INTRODUCTION

The members of the White Bear (WBFNs) represent four significant tribal affiliations: the Nahkawininiwak or (), the Nehiyawak (Plains ), the Nakota () and the Dakota (Sioux). Before European immigration each of these tribal groups occupied large territories and by using information from the journals of early European explorers and archeological data from more recent studies approximations of the traditional territories of these tribes are presented in Figure 1 above.1

After European contact these tribes were impacted by devastating new European diseases, their traditional economies were disrupted by the , animal depletions became common and intensive European immigration eventually took up most of these lands. Despite these challenges many First Nations peoples have continued their traditional hunting, fishing and gathering practises up to the current time. The focus of this study is to research and record the historical and current traditional land use of the members. This study includes a brief description of pre- European land use but primarily focuses on more historical and current traditional land use and occupancy.

The current White Bear Reserve is located in the Mountains; an area which, as can be seen on the map above, is located in a central location between pre-contact tribal lands. Archeological research2 shows that the lands surrounding the Moose Mountains may have been frequently used by the Nakota (Assiniboine) and their ancestors before and after their split with the other Sioux nations.3

The Moose Mountains were also used by the close neighbours to the north, the Cree, who became allies with the Nakota people as a result of the conflict with the Dakota. These same lands were used by the Anishinaabe who participated in the bison harvest when they moved into the plains after contact. It is likely that the land was used by other Siouian ancestors or relatives of the Assiniboine as well after different conflicts in the USA. White Bear Elders stated that once the WBFNs people migrated to the Moose Mountains, Chief Wahpemakwa (translated White Bear in English) would allow many different peoples shelter or allow other peoples to hunt and fish in their local mountain territory. The lands including and immediately surrounding the Moose Mountains is the historical and current center of the traditional territories of the White Bear First Nations.

The historical traditional lands are an estimate of where the ancestors of the White Bear First Nations hunted and gathered before and immediately after the processes.

1 Note that the areas on Figure 1 are approximate also the areas close to boundaries were likely used by both tribes or all adjacent tribes. 2Sheila Dawson (1987) 3A traditional history of the conflict between the Assiniboine and the Dakota has been recorded by Peter Jones (1861), History of the Ojibway Indians, with Special Reference to their Conversion to Christianity. The same legend is produced on websites such as those for the Turtle Mountain Tribe in .

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Figure 2: White Bear First Nations Historical Traditional Lands

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After many years of occupying the Moose Mountains and hunting and trapping in the surrounding areas , Chief Wahpemakwa (White Bear) signed in 1875 and in 1877 accepted the Reserve on the east side of the Moose Mountains. Although he signed an adhesion to Treaty 4, the Reserve is located within the boundaries. Upon signing the Treaty the White Bear First Nations already included peoples from diverse cultural backgrounds; primarily , Cree and Assiniboine. But with the forced combination of White Bear First Nations with two adjacent Assiniboine / Sioux bands in 1901 the cultural diversity was broadened even further, As a result of the diversity of origin, the historical traditional lands of the White Bear First Nations encompass the large portions of the traditional lands of all of their ancestor tribes. Such lands not only extend beyond the boundaries of Treaty 2 but include large parts of southern , , Alberta, the northern part of Minnesota, and Montana.

Because of the demands of their traditional livelihood the White Bear People’s ancestors traveled many miles hunting, gathering and surviving on vast tracts of land. WBFN’s Elders have spoken about travels well beyond even the areas shown in the maps below. The current traditional lands of the White Bear First Nations are also quite extensive. Interviews with Elders and land users have shown that the hunting, fishing and gathering as well as spiritual activities of the members of the First Nation still extend throughout southern Saskatchewan and into Alberta and Manitoba. The focus of the traditional activities is in the Moose Mountains around the Park and on the Reserve.

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Figure 3: White Bear First Nations Current Traditional Land Use

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This book contains information gathered through Elder and current land user interviews and other research including review of existing publications and articles. The information has been reviewed and vetted by members of the community. Primary and secondary research was conducted to discover the pre-contact characteristics of the different peoples from which members of the First Nation descend. Historical documents were researched and these were reconciled with Elder recollections and oral history.

In the first part of the book the Anishinaabe, Plains Cree, Nakota and Dakota histories are reviewed from before European contact, through to the late twentieth century. This account outlines how the use of the land was dramatically changed by pressures introduced by the European colonization of North America.

The second part of this book focuses on the White Bear First Nations’ current traditional land use and harvesting practices. This section includes details of berry and plant gathering, trapping, the harvesting of big game, birds, and fishing.

White Bear First Nation Children Berry Picking. Photo courtesy of White Bear First Nations.

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Chapter 1 – TIME IMMEMORIAL AND ARCHEOLOGY

Before European colonization White Bear ancestors hunted, fished, trapped and gathered in the woodlands, plains and areas of Turtle Island (North America) White Bear ancestors came from four different tribal groups; the Ojibwe, the Cree, the Assiniboine and the Dakota Sioux. Early information about the origins of each of these tribes can be obtained by listening closely to legends and oral histories and from reviewing early explorer records. Because White Bear ancestors come from such diverse lineages the historical land base of WBFNs extends over large portions of the plains, the woodlands and the great lakes.

The Anishinaabe (Ojibwe) migration legend tells how they migrated from the seaboard of the Atlantic Ocean inland and eventually occupied an area around the great lakes. The Assiniboine were known to have used what is now Minnesota, South and North Dakota, southern Manitoba and southeast Saskatchewan for at least 1,000 years. The Cree, allies of both the Assiniboine and the Ojibwe, occupied vast stretches of the northern boreal forest and more recently moved onto the plains.

Starting from as early as 20,000 years ago (perhaps even longer) evidence from anthropological sources and DNA testing shows waves of migration entering into North America from Asia across a land bridge over the Bering Strait (National Geographic, 1996-2008). During the glacial periods much of the northern hemisphere was covered by a thick layer of ice and because so much water was contained within those thick glaciers, the ocean levels were lower exposing more lands along the coastlines.

Many of the first peoples to occupy North America must have made their way south through ice-free regions along the coast and through an ice-free corridor along the east side of the Rocky Mountains. Then as the ice retreated about 10,000 years ago early tribes moved northwards occupying the newly exposed lands. These migrations populated most of North and South America (Hempstead, 2006). In addition to migrations from eastern Asia, there is solid evidence of early contact with the Vikings and there are some who hypothesize other early contact theories between Europe and North America over 1,000 years old (Linden, E., 2004).

Some indigenous people hold a belief that they have been in North America since creation and there are many indigenous cultures with different creation legends. It is interesting to note that the Anishinaabe4, Cree and Assiniboine/Sioux all have flood stories associated with their early legends. It is also relevant that many of these stories include animals as the important characters. The Sioux legend, for example includes an eagle, and both the Cree and Anishinaabe flood stories include a beaver, otter and muskrat. Chief White Bear was Anishinaabe, and the following Anishinaabe/Ojibwe5

4Anishinabe or Anishinaabe are both correct spellings for these people. More properly Anishinabek or Anishinaabeg, which are the plural forms of these words (Johnston, Basil. 1990. Ojibwe Heritage. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln and London). 5The Ojibwe are also referred to as Ojibway or Ojibwa, Chippewa, or Chippeway (First Nations Culture Areas Index. The Canadian Museum of Civilization).

16 creation story was obtained from Nokomis, a storyteller who heralds from north of , probably close to where Chief White Bear originally hunted.

Anishinaabe/Ojibwe Creation Legend

The Ojibwe and some other First Nations people, refer to this part of the world as Turtle Island. Different people have different ways of telling the story of how this land was created ... sort of how the Protestants and the Catholics put a spin on their versions of Bible stories. But this is what I was told about how the world came to be.

If you've read some of my other stories you'll already know that the universe was created by Kitchi-'s ability to envision all that was possible and then bring it into being. I don't know where Kitchi-Manitou went after he created the universe and everything in it. I don't know how long he stayed away. But I was told that he eventually dropped by again to check up on things, so to speak.

On his return the Mother Earth, Muzzu-Kummik-Quae seemed to be well. The animals that wandered the land; that swam in the seas and flew in the air held each other in balance as did the trees, the grasses and the thorns.

But as Manitou looked about him he had another vision ... he realized that there was one more thing that he could create. He could put on the world a special creature who, like himself, could dream.

Because this new being would be one who could have visions like his creator, rather than simply declaring this new being into existence, Manitou had to pass on his spiritual essence in a direct manner.

A spirit is simply a possibility

Because I've been speaking of Kitchi-Manitou as if he was a person, you may have forgotten that what he is personifying is possibility ... the possibility of everything in the universe that we know and everything that we don't know. But there are lesser possibilities. For example, there is the possibility that there is such a thing as winter. For the Ojibwe, winter is personified by Keewatin, spirit of the north. And then of course there is the possibility that the male being is not sufficient unto himself. Why else the need for women?

It was this feminine potential, personified as the spirit Geezhigo-Quae, to whom Kitchi- Manitou ascended. I say ascended because Geezhigo-Quae (Sky Woman) lived on the Moon. Now young ladies ... listen up. Here is what happened.

Even Manitou needed a woman's help

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Kitchi-Manitou, the greatest of spirits, the most powerful being in the universe had to ask a woman for help. He asked if she would bare his essence. He asked if she would join with him in creating an image of himself in the world. He asked if she would love and nurture his children. Sky Woman agreed.

They joined together and Sky Woman became pregnant with the children of Kitchi- Manitou. And then the blighter disappeared. He went off and did whatever men and Manitou's do after they get their women pregnant! So Sky Woman went down to Mother Earth to make preparations for the birth herself. She bent trees for a lodge. Tanned hides to cover it. Dried meat for the winter.

Many animals passed by to ask what she was up to. She explained that she was carrying Manitou's children and was preparing a home for them. The word spread across the world. Most creatures were happy and excited that Manitou had given them the gift of his children. But not the Water . They were mad!

Jealousy raises its ugly head

You see, every life form that lived on Mother Earth needed water and it was controlled by the Water Manitous. They knew that Kitchi-Manitou was the most powerful of spirits and if his children walked the Earth their powers over the water would be diminished.

Actually, the Water Manitous weren't just mad. They were enraged! In retaliation they used their powers to cause a great flood that spread across the entire world. As the waters rose and destroyed her encampment Sky Woman retreated to the Moon. She looked down in dismay. Water covered the land, her man was gone who knows where, and she - pregnant with his children - was left to handle the chaos by herself.

You get the idea that this is a TRUE story!

But like every woman, Geezhigo-Quae had a mind of her own. She wasn't helpless. She knew that she could influence her own destiny. She could have a say in how things turned out. She made a plan.

Although the world was inundated with water below her, Sky Woman could see a few animals that were not under the total control of the Water Spirits. That was because, although they breathed air, they knew how to swim! The first creature she called to her aid was the giant turtle. He came to the surface so that she could sit on his back and call others to her side. The loon, the beaver, the little muskrat were among her assistants.

The female spirit prevails

What she said was this. "I don't have all the powers of creation that Kitchi-Manitou has. But I am a woman and I have a special gift. I have the power to re-create. I can re-create Manitou's world, but I can't do it by myself. I need your help. I need you to dive deep. I

18 need you to bring me a handful of the original soil made by Manitou. The soil will be the seed I use to re-create the Earth."

All day long the animals took turns trying to reach the soil covered by the great depth of water but without success. At the end of the day it was only the little muskrat who had not given it a try. That was because muskrats don't really dive deep. You'll always find them in the sloughs, or at the edge of rivers and lakes. You'll never see them swimming in the deepest water.

But if you look at your own life, you'll see that there are times when you just have to give up your old story about what you can or cannot do. Sometimes in your life you have to burst from the confines of your story and grow into a more capable person.

That day, long ago, the muskrat decided that with no one else available to help, it was up to him to do the job. He took many deep breaths and dived down and down. Sky Woman and her friends waited and waited ... but the muskrat didn't return. The sun dipped below the horizon. The moon cast a sad blue glow across the water. It was a long night.

The dawn of a new day

As the sky grew light Geezhigo-Quae strained to catch sight of the muskrat. Suddenly she gasped and pointed through the waves. There in the distance was a small black thing floating on the water. The turtle swam towards it and Sky Woman realized it was the muskrat ... but he was dead.

Lovingly she pulled him from the water and found clutched in his paw the soil from Manitou's world. To thank the muskrat she bent over and breathed life back into him ... which is why we still have muskrats today.

Then she took the soil and breathed into it the characteristics that would allow it to provide nourishment, shelter, teachings and incentive to the beings that would live upon it. That soil she rubbed on the turtle's back. She rubbed the soil round and round. As she did so, the Muzzu-kummick-quae again took shape above the water. Geezhigo-Quae continued to move over the new soil. She walked in wider and wider circles. And the Earth was re-created. Forever after the Ojibwe called the world Turtle Island.

Sky Woman gave birth. Eventually Kitchi-Manitou returned and was grateful to Geezhigo-Quae for her strength and her compassion. He gave her a new name. Thereafter she was known as Nokomis - the Great Mother, creator of the Anishinaabe, the Good Beings.

The children of Kitchi-Manitou and Nokomis had children ... and the children had children. As time went on and people spread across the land they sometimes were known as Ojibwe, sometimes Chippewa, or Ottawa, Pottawatomi and . Eventually they were known as Canadians.

Anishinabe means “First Peoples” Ojibwe means “those who write.” 19

Geographical and Anthropological Information

Current traditional land use of the WBFNs is centered around the Moose Mountains. The Moose Mountains are the highest local elevation in southeast Saskatchewan. Although thick layers of ice covered almost all of Saskatchewan until approximately 11,000 years ago, the highest points such as the Cypress Hills and the Moose Mountains may not have been covered during some glacial periods (Acton, D.F., G.A. Padbury and C.T. Stushnoff. 1998). Not only were these higher elevations spared the trauma of glaciation they attracted animals and plants not found in the surrounding bald prairies. As a result of this diverse and rich biomass the Moose Mountains were an oasis of food and shelter for the bison harvesting cultures of the plains.

Large fluted spear points, likely used to hunt bison around 9000 BC, were found in Southern Saskatchewan. Most of the evidence for early occupation in this area comes from archeological excavations like the Parkhill site in central Saskatchewan, where hundreds of points, bifaces and scrapers were gathered (Ebell, S. Biron, 1980); clearly depicting organized bison hunts from as early as 8,500 years ago.

These are 9,000 year old Agate Basin Points found just south of

Moosejaw Saskatchewan.

functioning as projectile tips and knives.

These tools functioned as projectile tips and knives, used by the first peoples in this area to hunt bison, which were a much larger species than the animal we are familiar with today.

Photo courtesy of the Saskatchewan Archeological Society.

There is considerable evidence of organized bison hunts on the northern plains from 8,000 years ago, where the hunters used more advanced spear points with distinctive rippled flaking. Perhaps one of the most significant sites depicting land use during this period is at the Oxford Dam (Novecosky, B., Popkin, P., 2005) located in southeastern

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Saskatchewan on the Souris River, just southwest of the current Reserve lands of the White Bear First Nations.6

There have been numerous types of projectile points7 discovered in the Souris River area such as arrowheads, darts and spear points, all used for the subsistence culture of bison hunting. It was here that the first finds of the atlatl were discovered, described in more detail below. The Souris River site also reveals evidence of a large North American trade network with discoveries such as copper from the Great Lakes and shells from the Atlantic coast (Syms, E. L., 2012). It is obvious that the first peoples of this area not only organized bison hunts, but participated in early inter-tribal trade networks as well.

The Atlatl is a dart and spear throwing tool used to hunt large bison for over 7,000 years. This system was not replaced with the bow and arrow until 2,000 years ago and was a major cultural change for the Saskatchewan plains people.

It is interesting to note, however, that the bow-and-arrow did not immediately replace the previously discussed atlatl-and-dart system in this region. Rather, they were used simultaneously for a few hundred years.

6 There are numerous ancient Oxbow sites throughout Saskatchewan including: the Harder Campsite near ; the Gray burial site near Swift Current; the southeast Long Creek campsite; and the Moose Mountain Medicine Wheel. 7 Projectile Points are defined as any stone, bone, or wooden tip attached to a weapon such as an arrow, dart, lance, or spear (Definitions.com).

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2,000 to 300 years ago was not only marked by the introduction of the bow-and arrow, but also, the use of clay pottery. Unlike stone tools, these first peoples shaped and fired clay into vessels used for carrying water, and storing, cooking and serving food (University of Saskatchewan, 2000). This new technology stemmed from the east, and suggests that during this period a more culturally diverse first peoples developed or moved into southern Saskatchewan.

Archeological discoveries show that these first peoples were making pottery almost 2000 years before European traders arrived. These clay pots were replaced with copper and iron pots of the fur trade. A great example of one of these clay artifacts would be the ‘Big Pot’ discovered in Avonlea Saskatchewan, only a few hours west of the White Bear Reserve.

The BIG POT from Avonlea

Pottery of this style is found throughout southern Saskatchewan and northern Montana. This ‘Big Pot’ is approximately 1600 years old, and considered to be, one of the oldest made in Saskatchewan.

It is quite large – about 34 cm in diameter and about 60 cm high. Its thick carbonized remains indicate that this pot was used for cooking. (Royal Saskatchewan Museum, 2013)

Moose Mountain Medicine Wheel

The Moose Mountain medicine wheel is located in southeastern Saskatchewan about 20 kilometers from the White Bear Reserve. This medicine wheel’s solstice-aligned boulder configurations date the wheel to be at least 1,700 years old (Olsen, B., 2008). Northern plains peoples regarded this medicine wheel as a spiritual site devoted to the sky, with boulders directed to the summer solstice, for sun worship and/or to determine specific hunting and planting seasons.

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