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North Korean Escapees' Unthinkable Journeys and the Conceptual Binaries of Migration Policy Kyunghee Kook School of Sociology, Politics and International Studies UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL A dissertation submitted to the University of Bristol in accordance with the requirements for award of the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in the Faculty of Social Sciences and Law. December 2019 Word count: 79,414 ABSTRACT There is a lack of empirical interview data on escapees from North Korea and the aim of this thesis is to address this omission. At a theoretical level, this thesis is concerned with North Korean escapees' cross-border mobility to South Korea through a third country. It explores how North Koreans' migration, often popularly described as the `Underground Railroad', is undertaken through smuggling networks, documenting both the process of smuggling and the structure of its networks. Although academic research and human rights agencies' re- ports have contributed to providing an overview of the plight of North Korean escapees, there has been very little empirical research on the actual migration experience of North Koreans. By conducting empirical research on the processes by which North Koreans move, and their lived experience throughout the migration process, my research addresses a gap in the academic research and literature on North Korean escapees. Empirical data on how and why North Koreans move across borders not only adds to the existing literature on North Koreans, but also draws attention to conceptual and theoretical weaknesses in dominant un- derstandings of the line between `forced' and `voluntary' migration. Focusing on the actors involved in the brokerage and smuggling networks that facilitate North Koreans' movement, this thesis highlights the complexities of `smuggling' and shows how the category is far more complex than commonly assumed in either migration studies or popular discourse on the `Underground Railroad'. Particular attention is paid to the broad and divergent range of interests and motivations of different actors who facilitate the cross border movement of North Koreans. In doing so, the thesis shows that the categories ‘trafficking', `smuggling', `asylum-seeking' and `migration' do not describe neatly bounded and fundamentally distinct types of movement. It critically questions the way in which the boundaries between human trafficking and smuggling, and between forced and voluntary migration are conceptualized in migration policy, much of academic literature on migration, and in international human rights law. AUTHOR'S DECLARATION I declare that the work in this dissertation was carried out in accordance with the require- ments of the University's Regulations and Code of Practice for Research Degree Programmes and that it has not been submitted for any other academic award. Except where indicated by specific reference in the text, the work is the candidate's own work. Work done in collab- oration with, or with the assistance of, others, is indicated as such. Any views expressed in the dissertation are those of the author. SIGNED: ............................................................. DATE:.......................... DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to my parents, Jung-whan Kook and Jung-Sook Lee who have made countless sacrifices in their own lives to that I could chase after my dreams. I am humbled by their grace, love, dedication and extraordinary courage. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My greatest debt goes to my supervisors, Julia O'Connell Davidson and Katharine Charsley, who provided me with a great deal of intellectual and emotional support that I could have ever imagined throughout my PhD course. They trusted and encouraged me every step of the way and also believed me to find my own way in the process of writing and fieldwork. Words cannot express my gratitude for their continuous support and help. I would like to thank all my research participants who shared their suffering, emotions, thoughts and lived experiences with me. This study would not have been possible without their participation. I would also to express my appreciation to my friends, Min-hee who, who was always there in the difficult moment. I would like to thank my family who have deep sacrifices for me to be here today. They were constantly present in every step of my endeavour. I would also like to thank new members of my family who gave me support and joy. In memory of Miru who had to leave for an `eternal picnic', she always gave me unconditional love and endless support. Giba has supported me and nourished my soul along the way. He trusted me even when I doubted myself and inspired me to keep writing my thesis. This thesis would have been possible without all his supports and help. Lastly and most importantly, special thanks go to my parents for their sacrifice, endless love, dedication, courage, and support. When I suffered from a lack of self-confidence, they encouraged me to find my passions. I owe my parents everything and for that reason I dedicate this thesis to them. CONTENTS 1. North Korean Escapees: Introduction ::::::::::::::::::::::::: 11 1.1 Introduction . 11 1.2 Research trajectory . 14 1.3 Research purpose and research question . 16 1.4 Structure of the thesis . 17 2. North Korean Escapees: Background, History and Terminology :::::::::: 19 2.1 Historical and Geopolitical Context . 19 2.2 Literature Review . 24 2.3 Terminology and Classifications of North Koreans in South Korea . 28 2.4 A discussion of `refugee' and `economic migrant' binary . 32 2.5 Conceptualising NKE's movement - the limits of international frameworks . 35 3. Research Design and Methods ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: 37 3.1 Research design . 37 3.2 The interviewees . 38 3.3 The interviews . 42 3.4 Additional forms of data collection . 45 3.5 Data analysis . 49 3.6 Ethics . 51 3.6.1 Risks of harming North Korean escapees . 51 3.6.2 Risk of retraumatizing victims of torture . 55 3.6.3 Duty to bear witness . 55 4. Suffering, Terror, Mobility ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: 59 4.1 Introduction . 59 4.2 Suffering from hunger . 61 4.3 Suffering and torture in North Korean concentration camps . 67 Contents 7 4.3.1 Experiences of those held in the Bowibu (State Security Department of North Korea) either following repatriatriation or arrest for other crimes 71 4.3.2 Interrogation and torture . 76 4.3.3 Die or Bad: Experiences on camps . 84 4.3.4 Inhumane confinement condition and labour training camps and re- education Camps . 86 4.3.5 Forced labour as a punishment . 86 4.3.6 Hunger: malnutrition to death . 88 4.3.7 Somewhere between death and live: living corpses . 90 4.3.8 Torture, sexual violence, and punishment . 92 4.3.9 Trial by the people, public execution . 94 4.3.10 Social `stigma' . 98 4.3.11 Re-escape: in order to betray the regime and not to be caught . 99 4.4 Conclusion . 100 5. Irregular border crossing to China: trafficking or smuggling? :::::::::::: 104 5.1 Introduction . 104 5.2 Feminization of North Korean migration . 110 5.3 Marriage Brokerages and Migration Industry in Asia . 112 5.4 North Korean Women's migration process and route through seon: Neither trafficked nor smuggled . 115 5.4.1 Crossing the border . 117 5.4.2 On the move in China with brokers . 120 5.4.3 Seon: brokers or traffickers? . 124 5.4.4 Staying in marriage brokers' houses and waiting to be sold . 131 5.5 Conclusion . 133 6. Wives or Slaves? North Korean Wives in China ::::::::::::::::::: 136 6.1 Introduction . 136 6.2 Legal status of North Korean wives in China . 137 6.3 Forced or voluntary marriage: a question of consent? . 138 6.4 Slaves? Abuse and violence in marriage . 141 6.5 Slave or non-slave . 145 6.6 Conclusion . 152 Contents 8 7. Workers or Slaves? NKEs Working in China and Russia ::::::::::::::: 154 7.1 Introduction . 154 7.2 Slaves or migrant workers in Russia? . 155 7.3 Slaves or irregular migrant workers in China? . 160 7.3.1 Criminals and irregular workers in the shadows . 161 7.3.2 Bad but better than in North Korea . 166 7.4 Conclusion . 168 8. Boundary Troubles ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: 172 8.1 Introduction . 172 8.2 Neither forced/trafficked nor voluntary/smuggled . 173 8.3 Citizen and non-Citizen or failed citizen . 180 8.4 Slavery/freedom binary - Neither free nor unfree . 187 8.5 Conclusion . 190 9. Conclusion :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: 192 LIST OF TABLES 3.1 Profiles of North Korean female escapees .