INTRODUCTION The members of the White Bear First Nations (WBFNs) represent four significant tribal affiliations: the Nahkawininiwak or Anishinaabe (Ojibwe), the Nehiyawak (Plains Cree), the Nakota (Assiniboine) and the Dakota (Sioux). Before European immigration each of these tribal groups occupied large territories and by using information from the journals of early European explorers and archeological data from more recent studies approximations of the traditional territories of these tribes are presented in Figure 1 above.1 After European contact these tribes were impacted by devastating new European diseases, their traditional economies were disrupted by the fur trade, animal depletions became common and intensive European immigration eventually took up most of these lands. Despite these challenges many First Nations peoples have continued their traditional hunting, fishing and gathering practises up to the current time. The focus of this study is to research and record the historical and current traditional land use of the White Bear First Nations members. This study includes a brief description of pre- European land use but primarily focuses on more historical and current traditional land use and occupancy. The current White Bear Reserve is located in the Moose Mountains; an area which, as can be seen on the map above, is located in a central location between pre-contact tribal lands. Archeological research2 shows that the lands surrounding the Moose Mountains may have been frequently used by the Nakota (Assiniboine) and their ancestors before and after their split with the other Sioux nations.3 The Moose Mountains were also used by the close neighbours to the north, the Cree, who became allies with the Nakota people as a result of the conflict with the Dakota. These same lands were used by the Anishinaabe who participated in the bison harvest when they moved into the plains after contact. It is likely that the land was used by other Siouian ancestors or relatives of the Assiniboine as well after different conflicts in the USA. White Bear Elders stated that once the WBFNs people migrated to the Moose Mountains, Chief Wahpemakwa (translated White Bear in English) would allow many different peoples shelter or allow other peoples to hunt and fish in their local mountain territory. The lands including and immediately surrounding the Moose Mountains is the historical and current center of the traditional territories of the White Bear First Nations. The historical traditional lands are an estimate of where the ancestors of the White Bear First Nations hunted and gathered before and immediately after the Treaty processes. 1 Note that the areas on Figure 1 are approximate also the areas close to boundaries were likely used by both tribes or all adjacent tribes. 2Sheila Dawson (1987) 3A traditional history oF the conFlict between the Assiniboine and the Dakota has been recorded by Peter Jones (1861), History of the Ojibway Indians, with Special Reference to their Conversion to Christianity. The same legend is produced on websites such as those For the Turtle Mountain Tribe in Minnesota. 11 Figure 2: White Bear First Nations Historical Traditional Lands 12 After many years of occupying the Moose Mountains and hunting and trapping in the surrounding areas , Chief Wahpemakwa (White Bear) signed Treaty 4 in 1875 and in 1877 accepted the Reserve on the east side of the Moose Mountains. Although he signed an adhesion to Treaty 4, the Reserve is located within the Treaty 2 boundaries. Upon signing the Treaty the White Bear First Nations already included peoples from diverse cultural backgrounds; primarily Saulteaux, Cree and Assiniboine. But with the forced combination of White Bear First Nations with two adjacent Assiniboine / Sioux bands in 1901 the cultural diversity was broadened even further, As a result of the diversity of origin, the historical traditional lands of the White Bear First Nations encompass the large portions of the traditional lands of all of their ancestor tribes. Such lands not only extend beyond the boundaries of Treaty 2 but include large parts of southern Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, the northern part of Minnesota, North Dakota and Montana. Because of the demands of their traditional livelihood the White Bear People’s ancestors traveled many miles hunting, gathering and surviving on vast tracts of land. WBFN’s Elders have spoken about travels well beyond even the areas shown in the maps below. The current traditional lands of the White Bear First Nations are also quite extensive. Interviews with Elders and land users have shown that the hunting, fishing and gathering as well as spiritual activities of the members of the First Nation still extend throughout southern Saskatchewan and into Alberta and Manitoba. The focus of the traditional activities is in the Moose Mountains around the Park and on the Reserve. 13 Figure 3: White Bear First Nations Current Traditional Land Use 14 This book contains information gathered through Elder and current land user interviews and other research including review of existing publications and articles. The information has been reviewed and vetted by members of the community. Primary and secondary research was conducted to discover the pre-contact characteristics of the different peoples from which members of the First Nation descend. Historical documents were researched and these were reconciled with Elder recollections and oral history. In the first part of the book the Anishinaabe, Plains Cree, Nakota and Dakota histories are reviewed from before European contact, through to the late twentieth century. This account outlines how the use of the land was dramatically changed by pressures introduced by the European colonization of North America. The second part of this book focuses on the White Bear First Nations’ current traditional land use and harvesting practices. This section includes details of berry and plant gathering, trapping, the harvesting of big game, birds, and fishing. White Bear First Nation Children Berry Picking. Photo courtesy of White Bear First Nations. 15 Chapter 1 – TIME IMMEMORIAL AND ARCHEOLOGY Before European colonization White Bear ancestors hunted, fished, trapped and gathered in the woodlands, plains and great lakes areas of Turtle Island (North America) White Bear ancestors came from four different tribal groups; the Ojibwe, the Cree, the Assiniboine and the Dakota Sioux. Early information about the origins of each of these tribes can be obtained by listening closely to legends and oral histories and from reviewing early explorer records. Because White Bear ancestors come from such diverse lineages the historical land base of WBFNs extends over large portions of the plains, the woodlands and the great lakes. The Anishinaabe (Ojibwe) migration legend tells how they migrated from the seaboard of the Atlantic Ocean inland and eventually occupied an area around the great lakes. The Assiniboine were known to have used what is now Minnesota, South and North Dakota, southern Manitoba and southeast Saskatchewan for at least 1,000 years. The Cree, allies of both the Assiniboine and the Ojibwe, occupied vast stretches of the northern boreal forest and more recently moved onto the plains. Starting from as early as 20,000 years ago (perhaps even longer) evidence from anthropological sources and DNA testing shows waves of migration entering into North America from Asia across a land bridge over the Bering Strait (National Geographic, 1996-2008). During the glacial periods much of the northern hemisphere was covered by a thick layer of ice and because so much water was contained within those thick glaciers, the ocean levels were lower exposing more lands along the coastlines. Many of the first peoples to occupy North America must have made their way south through ice-free regions along the coast and through an ice-free corridor along the east side of the Rocky Mountains. Then as the ice retreated about 10,000 years ago early tribes moved northwards occupying the newly exposed lands. These migrations populated most of North and South America (Hempstead, 2006). In addition to migrations from eastern Asia, there is solid evidence of early contact with the Vikings and there are some who hypothesize other early contact theories between Europe and North America over 1,000 years old (Linden, E., 2004). Some indigenous people hold a belief that they have been in North America since creation and there are many indigenous cultures with different creation legends. It is interesting to note that the Anishinaabe4, Cree and Assiniboine/Sioux all have flood stories associated with their early legends. It is also relevant that many of these stories include animals as the important characters. The Sioux legend, for example includes an eagle, and both the Cree and Anishinaabe flood stories include a beaver, otter and muskrat. Chief White Bear was Anishinaabe, and the following Anishinaabe/Ojibwe5 4Anishinabe or Anishinaabe are both correct spellings For these people. More properly Anishinabek or Anishinaabeg, which are the plural forms oF these words (Johnston, Basil. 1990. Ojibwe Heritage. University oF Nebraska Press, Lincoln and London). 5The Ojibwe are also reFerred to as Ojibway or Ojibwa, Chippewa, or Chippeway (First Nations Culture Areas Index. The Canadian Museum of Civilization). 16 creation story was obtained from Nokomis, a storyteller who heralds from north of Lake Superior, probably close to where Chief White Bear originally hunted. Anishinaabe/Ojibwe Creation Legend The Ojibwe and some other First Nations people, refer to this part of the world as Turtle Island. Different people have different ways of telling the story of how this land was created ... sort of how the Protestants and the Catholics put a spin on their versions of Bible stories. But this is what I was told about how the world came to be. If you've read some of my other stories you'll already know that the universe was created by Kitchi-Manitou's ability to envision all that was possible and then bring it into being.