and global capital inte- freer hand and then look to see after one gration”. Being also sceptical on the Pra- year who is still alive. que-statement, Raboy (1996, 2) sees that the questions concerning the structures of Radio Goes Commercial broadcasting are anyhow increasingly glo- bal ones. ”In the new broadcasting envi- in Finland ronment, the issue of public service The history of adaptation in Finland did broadcasting can be reduced to this: What not begin in 1985 with the start of com- social and cultural goals attributed to mercial radio stations. The background of broadcasting require a specially mandated, the change was influenced earlier by dissa- non-commercially driven organization, tisfaction with public service monopoly ra- publicly owned, publicly funded to extent dio. In the 60s and 70s this dissatisfaction necessary, and publicly accountable?” And was channelled through pirate radio sta- Raboy answers that ”the challenge is not to tions. The European radio scene was cha- defend any particular institutional territory, racterised by a lack of entertainment pro- as it is often framed. It is rather how to in- gramming (see: Prehn 1992, Kemppainen vent something new, remembering that 1992). In Finland the one year long exist- broadcasting service is first of all a public ence of Radio Nord, a pirate in the Baltic good” (ibid.,14). Sea, led to the establishment of the Me- The question remains, can public serv- lody radio in the Finnish Broadcasting ice broadcasting survive in Western Eu- Company (YLE) in 1963. This meant a rope. Lowe (1992) has a dual answer: ”Yes rapid increase in the amount of light music and no. Yes it can survive, but not in the on radio waves. At the beginning of the form(s) with which most of us have be- 70s, music programming aimed directly at come accustomed. The conditions and the young was increased by commencing a contexts in which European public service daily programme named Rockradio. How- broadcasting exists have changed so thor- ever, this did not change the nature of the oughly that a complicated process of adap- overall programming in Finland, and at the tation is necessary”. Another approach is beginning of the 80s young people began to open a wholly new page in the question to abandon YLE even before the advent of public service by trying to reformulate of commercial local radio stations started

233 in 1985. In their idealism and enthusiasm But now the BBC’s Radio 1 was too light the first commercial stations appealed es- and British to be an example. Swedish Ra- pecially to the young audience. At the end dio’s light channel P3 was very middle- of the 80s, there were 66 local commercial aged, although very professional in its pro- radios around the country. YLE had de- duction. In Finland the new channel had to veloped its regional services largely by the take the initiative at one blow. The idea was mid 80s and had partly profiled the two ex- that young listeners must be taken by isting channels, but this was only pre- storm, they had to be given the message liminary action towards a more profound that the old bureaucratic fossilized and reorganisation. slow YLE had changed. (Kemppainen and YLE’s major radio reform took place in Soramäki, 1995,35) PSB’s battle for young 1990. The preconditions for YLE’s new listeners was centrally a battle against ima- channel allocation were already created ges and in this sense the job succeeded – at four years before the actual change in a least temporarily. Young people accepted strategic memo by the YLE administration the new channel, which was strongly com- (1986) that decided on the construction of mitted to their lifestyle, their values and a third FM network. The programming popular culture and had the advantage hav- character of the channels was delineated ing the name disliked by parents. The fact when the decision on the system of three that Radiomafia became the favourite profiled channels was made (The main li- channel of 15-24 year-olds was not how- nes of YLE’s reorganisation, 1988). The ever entirely due to its own efforts. Com- startingpoint of YLE’s radio strategy was mercial radios had passed the phase of ini- clear division of labour between the chan- tial enthusiasm and the economic operat- nels: the culture channel, the news & regio- ing conditions had also narrowed. The se- nal channel and the youth channel (Kemp- vere economic depression which hit Fin- painen 1993). The basic solution resembles land in the beginning of 90s forced the the division of channels implemented in commercial local radio stations to face many PSB companies. Regarding the youth harsh realities. In order to stay alive they channel however the aim was to create a had to revise their format and resort to full service channel for the target audience adult listeners where shrinking advertising in which the entertainment elements, the money was to be found. form and the music are important in them- YLE’s rehabilitation among young peop- selves, but also function as a carrying wave le remained only a temporary phenomenon for the thematic content and substance. A in the region, which was the most substance perspective was also linked to competive market at the time. Gradually, the music programming, the music policy the new music format radios have now line of the youth channel was defined in turned the power relations in all the big cit- good time before the start (music profiling ies back in favour of commercial radios in group,1990). the demography of youth. The youth channel got a controversial name: Radiomafia. The channel was a na- Internationalisation, tional solution and closely linked to its time: aggressive, lively, intelligent and opi- Concentration and Networking nionated. Traditionally Finns have studied Over the last few years the nature of com- the model of Britain and Sweden in radio. mercial radio operations has been chang-

234 ing. Commercial radio is concentrating, 181) is not surprised that Helsinki Media forming networks and becoming interna- got the tv-channel instead of Luxembourg tionally owned. Classic FM, which broad- based CLT. It was the secure domestic ca- casts popular classical music, has a licence pital that won the competition. Gustafsson in 28 cities. Kiss FM which broadcasts pop sees that almost the same thing has happe- hits aimed at teenagers has begun opera- ned in Norway with Schibsted publishing tions in the capital city area and in the house and is going to happen in Sweden other big cities , and . with the Marienberg Group. The same holding company also owns a lo- So the FM band is starting to look pret- cal radio station in these cities. ty lively. In the final analysis, it seems that The advent on the market of large for- the direction of development will tend to- eign companies has continued. The most wards internationalisation and syndication. important of these are SBS which is part Direct and immediate financial profitabi- of the Walt Disney/Capital Cities group lity is only important for those commercial (Kiss FM and local stations), the British local radios which are not backed by a Classic FM and the French NRJ, which in a large foreign or domestic company, and few years has thrust its way to being the which have the resources to maintain un- leading commercial radio chain in France. profitable radio operation for a long time In Sweden the company has a chain of 19 if it is perceived to be important for future stations. In Finland too the company has scenarios. Large conglomerates can also announced that it is striving to extend its buy the stations they want. Finnish com- operation around the country. mercial radio may also form into large The first nationwide commercial radio supranational chains of companies. The operating licence was granted to Oy Suo- question is, whether the whole sector will men Uutisradio Ab ( Finnish News Radio) make up, instead of a free market, an oli- to begin broadcasting on the first of May gopoly of large firms. This development 1997. The station has a news and music would lead a long way from the democratic format with extensive news coverage, cur- utopias of the pioneer times of commer- rent affairs programmes and Finnish mu- cial radio in Finland ten years ago. sic. Uutisradio is owned by the commercial television company MTV Finland and the countries second largest daily newspaper In Conclusion Aamulehti Group, and the communication All these rapid changes bring us back to companies of the three biggest political the questions of plurality, quality, similarity parties. The granting of a nationwide com- and democracy. Opening up to competi- mercial radio operating licence to MTV tion has brought a new dynamic to the ra- with Aamulehti is part of an integrated po- dio field and this has clearly also affected licy package in which the new TV-channel publish service YLE’s operations. The com- Ruutunelonen was granted a fourth nation- pany, which was accustomed to being a wide television channel concession. The monopoly has had to look in the mirror main owner of Ruutunelonen is Helsinki and try to make a critical assessment of it- Media which is one of the Erkko family self and its operations. It has had to join in companies. All these decisions have conso- the competition in order to preserve an ad- lidated the national media policy favouring equate share of the audience. This was vi- domestic operators. Gustafsson (1996, tal in order that it should not lose its ac-

235 countability and thus the basis for collect- with many narrow programmes with equal ing licence fees. ratings, the audience appreciation figures As radio operations become commer- will become and more important both in cial and international, it is important to see commercial terms and in terms of obtain- that radio is only one media among others ing a better understanding of why people and part of wider business operations: are watching and not just whether they are Kinnevik, Marieberg, SBS and CLT are watching.” Similarly, it is more important among the companies that carry out a vari- to focus on who is listening, rather than ety of activities in many countries and in how many. many medias. Many supranational media It is, however, not enough to improve conglomerates also maintain radio opera- existing research traditions. To the radio tions partly as pilot activity for future tele- researcher in the new situation, it is a chal- vision operations. One should also keep in lenge to balance the traditional field of mind that when talking about electronic media research focusing on audiences, media, the main stage is television and ra- contents and media functions, and the as- dio is in most cases a side stage. pects relating to radio as one part of the This brings us back to the observations growing field of media business. Until now that McQuail et.al. outlined in the begin- the new situation has been approached ning of this chapter. In a rapidly develop- with the tools of market research. This in- ing operating environment the researcher cludes studies on lifestyle (Monitor, RISC), is always obliged to draw a boundary at daily allocation of time, music taste, audi- some point in development and at the ence satisfaction and channel image (Brand same time to realise that the data collected Metrics and Radio Profile). These are the becomes out of date in a trice. In spite of tools of a single operator when finding a this it is easy to join with McQuail and the niche in the competitive field of radio. Euromedia Research Group in stating that: If the research community has the am- ”There is one imperative to which it is easy bitions to analyse the development from a to respond – the need for descriptive infor- macro perspective, these methods will not mation about what is going on.” be sufficient. One must create a new per- The changed situation implicates chan- spective and acquire additional analytical ges also in radio research. The traditional machinery for use in sketching the deve- methods audience research naturally have lopment. The radio industry is a European their place in the future. But there is also media sector of business which will conti- room for improvement. Spogárd (1996, 23) nue to be divided into public and private talks about measuring audience apprecia- sectors. Researching it will be fruitful when tion in television, but the same argument consideration is given to both the industrial goes for radio as well. ”In a new world perspective and the media perspective.

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