CEU eTD Collection AND C In partial fulfilment of the requirementsfor the degree of Master of Art HINA N Department of International Relations and European Studies ORTHEAST ’ S N uevsr Professor Matteo Fumagalli Supervisor: ORTH Central European University European Central A P K Word Count: 14907 Budapest, Hungary SIAN ERSPECTIVE Submitted to Submitted OREAN Yichun Xie Yichun 2008 By P OLITICS D EFECTOR : A N EOREALIST P OLICY CEU eTD Collection Peninsula and the balance of power considerations against the US-Japan coalition. US-Japan the against considerations of power balance andthe Peninsula security,self-perception of national inits maintaining interest the stability of Korean the neorealistthe frameworkanswer to questions. the Why China adoptthe policy isits related to problem so that to maintain the stability rationalethe behindthis policy? Will be there apolicy change andpropersolution the to in the Korean Peninsula? theIn thisNorth paper, Korean I willdefectors apply in addition unification of Korean the Why Peninsula. such China adopt does a hard-line vis-à-vis policy to its underperforming and stability the on impact great has hand, other the on and crisis, humanhumanitarian causes rights record? What is The Chinese authority’s North imposed Korean defectors on on hard-line policy the handone flee toChina defectors their because of mostly borders the country across hardship. economic anestimatedresult, of 10,000 to 300,000 (according todifferentKorean North resources) economic its depend system, which heavily “big on to used brother”, has Asa crumbled. The sudden collapse of the Soviet Union has had a significant impact on North Korea. Its Abstract CEU eTD Collection Phoenix Weekly Hu Ben for inspiring me of the topic of North Korean defectors. duringsupport research thesis the andI would Also, writing. like to thankmyin colleague I wouldlike toexpress my tomygratitude supervisor Matteo Fumagalli for continuous Acknowledgement 3 CEU eTD Collection ilorpy...... 56 Bibliography...... 53 ...... Conclusion C C C C 5 Introduction...... 4 TableContents...... of 3 Acknowledgement...... 2 ...... Abstract HANGE HAPTER HAPTER HAPTER 3.3. TestingPropositions the 3.2. Propositions 3.1. Neorealism andRefugee Issue 3.4. Outside Neorealism:3.4. Outside Ideology, Liberalism andChina’s North Korean Policy Defector 2.4. China’s North Korean refugee policyits and consequences 2.3. TheStatus oftheNKDefectorsandChina’s Responsibilityfrom Legal Perspective a Causes oftheFlight 2.2. The 2.1. TheNumber, Flightand Lifeofthe Route Defectors ...... 49 ...... 3.3.2. A Review of China-North Korean Relations andthe Test ofP2 andP3...... 33 3.3.1. China’s domestic stability and ...... 29 the Test ofP1 2: 1: 3: C C T HINA HINA HE D ’ ’ YNAMICS OF YNAMICS S S ...... 27 P P OLICY OLICY TOWARDS C ONSIDERATIONS THROUGH THE ...... 29 ...... 15 C HINA ...... 22 Table of Contents of Table -N NK ORTH D EFECTORS K OREAN 4 ...... 12 ...... R ...... 12 ELATIONS AND THE L ENS OF ENS ...... 20 N EOREALISM P OSSIBILITY OF ...... 22 ...... 17 ...... 44 P OLICY CEU eTD Collection (referred to asGeneva in Convention and after) the 1967Protocol Conventionthat to which and ofviolating criticism United the Nations Convention Status the Relating to of Refugees thatcausehumanitarianmajor and factors itcrisis put China also international under pressure Peninsula. Korean the of unification and stability the on impact great has hand, other the on and crisis, anddefectors improper imposedtreatment onthem the on one hand causeshumanitarian international the community. to becoming concern agrowing large of outflow the The issue most of nuclear Korea issue attracts attention ispaidthe this defector to region, the repatriated to their countrymigrants. of origin where As they insisting illegal economic giveto thosedefectors,they that status are refuses to refugee a mayresult, face persecution.government Chinese the However, US. the and Korea South bordersincluding governments national Although thewith North Northhave beenrecognized asrefugees by UNHighthe forCommissioner Refugees (UNHCR) and Korea aretheir country across borders the to Chinamostly because of economicThese people hardship. tightly controlleddifferent flee Korean 300,000(accordingdefectors resources) North to to estimated of 10,000 andsystem,depend whichused heavilyonits to has “bigbrother”, crumbled.As a result, an defectors economic Its Korea. impactNorth on hadasignificant Union has of Soviet the collapse are (North Korea) and Korea USsupporting the Korea). The of (South Republic the sudden the Cold War, with the Soviet Union supporting Democratic People's Republic of Korea The Chinese authority’s hard-line policy toward the North Korean defectors is one of the From Korean Warthe in 1950stillthe the 1991, Korean frontline was Peninsula of the Introduction 5 CEU eTD Collection Policy Options”, CRS Report for Congress (2007) 2 International Response: 40 Foundation (June 2002):6; US Committed for Human Rights (2006), The North Korean Refugee Crisis: Human Rights and 1 is defectors written. of obligations repatriating signedbilateral agreement and Pyongyang byBeijing inthe 1986inwhich each of sides’ the is the defectors of Korean North for therefoulement al., reason an immediate et Chang humanitarian purposes and in broaderthe picture of Korean the issue.unification for Korean issue in is properly these addressingdefector North the crucial questions problemthe so that to maintain stability the in Korean the Peninsula? Finding answers to isWhat therationale behind thispolicy? Will be apolicy there solution and change to proper vis-à-vis the NorthKorean in defectors addition to its underperforming human record? rights facelose internationally. such China situation, whydoes adopt a hard-linethis policy In China make outcomes policy the and policy hard-line this Undoubtedly, country. responsible inpower world,the Chinahas been tryingits best toadapt world,to the acting asa Chinese duringauthorities the 2008Beijing torch relay inOlympics As amajorSeoul. rising taken by defectors: the e.g. stormingforeign embassies in China, protesting against the China isparty of. Astheoutcome hard-line of policy,the been have actions high-profile some Northeast Asia. Scobell identifies China’s three major stakes in maintaining the North Korean North the in maintaining stakes major three China’s identifies Scobell Asia. Northeast a politicized one which is embedded in complicatedthe and nuanced international in politics Korea”. outflow of refugees, whichthey believe could trigger instability the collapse or of North massive wantsto“avoid Korean North the It regime. in maintaining current the interest in China’s lies explanation and deep-seated important a more out, point correctly Scobell Rhoda Margesson, et el, “North Korean Refugees in China and Human Rights Issues: International Response and U.S. Ko Sung Ho, Chung, Kiseon, Oh Yoo-seok, “North Korean defectors: their life and well-being after defection”, Ford Various authors have given more or less similar answers to that. According to Ko et al., 2 In this sense, the North Korean defector issue is not a single human rights issue, but issuea single is rights human not defector Korean North the In sense, this 6 1 As some authors, such as Margesson and as such Margesson authors, As some CEU eTD Collection of the U.S. Army College. Available online at 3 corresponding solutions to them. on refugee problems sometimes andsuggests evencontradictingdistinct, perspective applied to the explanation and analysis of refugee issues in the world, each of which provide a a human rights issue,itproblem,can benot solved political outsidethe context. They not only should as be treated but also various are effortsthere on part the international of depoliticizerefugee the community the to a political one. Various internationaladopts a hard-line policy to North Koreans defectors from the perspective of IR. relationsthis paper, I will fill gap the lackingof systematicexplanations to questionthe of why China theoriesprovide reasonablepredictions to potentialthe of evolution policy the in future. Thus, the in are also can it that is explanation theoretical of advantage Another considerations. the explaining in instruments areeffective IR theories thus, inPeninsula, Korean the interests and security above,As noted Beijing’s policy linkedconsiderations are toits perception national of adopted. been has approach theoretical and systematic no standing, international its and rights a of why hard-lineChina adopts North policy to Korean atdefectors expense the of human economic and development prosperity of China; andthirdly,scapegoat United the to States. the to detrimental be may which Asia, Northeast in instability subsequent and Korea North of in coalition secondly,this region; avoiding aversemindset, andrisk collapse the conservative external against invasion,zone buffer provides Korea North that meaning mentality, buffer the firstly, regime: it is also an important ally to balance the US, South Korea and Japan Andrew Scobell, “China and North Korea: From Comrades-in-Arms to Allies at Arms Length”, Strategic Studies Institute Studies Strategic Length”, at Arms to Allies Comrades-in-Arms From Korea: North and “China Scobell, Andrew In the study of refugees in field of IR, there is a dichotomy between the state-centric and is between state-centric the there adichotomy infieldof IR, In the study refugees of In fact, the refugee question is one of the most contentious human rights issues. Although Although have abovethe authors upon touched key the in points answering question the http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pdffiles/PUB373.pdf 7 : 17-25 3 CEU eTD Collection phenomenon may which cause social instability in host countries, problems are emphasized for their potential links with transnational crime, terrorism and other nationality haveseek protection and to abroad. their sovereignty, even if the immigrants are in danger of persecution by their states of relations with Hence,and influence the self-intereston North Korea.of Chinese government China’s rigid stanceNorth toward Korean refugees: theinterest ofmaintainingits good embarrass block Union. Soviet to rationalthe Scobell amost behind identifies important War,Cold Communist from the up a Westernrefugees accept USset the to regime refugee example, the during For in standingpursue abetter relations. international in to states order other with in relation refugees toward way in certain behave may State considerations. policy tighter restrictions on asylum seeking policies. Refugee issue also matters in regard of foreign implications. Togetherconcerns. with Milner, heargues that migration forced has always hadsecurity secondary morality security, national issue with as ethic or refugees the relating treating Refugee Situations and State and Regional Insecurity”,Conflict, Security & Development (April, 2004): 8 7 (2002): 2 6 Development (April, 2004): 5 OUP (1993) 5 Crisis”, Refugee Global the and Co-operation 4 policy concerns”. “foreign to in and of“national state security” the matter Refugeesterms concepts. are central and “self-interest” “state” Nadig, to according neorealism, In former one. the of representative is community. international such society and Neorealism actors as civil rolethe non-state of the roleand theformer state with emphasizing thelatter of the approaches, non-state-centric Joanne van Selm, “Refugee Protection in Europe and the US after 9/11” (2003) in Vol.15No.1 Gil Loescher;Studies, James ofRefugee Milner, Journal “Protracted Protection”, Refugee and Security, National Smuggling, “Human Nadig, Aninia Gil Loescher; James Milner, “Protracted Refugee Situations and State and Regional Insecurity”, Conflict, Security & Gil Loescher, Chapter 2: “The Origin of the International Refugee Regime”: 52 in “Beyond Charity: International 5 Traditionally, are determined states to raise barriers immigration to defendto 4 Loescher is a pioneer in emphasizing the “high politics dimension”, politics “high the in emphasizing pioneer is a Loescher 8 6 Andin post9/11the discourse, refugee 7 which results in even CEU eTD Collection 10 RefugeeLaw, Vol.12 (2002):238 9 8 in of Chinese tothestate-centric foreign mostly it approach policy as refers iswhich “treated to which bilateral the relations go.Hao argues unlikethat Chinese domestic politics, study the direction the determine that countries both in Party Communist ruling is the It role. dominant Koreanplay islittle in there of relations context society a which civil China-North and states in Koreanrefugee regime, the North itrefugeeexamining issue,is importanttoputit in the involvement of sub- and in supranational actors fluidshaping national interest. national security or itsof perception changing policy becauseof either defector Korean positive picture in which isthere thepossibility Beijing that will its change over-rigid North andbureaucracies.interestindividuals, groups, is level, areincluded; the national andmultinational of at state corporations composed the level,At forces. supranational integrations the rather NGOs of they are sub- supranational and of solutions refugee meaning problem, states are more than a singlelayer likein a realist view; one. internationalized a more to regime refugee state-centric overly revise the is a needto There global scale. boundaries mobilizesinin a state areblurring andpopulation eraof the the globalization, of play Accordingrefugees. approach, this actors argues to major non-state a role. Barnett that of defectors. the Beijingthat will change itspolicy current because of perceivedthe threat posedby large flow rights concerns. thehuman overwhelms Laura Barnett, “Global Governance and the Evolution of the International Refugee Regime”, International Journal of Scobell (2003)a:17-25 Nadig: 18 Although isincreasingthere attention paying the pluralist to in view international the Outside realism,is there alsoa growing emphasis on pluralistthe approachin study the 9 the to approach “pluralist” an alternative suggests also Nadig 8 According to this theory, isthere little possibility 9 10 The pluralist approach draws us a more CEU eTD Collection Foreign Policy Making: Societal Force and Chinese American Policy, Ashgate Publishing Company (2005):2-3 Company Publishing Ashgate Policy, American Chinese 12 and Force Societal Making: Policy Foreign 11 plural Havingtaken a closer look direction. atChina’s making, American policy and Su Hao still made by communistthe party from autonomous public,the trend the is moving a toward are international playingactors anincreasing role. Although now,till China’s is foreign policy in China’s changing foreign policy inmaking process domestic non-state which and Korean defector policy a positiveto direction. In regard of this, Iargue that the possibility lies shouldbe supplementneorealism to in theanswering question. interest state views asexogenous given. To ideology overcome this weakness, andliberalism this case. On the other hand, the neorealist framework focus too much on material interest and in Westernthe world,is still marginal in China. Thus, pluralistthe approach is less relevantin Korean North Civil andbehaviordefectors. society, toward considerations is common which policy China’s in explaining effective most is neorealism that argue I Consequently, actor. are in with accordance realistthe assumptions offixedinterest, andunified state and rational andflexible.” hasmore realistic become interests pursuitthose of the are involved in making.policy “China’s national aremoreinterests specifically and defined, factions within Communistthe Party,domestic think tanks, and andforeign investors soon one. Itis such alsobutsophisticated notonly leader”, actors as various “beloved the other significant changes from highly personal, radical,ideological andpragmatic to and black-box. imposed by constraints and external isthe environment” the process which ina of productthe of a rational, pursuing unitary maximizingstate and its national interests under the Ibid Yufan Hao, “Influence of Societal Factors: A Case of China’s American Policy Making”, in Yufan Hao, Lin Su, China’s A subsequent question of the study is whether there will be a change in China’s North 11 isWhatmore, foreign Inpost-Mao era, Chinese policy has undergone 10 12 The two observations CEU eTD Collection liberalism. Korean andseerelations is if a there possibility inof change policy ofneorealismterms and neorealism. Inthe thirdwill part,I acloser look attake dynamics the within China-North In thesecond chapter, Iwill give China’sexplanations to policies through lens the of their routes flight,of life in China, debate on their and status China’s policies will be included. introduction general to theNorth defectorsKorean will be given. Thenumberof defectors, well. expectpluralismisit that reasonable to can changeChina’s Korean policy North defector as argues that globalization, the internet and think tanks all contribute to the policy making. Thus, This main body main body This of In the intochapter, will be firstthesis chapters. the three divided a 11 CEU eTD Collection number of the defectors impractical. According to Chinese official statistics, the number the statistics, of toChineseofficial impractical. According of defectors number the defectors, they have hideto in China after arrival, which makes the assessment of the accurate 2.1. The Number, Flight Route and Life of the Defectors will beconsequences. the so specifically, studied them from a legal inperspective; thelast part,China’s North Korean policy defectors will be Iwill In thethird and examineof China’s part, thestatus defectors the responsibility towards identified. be will flights their of causes the then, in China; life and route flight their defectors, of refugeethe problem. chapter, In this Iwill first alook take at number the Korean of North freely. defectors contactfull scope it the make is the to to assess organizations difficult Thus, cases, is country. international community, from the Assistance isin refugee essential which other absent here.their way to China The and even theChineseof restorigin of their and country their livescountry both by traitors even or migrants if economic illegal theyofconsidered government but UNHCR, the asylum.cannot find Risks refuge of beingin a safe caught of one world’sthe refugee mostby desperate They groups. been have asrefugees recognized third doesand sent back notaccompany allow them all the UNHCR or other own country and sought asylum in neighboring countries. inneighboring asylum sought and country own distribution system in North Korea, an increasing number of North Koreans have fled their 13 Lee Keum-soon, “Cross-border Movement of North Korean Citizens”, East Asian Review, (2004): 37 (2004): Review, Asian East Citizens”, Korean of North Movement “Cross-border Keum-soon, Lee Since neither Beijing nor Pyongyang recognizes the legal status legal Korean the of PyongyangSincenor status North Beijing neither the recognizes Since the mid-1990s, because of the lasting famine and the collapse of the central C HAPTER 1: C HINA ’ S P OLICY TOWARDS 12 13 Notably, these defectors consist NK D EFECTORS CEU eTD Collection them them during theGreatLeapForward in 19611958 to and theCultural inRevolution 1960s the senseconnections, altruism of and adesire toreciprocate helpthe North Koreans that gave to family interests, as economic such motivations for defectors newly arrived the have assisted 18 project (2002):6 17 16 15 (2002):2 14 an home to onemillion estimated Korean of Chinese descent. overall investigation, uses also 2006rangethe (30,000-50,000)asa workingfigure. benumber betweenUNHCR, 30,000and to fully without 50,000. and tothe defectors access aroundnumber 100,000 to to 300,000. from set Reports NGOs andmedia the have underestimated. seriously to believed been KoreanNorth indefectors China is 10,000.However,around this official numberis widely especially in especially winter. depththe of waterthe is shallow enough for them to crossby swimming walking, or rivers, of the parts some In River. Tumen and Yalu of River consists mainly line border The its90% of with land border the in provinces three (with north the rest10%withthe Russia). shares One Korea defectors. of reasonsisgeographical.the of the North main destinations protection. sufficient receive and asrefugees berecognized Southeast can they Asia where finddefectors a safe their way to third such country as Mongolia, Russiacountries or in by forcibly International, Chinese police. are the repatriated A much percentage of smaller bringto andfood hard currencybackNorth to Korea. Some, 10%by around Amnesty seasonally forth back Theymove and time. over fluctuates defectors Korea of number North Margesson:5 Ko, Sung Ho, et el, “North Korean Defectors: Their Life and Well-being after Defection”, A Ford Foundation funded ibid Margesson:4 Human Rights Watch, “The Invisible Exodus: North Koreans in the People’s Republic of China”, Human Rights Watch The three northeastern provincesThe threeof northeastern Jilin China, Liaoning, arethe Jiang, and Heilong 17 The Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture of Liaoning isProvince 14 In 2006, the US State Department estimated the 13 18 Many of these ethnic Koreans 15 The 16 CEU eTD Collection 21 (2006):21 20 19 pushed them intolow wage dirty, difficult work”,and dangerous employers’ invitewilling… theexploitation of North the Korean inrefugees China and have at mercy the defectors of “place the conditions These may facepersecution. where they KoreaNorth danger by Chinese authorities backto of face being the constant repatriated andlackinglegal and permit residence market. In labor IDcard to access China, defectors the skills, low detection, of fear including factors several by iscaused level employment low The were indicatedin only that holding North Korean 2005 job.intervieweddefectors a 22% of the and 1970s. residence”. “illegal for them report to threaten will employers the or payment, no with shelter and food for just full-time they someare working For defectors, orchards. and rice paddies cornfields, Chinaisfinal not their interviewees, 64% prefer Among around destination. 1248 togo the families their earnings. mobilemost migrants, crossing of the border frequently conduct smallto orbringtrade their markets, train stations, airports, and sometimes karaoke bars and restaurants. They are also the affordunable to tofeed them. In late 1990s, the they easilybecould foundin asbeggars local are or their parents byadults, above,are unaccompanied or aged ten children China. These Rights Watch points out that there is a growing problem of North Korean street children in Ko:12 US Committed for Human Rights, “The North Korean Refugee Crisis: Human Rights and International Response” Ibid Concerninglife theirin by China,asurvey forUS Committee conducted Human Rights The survey by US Committee of Human Rights also points out that for many defectors As for they childare unable defectors, receivelegal to education Human without status. 19 21 14 20 such such as farmers helping in CEU eTD Collection 24 23 22 to South by Korea being authority the without repatriated. be transferred can they where Thailand and Laos Cambodia, Vietnam, as such countries Asian Southeast to border the cross later and South, the to China northeast from down way all travel Korea, 19% andSouth into theUS, 14%prefer most tostay China.cases, In thedefectors result of result of faminethe in began 1995. is border increase of the of is Koreans exodus North crossing dramatic economic. The adirect FoundationFord analyzing the motives for defectiontheir finds that mainthe for reason flight of North Korean defectors: food shortage and human political refugees. abusesalsogenerate rights suchas human persecution, factors Political rights abuses. A research majority,the economic hardship caused by famine is the main force driving of their departure. by the 2.2. The Causes of the Flight because of their experiences previous of wandering in without street the receiving education. isdifficult community local into integration their country, third safe a in asylum find to able smuggling are common in theses circumstances as well. For very few lucky children who are have evenbeen tosetpushing UlanBator up refugee camp buthas there, been rejected. Convention, Mongolia maintains a policy of not repatriating North Koreans. Some advocates are defectors the transferred through Russia andMongolia.party Although not of Refugee the James D Seymour, “China: Background Paper on the Situation of North Koreans in China”, Writenet Report (2005):7 Human Rights Watch (2002):15 Lintner The CRS report for the US Congress identifies two main push factors that cause the cause that factors push main two identifies Congress US the for report CRS The For aremixed. movements their cross-border causesof the Korean defectors, North For The way to South Korea is not easy for defectors either. Human trafficking and 24 Seymour argues thethat economichardship North 15 22 There are fewer cases in which 23 CEU eTD Collection 27 26 25 and restrictions. Punishments include laboringinconcentration camps where the conditions extensivemetedlaws tocitizens out whoviolate severe physical abuse are Korea,in North Rights for Human Committee US from report the a 2003 Secondly, to persecution. according No criticism control. media tight and liberties” religious and civil political, of denial total is“a there Firstly, of Kim Jong Korea. inNorth violations andhuman rights Ilrules of indicatetotalitarian same patterns sources is allowed. inandmajor of they are the defectors China. source heavy industry bases in Soviet time have suffered most in economicthe degrading andfamine, between million.” at 2 andestimated 3.5 deathsin made,thenumberassumptions of famine-related midtolatethe 1990shas been famine wassevere times higher than years. normal “Depending on methodology the used and people.Accordingstatistics from to Johns Hopkins University, during death the rate the country,a “socialist” distributionfood system, andthey cannot buy food from “market”the which is notallowed in Korean North economy.A be servedlarge by ceased to number population the national of the systems, and natural calamitiesperpetuating Stalinist economic policies, breakdownthe in food the storage and rationing such as floodingUnion.SovietAfter 1991,the sudden withdrawof Sovietthe support, cessationthe the of and drought all lead economic system is highly tocentralized, heavy industry driven and heavily depended on the the collapse of the backin hasWar. itsroots Cold the hasbeen Korea experiencing Korea’sNorth Indeed, The US Committee for Human Rights:7 ibid ibid Human violationrights is thesecond reason for the defection. from Reports various 25 while the price food of in black markets is high too for the ordinary 26 27 The provinces in the north which serve as the as serve which north in the provinces The Political dissenters have well-founded fear of 16 CEU eTD Collection 30 29 28 China have or by beenforcibly repatriated Beijing.” longer with citizens in sentences if prisons abusive are caughtcrossingthey borderto the authority.the Watch Human Rights its appearstobepunishingKorea “North that asserts by as traitors they are considered Korea, flee North they once But reasons. economic strictly degrading treatment to defectors harsh. are extremely after their return. In fact, many defectors first emigrate for Definition ofRefugeeDefinition examination of refugeethe lawis needed. further not, or well-founded is criticism this law.Whether international the violating for sends backthem North Korea when to This hard-linehas policy discovered. been criticized and Beijingthem considers Instead, Korean migrants as illegal economic North defectors. shall group be as well recognized refugees. Committee for Human US The as andthe USallhaveKorea refugees. been South like recognized Rightscountries has even concluded whosucceed in in on a case seeking asylum Korean defectors by basis, North case the that North Korean defectors as a whole Perspective 2.3. The Status of the NKDefectors and China’s Responsibility from aLegal motives. that punishmentthe is becomingless harsh than previous years depending on different The US Committee (2007) on Return for Punished Human Harshly Rights:8 Border-Crossers Korea: North Watch, (2003) Rights Camps Human Prison Korea’s North Exposing Gulag: Hidden The Korea, North in Rights Human for Committee US The Being party Being of party Convention, Geneva the hasbeendenyingthe China refugeeof status for status refugee process application Although national UNHCR the the authorities or 30 28 A third exemplification of human rights abuse in North Korea is the 17 29 However, there is evidence showing isevidence there However, CEU eTD Collection 34 33 32 31 persecution because of persecution their departure. included inthedefinition. Butonce theyleave their country, they facewill the dangerof not whichare reasons formost economic of escape them defectors, Korean caseof the North In return. upon can persecution can be ifof thepossibility asylum seeker prove recognized the need The before persecution Refugee flight. nothavebeenimposed forward-looking. status being assigned to schools and jobs with worst conditions. War, Korean during the Korea went toSouth who and those marginalized in society, are the withrelatives of collaborated whopeople Japanese during Japanese the landlords, occupation, individual innocence guilt”.or crimes be punished, butalso hisheror family members andrelatives, “regardless of their discriminationand punishment is collective there that claims Watch Rights Human consideration. into taken within the North Korean society. Not only may the person who commits Human Rights Watch (2002):20 Ibid:19-20 Human Rights Watch (2002):19 Convention Geneva is unable or, owing such fear, to is unwilling return to it. being outside the countryavail of himselfhis former ofhabitual countrythe the of his nationality isand unable or, owing tosuch fear,protection is unwilling to residence as ofa nationality,resultthat membership country;of of a suchparticular socialevents, group or political or fear well-foundedopinion, beingowing for to of of reasons persecuted race, religion, who, is outside not having a nationality and three years or lesslabor re-education. yearsor three One who crosses the border without permission shall be punished by a sentence of According to the 1951 Geneva Convention, arefugee is a person who Article 117 of North the Korean Criminal Code provides: The decision of someonewhether has “well-founded fear is of being persecuted” also be both should future the in persecution possible and flight before imposed Persecution 32 haveinnocent background,do not People a who e.g. 34 18 33 31 CEU eTD Collection 37 36 35 this principle, this China’s responsibility according to1951Geneva Convention punishments tend tobe more strict. released. anddays then inengage whofor those As a few detained being with lenience, aretreated insearch fooda of border cross whoPeople motives. and has escape the sincethe lapsed time of that amount dependingthe on meted out move areas. to tocontrolled families escapees aspolitical sending andtraitors, them laborcriminals campsto andforcing their Human Rights Watch (2002):21-22 Lee:47 Ibid:21 forfeiture of all property. labor-re-educate. If itis a serious violation, he shall be punished by execution and shallbe yearsby atleast or espionage treason, punished seven of more whoand people,commits or acts treacherous towards motherland asthe such motherland his of betrayal in enemy the to or country another to escapes who One social group or political opinion. account on threatened of religion,his nationality,race, membership of a particular freedom be hislifeor would where frontiersterritories the of to whatsoever No contracting State shall expel return (“refouler”)or arefugee in any manner Article 47of Codeprovides:the A broader application of the principle is that any person whose life and freedom may It is reported that at the early stage of the mass exodus of Pyongyang is mass attheearly that of It defectors, regarded of exodus the reported stage To the Chinese authority, the principle of “non-refoulement” applies. According to According applies. “non-refoulement” of principle the authority, Chinese Tothe z z z z z z z or having committed a crime in North Korea before departure for China, for departure acrime before Korea havingin or committed North efforts asylum Koreato gain in South or thirdother countries, prolonged residence in China, “marriage”, pregnancy evidenceother or of sexual liaison in China, journalists, with contacting contacting with South Koreans or foreign missionaries or aid workers, crossings, repeated 35 36 Butas escapes have increased, punishments have been 19 37 CEU eTD Collection 39 Thesis, The FletcherSchool (2004):40 38 searches evenhouse-to-house in or Local places hasintensifiedtheirsearches public police has been guardshave Border strengthened. beenreplaced by armed inmany forces cases. increased. More importantly, Beijing has adopted a hard-line policy since then. Border control underground railroad. escapehigh-profile in attempts early the China wereforced toshut2000s, downthis against authority the instrument and seekasyluminKorea. South asaneffective thereafter occurred casesof stormings embassy profile high Many similar Korea. South onto pass to allowed were they Eventually, pressure. international under Beijing in Beijingand demanded asylum.behavior international attracted Their attention and put stormedembassy Spanish the Koreans, as tourists, pretending North March twenty-five 2002, People’s,population” (Democratic migrant In general the Korean 2000) than rather officials by persons seem North efforts specifically requested against have beenmostto consistent “enforcement countries. inother asylum find them help to cases, in several and, refugees reached amodus vivendi with NGOs which a kept low profile andworkedquietly helpto the largely turned a blind eye to these defectors, with very 2.4. China’s North Koreanfew refugee policy and its consequences repatriation cases. Beijingfear when North well-founded of Korea.beingto they persecuted return also Ideally, Chinese governmentface whensentdanger back shall be not nomatterrepatriated, he/her is a refugee not. or shall not repatriate any North Korean defectors who have China’s DPRK Refugee Policy, available John C. Sweda, “Chinese - North Korean Discourse: Pathways to the Future”, Master of Arts in Law and Diplomacy During the early stage of Korean of authorities Chinese in stage North During early the the 1990s, exodus the 39 The security around foreign embassies and consulates has thus been has thus consulates and embassies foreign around security The http://www.dprkstudies.org/documents/asia007.html 20 38 But after some CEU eTD Collection 40 out, e.g. stealing androbbingmake to aliving. defectorsthe cannot find protection in China,they use tendextreme to find meansto away indefectors frontthe wherelifeterritories their mayand freedom face danger. Secondly, since result Koreans North direct of hard-linewhich violation the is puts policy human rights some amount of money. Correspondingly, the number of crackdowns has increased. for in toturn defectors the Chinesecitizens encourages Theauthority also defectors. for the Invisible Exodus (2002) 21 40 A CEU eTD Collection field of IR. among Nations in 1948, and has been one of mostthe influential in theories contemporary the 3.1. Neorealism and Refugee Issue to beframework supplement in answering question. the serve liberalism ideology Inthe Korean lastwill part, and relations. andinterest China-North national of perspective the from propositions the of examination be an will there part, third framework to answer the beraised theneorealist will propositions refugee within issue. part,three second In the question of why with in relations Chinastudied be will Neorealism analysis. further for adopts framework theoretical the current defectorsexplainto Inthefirst policy the part of considerations. chapter,the Iwill lay down the policy. In the security. instrument national is best the of Neorealism self-perception and Peninsula Korean adopts and insists the policy till now? I argue that this policy why still cost, Despite China the andputitselfpressure. international defectors the under is a result of China’s interest in by Kenneth Waltz, shuns classic realism’s use of evil individual as starting point to explain to point starting as individual evil of use realism’s classic shuns Waltz, Kenneth by deals with key the ininternational meaning questions relations, war and peace. 41 Grieco (1997): 163 C As a well-established modern inIR theory,Morgenthau’sappeared modern first Policy As awell-established realism China’s hard-line policy North the toward Korean both defectors causes theinstability of Neorealism, as a major branch of realism or structural asamajor Neorealism, branchof wasfirstrealism introduced structural realism which or HAPTER 41 Itis regarded as toinvestigatea framework useful the world becauseit politics 2: C HINA ’ S P OLICY N C EOREALISM ONSIDERATIONS THROUGH THE THROUGH ONSIDERATIONS 22 L ENS OF CEU eTD Collection decision decision making. this sense, the concepts of civil society, democracy and so on are irrelevant in foreign policy international system autonomously without taking domesticconsiderations. into politics In goals. Besidesachieve to these alsodevise strategies States are consistent. and their goals goal-oriented, rationalsense theychoice, act the according samesystem. pessimistic the change to hope is no there as given, is exogenous anarchy each other.to realists, power politics and self-help system Byare theinevitable resultof anarchy. importantly, More as rational, states realists also meanpursue that statestheir areinterest always in each other. Although war occurs relatively rare, there is always the danger of of war. thedanger isalways rare, there other. relatively each Although waroccurs areself-help with survive compete and in In system, to order for states eachstate. an anarchic meanneorealists that international the lacks acentral system authority to provide protection important. are most However, the states intergovernmental organizations,involved. andnongovernmental organizations are also Supra-governmental, arena. international in actors only the are states that mean 43 42 nation-state.” the is, it present at and been, has centuries several past the for organization of political fundamental unit the “for realists, Griecoargues that: actors. central are states the that namely relations, ininternational with is actors concerned assumption fundamental inneorealism. The essential assumptions three There are relations. international in shaping on structural constraints itmainly focuses Instead, politics. international Hyde-Price (2006):218 Ibid:164 The third is assumption thatstatesare rational, and autonomous, unitary In a actors. The second core assumption is that international systems is assumption are anarchic. By international The secondcore systems this, that 23 42 This This does not 43 In short, CEU eTD Collection 48 47 46 45 44 security problems raised were “addressed aspart of a broader and wider set of geopolitical studied of dimensions behavior.explaining state National security foreignand policy concerns have thus become the mosttwo frequently intensely political” making.argue both They itthat was “essential refugee recognizein that problems are factto and dimension refugeeof issue,studying itlens through the of national security foreignand policy political Security Movements andInternational Refugee solutions wereMyron Weiner’s edited volume as important internationalperspective of from started relations early the with 1990s publishingthe of as humanitarian solutions. Western and Europe causedinstability. WorldWar Iwhenlarge numberescaped from of to refugees Russia and Balkanstates the the after concern political international became first It countries. host the to burdens fiscal become and instability social cause opportunities, employment “steal” they that sense in the security since early 20 Loescher:5 Waever (1995):405 Nadig:13 Loescher:6-7 Nadig:10 established rules of of established game. rules the politicsbeyond the takes it.is protect Security what to use anymeansnecessary accordingly. phrased should asexistential,measures andextraordinary be taken to protect it By claimingan issue and is “securitized”-presented addressed as a issue-whensecurity itis “security”, a state representative claims a special right to Realism prioritizes security as the highest goal of national interest. tradition. explanatory partof an Realism consists Regarding refugee the issue more specifically, ithas beenconnected with national th Century. Generally, view as tonational refugees threat states security 47 International Migration and Security 48 Throughout the Cold War, the refugee issue and the 24 . Both authors emphasize the “high politics” 44 The study of refugees from the 46 and Gil Loescher’s As Waever argues, 45 CEU eTD Collection 53 52 51 50 49 turmoil for both home and host states. also butbe couldinstability acauseof regional refugees of notonly that consequences were The large flow of inAfrica, Caucasus,refugees the and Balkans regions demonstrated other to both Camps. issuecentral wasnot thusrefugee was emphasized, conceptsecurity the of aspect of military anda considerations specific of understanding security.” However,in Coldthe War logic, the mechanism by which conflict spreads across regions, especially in spreads across regions, world. developing especially the mechanism by conflict which and Gleditsch argue that the movement of refugees and displaced persons are important States. Within in EUwillbethe refugee status totheir granted not EU Member countries prior entrance the EU, asylumeach sovereign seekersrecognition. Theitems “safe of country of and“safe origin” third that which country” regulate country who come Thealso from commontries “safe to strengthen its border with Italy toKosovoagainst Albanians during the troubles in Albania. shiftEU countries”armies asylumsent Swiss in 1997, example. For argument. the the illustrate to regime asylum European burden policy orof refugeecould anumber of in examples gives Western Nadig of the acceptance. refugee to raise barriers in haveformation sought asylumactuallyterrorist groups. in safe instability,raises into of and can be targets insecurity conflict refugees recruitment the and armed the refugeeprotracted situationin may world developing the cause of consequence serious standard with claims “post-9/11”that era,the terrorism. Loescher areoften refugees connected of refugee Nadig:13 Loescher:4 Idean Salehyan, Kristian Skrede Gleditsch: Refugees and the Spread of Civil War, International Organizations (2006):336 Ibid:6 Ibid As a result of the security problems the refugees cause, states have always madeefforts always have states cause, refugees the problems security the of As aresult 49 52 In the 1990s, refugee issue became salient again in connection with security. 50 In their analysis of the causes of civil war, Salehyan war, of civil causes the of analysis their In 25 51 In 53 CEU eTD Collection 55 54 definition, by security national to threat not are illegal, or legal voluntary, or forced whether itis necessary for European the countries rethinkto their policies. refugee Immigrants, in issue,Nadig approaches resolution and“pluralist” of arguesthat “state-centric” refugee the beyond trendof the requires aperspective globalization sovereignty. Havingcompared the and West”. prominent during the Cold War when refugees were seen as “part of the struggle between East was foreign policies with refugees of benefits.connecting Thegeneral practice corresponding extract and policies foreign their implement to government national by manipulated answering “why” the question of certain Refugeeissuegovernmental policies. is often in instrument behavior, an effective becomes focus on state a realism, with process, the makingpolicy andthe role of is in society civil marginalized. Given nature “authoritarian” the in foreign democracy have toward tend to anegative position realists foreign policy concerns, Switzerland, Germany, Sweden and Netherland to new Member States in East Europe. protection to otherstates, such as shifting burden the from West states, European notably bemore far pervasive and for host-states preoccupying than previously thought.” to proven have concerns, security indirect or politics’, ‘low “the domestic, claims that works in hislater himself Loescher dimensions. “high and“state” on an politics” overemphasis benefits. ideological exploiting asaway EastCampcountries the communistof from the embarrassing and asylum seekers Ibid:7 Loescher:5 In terms of the second dimension of the state-centric approach to refugee issue- to refugee the approach state-centric of In termsthe of dimension second the The realist approach in the study of refugee issue has been criticized in recent years infor in issue hasbeen study of recent the The realistcriticized refugee approach 54 TheWest Camp set upa burden and shifting refugee sharing regime accept to 26 55 Secondly, CEU eTD Collection 56 domestic social stabilityinChina; such ahard-line policy are: Accordingtoneorealism,policy reasons why the authority considerations. adopts Chinese forwardare brought correspondingly understandingthe to China’s of Korean North defector 3.2. Propositions be thereafter. tested will proposition of why Chinese governmentfollowing three proposition part, from derived neorealism will be giventoanswer the question adopts a hard-line policyChina’s toward North North Koreandomestic and agenda civil society is underdeveloped.in Thus, analyzing rationalthe of defectors. Korean The defectorin an undemocratic like society China, state the machine still both dominates foreign and policy,is issuepluralist of mostly basedrealities perspective on of refugee developed world.the But I will adopt prevailing The account. Asia into Northeast of the politics the totake policy,is important it neorealism Moreover, in more is effectiveinstrument. a the study of still China’s defector Korean North as the framework.the question of “how” rather than “why”. In explaining state policies and behavior, neorealism In the immigration. against barriers raising of instead society the into migrants integrate to mentality alsobut the entire society should receiving play role ina bypassingfortress sovereignty and be one”. “made are to rather Nadig:21 P1. thelargeNorth Korean of influx threatens defectors theeconomic developmentand assumptionspropositions mentioned Based of three above, core three the on neorealism Although pluralistthe perspective is prevailing,itis by nature constitutive and answers 56 In order to solve problemsrefugee properly, not only state, the 27 CEU eTD Collection 59 Security (2002):151 58 will of state bethreatened. the order and social growth economic as such interests other also but security, national the only not countries, neighboring in occurs ismilieu beneficial developmentto the of regionalthe super power. To contrary, the if turmoil stability of their region and the capabilities to achieve and maintain it. A stable in the and friendlystakes greater have they because governance regional implement to likely most are external task of shaping the environment. their external Herefersenvironment. toArnoldWolfers’s term “milieuof define goals” theto become burdens fiscal China.to are rejected by defectors is Chineseauthority that the they can instability cause social and thereasonwhyKoreanthat Consequently, indicates North avoided.the proposition realistthe will be of state the interest material the to detrimental Any measure about. mainly cares state is what power military economic and Thus, terms. normative moral or than rather material in is It defined interest. and foremost is thefirst state of the security that schools agree both 57 is insatiable. andsecurity for power that search the Mearsheimer, asserts maximization as long asitis enough for balancing, while latter,the represented by byWaltz,former, The realism. represented actstates in in arguesthat power restraint defined as“power”. Adrian Hyde-Price, “Normative Power Europe: A Realist Critique”, Journal of European Public Policy, (2006):222 Glenn H.Snyder, “Mearcheimer’s World-Offensive Realism and the Struggle for Security: A Review Essay”, International Hans J. Morgenthau, “Politics among Nations: the Struggle for power and Peace”, 6 Peace”, and power for Struggle the Nations: among “Politics J.Morgenthau, Hans Hyde-Price argues that states, especially great powers, have an interest in powers, haveanintereststability the of especially arguesthatstates, great Hyde-Price P2. Chinahas interests in maintainingthe stability in neighboring countries; According to neorealism, states are primarily concerned with self interest which is which interest self with concerned primarily are states neorealism, to According 57 At this point, neorealists fall into two schools: defensive andoffensive defensive schools: two into fall neorealists point, this At 59 In an anarchic international system, great powers great system, international In anarchic an 28 th ed. (1985):10 58 But fundamentally, CEU eTD Collection 3.3.1. China’s domestic stability andtheTest of P1 perception national Korean of relations. security and China-North In this part, the3.3. Testing the Propositions three propositions inpower Northeast of China Asia beweakened. will raised relative the collapses, regime the If intheregion. coalition balance US-Japan the to regime above will be tested in terms of China’s 60 emerging threat. balancing,it establishinginformal that formal or alliances statesagainst with other or existed meaning accumulating own capabilities sufficient tomatch those of the challenger, or external by posed states,other they may balanceseek to them eitherthrough internal balancing, survive, sothey may aminimalist power.viewtake toward Oncethey threat the perceive is to states of interest primary the proposition, this to According realism. defensive to belongs which is detrimental stabilitythe to China.and security of even regime, ofKorean or North current in Korean Peninsula collapse the instability the the cause will possibly The large outflow foreseeable. is Koreans a large of North outflow Grieco (1997):170 P1. Thelarge of NorthKorean influx threatens defectors theeconomicdevelopmentand Balance of power is the most classical proposition in the tradition of realism. Strictly, it Strictly, realism. of tradition the in proposition classical most the is power of Balance P3. there istheneedtobalance theUS and Japan coalition inNortheast Asia; In thisif case,a softpolicy China adopts grants thedefectors refugeeor to them,to status 60 Consequently, it is Beijing’s interest to ensure the survival of Kim Jong Il 29 CEU eTD Collection negative direction. The border control with North Korea has been strengthened. In some In strengthened. been has Korea North with control border The direction. negative the to change sudden a underwent defectors Korean North the toward policy Beijing’s actions, their after successful, a safe country to third transferred involved were defectors the Although cities. other several and in Beijing consulates and embassies foreign storm rights assistance from NGOs mainlyuntil someturned high a blindprofile eye actionsto them withwere fewtaken repatriation by the defectors cases to and acquiesced in the human party Communist as a forprerequisite economicandmodernization. development 63 http://news.xinhuanet.com/ziliao/2003-01/20/content_697148.htm De Geng Da Sheng Li, Jiang Ze Min Zai Di Shi Si Ci Quan Guo Dai Biao Da Hui Shang De Bao Gao”,62 (1992) available at 61 y. stabilit has a risk-averse mentality after years of economic success in great power global politics”. with an overemphasis on China’s sovereignty and territory integrity”,social“cultivation and its asof a status responsible to free of threats environment external secure and a peaceful of “promotion legitimacy”, in and stability levels newera:“domestic the three Beijing’sof considerations strategic are that there Kim concludes development. with goal of the economic beaccordance have to importantreplaced classstruggleahead. asthemost task From all on, then Beijing’s policies years Cultural ten has after of Great “derevolutionization” the Modernization Revolution. from Communistthe Party of China itself. society Chinese underwent process the of markedin awatershed China’s strategicThe considerations. dynamic of changethe came domestic social stabilityinChina; Scobell (2003)a Jiang Zemin, “Jia Kuai Gai Ge Kai Fang He Xian Dai Hua Jian She Bu Fa, Kim:12 Duo Qu You Zhong Guo Te Se She Hui Zhu Yi During the early stage of the exodus of North Korean defectors, Chinesegovernment the Korean defectors, of of exodus early the North Duringstage the The death of firstgenerationthe of leadership and Deng Xiaoping’s coming topower 63 61 Among them,domestic is stability considered by the 30 62 Beijing CEU eTD Collection 66 65 Ji Zhe HuiShang Da JiZhe Wen”, (2005) available 64 andhadbehavior their the law violated the socialstability andthreatened of China. but they should not have beenincited by andstormedothers foreign embassies and consulates, endeavor inbetteringgreat of lives the whocame defectors the hardship, economic becauseof Ministry’s Chinamade spokesman that had a news stated inJanuary the 2005, conference InaForeign stormings. the to from official Chinese society.the response be inferred can This views defectors the and activists supporting them apotentialas tothestabilitythreat of andled dramatically decreaseof increased to defections. has cases North repatriation Asaresult, oncediscovered. backandKorea them to send largewhere a numberreside, of defectors local searchin forpolice public places thedefectors In regions influx againstof defectors. the border deployedthe was occasions, army even the defectors in China have been victims of human trafficking. human of victims been have inChina defectors defectors. According borderthe be are thought to growing concerns the major and way makingof for aliving the sourcesregions. in these problems from the Staterobbery,forgery of and official documents organized crime,cause serious which social Department have engageindefectors to such as humanunlawful acts stealing, trafficking, sexual services, of the US, many conditions, 80%living authority.of Chinese deteriorating for the Asaresult security concern to 90% of the issue bythemedia. wasraised when thedefector hassame attitude been repeatedly expressed in foreign other ministry’s news conferences Todd Bullock, “State's Miller cites rampant trafficking from North Korea Margesson:6 into China”, United States Department of State, Foreign Ministry of People’s Republic of China, “2005 Nian 1 Yue 13 Ri Wai Jiao Bu Fa Yan Ren Kong Quan Zai Li Xing These changedBeijing’s storming actions Korean of defectors. It perceptions North Besides the highBesides the by crimesprofile committed stormings, areanother defectors the 65 Among the illegal human actions, smuggling and trafficking at http://ipc.fmprc.gov.cn/chn/fyrth/t179590.htm 31 66 Many of them have to sell sell their to have of them Many 64 The CEU eTD Collection 69 http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Korea/HK09Dg01.html 68 67 (2005)available activities missionary foreign and Vatican, the with relations diplomatic formal established not ideology still religion considers as distorted perception of world.the In practice, Beijing has underground related to activities, especially influence.foreign those and Thecommunist country. been helping defectors to flee the NorthKorea andeven from transfer them China toa third has activists and workers church Korean South of network the that indicate sources Media policy on defectors. the Chinese security also butpolice, convinces Beijing the necessity adoptingof ahard-line Chinese law. defectors’ The behavior notonly increases dangerthe of being by discovered the effective way in making themselves a living. These actions are strictly forbidden by the with traffickers and Infact,brokers. marriage andsexual industrial out beturn to mostthe Korea. in North too poor to find a Chinese wife or sell sexual services formoney sendto back totheirfamilies traffickers, agrowing number of women aresolddefectors local to Chinese who peasants are especially vulnerable in situation.this Either on their initiatives own being or forced by house to pay the traffickers and bribe the officers at the border. Lee:46 available (2006), Online Times Asian to Thailand”, railroad underground Korea's “North Lintner, Bertil Human Rights Watch (2002):12-13 escapees. social promote Korean business and of North to Korean Chinese welfare protect local Someestablished of Koreans. help the them ethnic to of activities thanks andmissionary escapees.activities protected They were abletoexpand their have some Koreangroups secretly including conducted religious organizations As a matter of fact, the Chinese authority is quite sensitive and suspicious of religious The actions of non-governmental are also sources that cause instability for Beijing. 68 Asian Times Online reports that reports Times Online Asian http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/RWB.NSF/db900SID/EGUA-6EHKVX?OpenDocument 69 67 These kinds of marriageare sometimes arrangements part of their contracts 32 Women and children are CEU eTD Collection on the Soviet Union militarily and economically. Kim Il Sung imitated the Soviet political and the ColdWar, Asia.Throughout in international Northeast politics Korea reliedheavily North Korea. ChinaandNorth between is there part, alliance other onthe Korea coalitions; andUS-South US-Japan the are there part, theone On Parallel. capitalism, thoughin WarKorean world the sincethe confrontation 1950s.The early of the since socialism and outdated after the Coldanalysis. War, stillmake ahistorical ofKorean review China-North relations tobuild upthe background of the exists first will I Propositions, onthird and second the To test Asia. in Northeast the politics international two sidesof context in the Peninsula in Korean interest and security national of of perception its of results the 38th why China adopts the current hard-line policy towards 3.3.2. theA Review ofChina-NorthKorean the Relations and Test P3 ofP2 and North Korean defectors are also activities. counter-China of convictions engaging of have church the inKorean forworkers helpingdefectors North beenarrested the http://www.sara.gov.cn/GB//zcfg/xzfg/116b855c-0581-11da-adc6-93180af1bb1a.html 70 unity breaching socialism forbidden. state national and the are strictly and solidarity influence, any by attempts using religion in thecountering Communist Party leadership and Regulations religiousthat activities shall be independent being without controlled byforeign Affairs Religious State in the written is It policies. and law Chinese by forbidden still are The State Coucil of P.R.C., “Zong Jiao Shi Wu Tiao Li” (2005) available at The collapse of the Soviet Union has had huge impact on the formation of the current the of formation the on impact huge had has Union Soviet the of collapse The regions hasbeen and oneof contentious Peninsula attention-getting The Korean mostthe reasons the domesticsecurity the despite concerns, Propositions, realistthe According to 33 70 Some CEU eTD Collection 73 72 Uneasy Allies: Fifty Years of China-North Korea Relations, Asian Program Special Report71 (2003):4 and, with hope, resolved,isany closely towhatBeijingrelated will and cando.” controlled be develop, will peninsula Korean the on situation crisis “the that argues Chen Il. collapse. a disastrous from society Korean North saved probably KoreaSouth with weapons oil food.and Beijing’s emergency aidfood across 1990s the fact, China matter of sinceUnion, 1991, hastaken up the Sovietthe “responsibility” of aiding its sole ideological ally in the region that can provide it with substantial material support. As a planned economicWithout system. the Soviet Union,Pyongyang thatChinahas finds become long-lasting famine themid-1990s since hasledto collapsethe highlyof the centralized and withdrew national in industry suddenly and economy were trapped and stagnancy. The alliance butthe downs, remained. period,During therelationship that Korea underwent between ChinaandNorth ups and economic system and builtup a highly centralized andheavy-industry society.oriented without problem. arenow substantial There differencesin perception and practice between the historical Korean relations, of China-North review agrees that is bilateral the relationship not a after Chen, nuanced. and close both is countries two the between relationship The limited. and Washington. However, many assert thatChina’sauthors influence is irreplaceable but playing the role of initiator and Talk Six inthe beenactive has hostParty issueand nuclear Korean Chinese authority of North of the talk as well as the mediator between Pyongyang Ibid Chen:9 Chen Jian, “Limits of the “Lips and Teeth” Alliance: An Historical Review of Chinese-North Korean Relations”, in Since 1991, China is considered to be the only country behas KimJong theonly influence over is that Sincecountry to 1991,China considered The disintegration of the Soviet Union left North Korea in trouble. The Soviet aid 71 34 72 73 The CEU eTD Collection Relations, Asian Program Special Report (2003):12 77 76 75 74 in 1990s. the relations sunkintoa cold periodwhenBeijing normalized its diplomatic relations with Seoul allies, communist two the answers to thequestion. to answers the still wants to retain the current Pyongyang regime. The last two propositions aim at providing hard-lineKorean policy North defector can betransformed into the question why of China question the Under Beijing. troublesome for a circumstances, of these why China adopts North Koreanally.its communist to embarrassment become The has regime Korean “moody” North the defectorChina’s Reform and Opening-Upand efforts adaptto itself into international the community, issue, asChina is contributing muchmore than it fromgets bilateral the Moreover,relations. with one consequenceargues interdependence the andthat Beijing between is Pyongyang highly asymmetric. of Kim Jong Il’scrisis. rule, Washington should not expect toomuch from Beijingin isaddressing North Korea nuclear also quitePyongyang’s behavior. Schobell holds a similar view. Inhis policy paper, he advices ceased. China’s new norleadership neither is understands abletoexertinfluence over Moreover, thedeath after of leadership, old generation of personal the ties betweenleaders capitalism, andplayed“Taiwan card” to punishBeijing’s growing affinity with Seoul. Samuel S.Kim, “China and North Korea in a Changing World”, in Uneasy Allies: Fifty Years of China-North Korea ofChina-North Years Fifty Allies: Uneasy in World”, Changing ina Korea North and “China S.Kim, Samuel Scobell (2003)a:30 Ibid Ibid P2. Chinahas interests in maintainingthe stability in neighboring countries; From perspectivethe of China, North Korean regime has been a growingburden. Kim 76 75 The North The Korean North leader has criticized Beijing of revisionism and embracing 74 China’sespecially after Reform bilateral and Opening-Up.The 35 77 CEU eTD Collection Havinglearned from alesson history, decided send MaoZedong to battlefieldto the in troops of of Chinain earlythe 20 stability and security in Koreanthe for Peninsula pastthe decades.Imperial Japan’s invasion in its interest andjustifiedKorea the North with of its relations of evaluation importance the willlips the die, teeth cold. “bufferkind This go of mentality Beijing’s has zone” dominated compares China’s relationship with Korea North to “lips and which teeth”, means if that the especially important security tothe survivaland even China. TheCommunistof party in in issues key region. this “stakeholder” ithas Asia”.With now and becomeinfluence, itsNortheast a enhanced capabilities ideological Chinahasperspective, beendeeplyinvolvedin “intricatethe dynamics of 79 78 to China’s “peaceful rise”among parties Arguably, the concernedthan elsewhere. Asia holdsactually the key Northeast as a global power. superregional and global mainly powers,involves and confrontational themore is there US, politics China,international Russia and the in that regions two Japan.above the from different be to out turns somehow Asia ItNortheast is much more difficultcreating andmaintaining afavorable external for itsenvironment developmenttoin its backyard. align interests for serves tobean instrument(SCO) Organization effective Shanghai the Cooperation cooperation as well addressingterritorial in as disputes a cooperative manner. In Central Asia, Beijingsouth, itshas mainly strengthened ties ASEANwith regional for economic trade Beijing, Southeast Asia, Central Asia and Northeast Asia. In its relations with countries in arecrucial Kim. regions in to Three neighboring to newthe eraaccording theconsiderations Jae Ho Chung, “China and Northeast Asia: A Complex Equation for “Peaceful Rise””, Politics (2007):156 Chung:158 As noted above,As noted stability in is the neighborhood the secondlevel Beijing’sof strategic th Century and World War II were both waged through North Korea. North through waged both WorldWarwere II and Century 79 In Chinese official discourse, North Korea is Korea North discourse, official Chinese In 36 78 No matter from a historical, geopolitical or geopolitical historical, a from matter No CEU eTD Collection in sameof the Iraqi the War in that,2003. Before China appearedtohave nointerest in taking toconsideringimportant timing the first of round the of Six-Party the Talk place which took in laterTalks of Six-Party all six participated the is issue.rounds nuclear It Korean on North and hosted affairs initiated, and Koreas, of actively in the domestic two the interfering issues in peninsula,the notably nuclearthe issue.It changed its long-standing policy notof desperately wants to maintain stability in North Korea. in tomaintain stability North wants desperately conflict on peninsula Korean an “couldthe put end well thus, toitseconomic it growth”, one of China’s North Korean defector policy considerations. In a word, China knows that minority group if there is turmoil Korea. AlthoughisNorth there noevidence possible the of indicating secession of the in North Korea, it is broughtguarantees stabilitythe of its Korean minority in the Yanbian Autonomous Region bordering forward by some authorsrather as than a sudden collapseinside and near thecountry. Itwouldmaintain ofa troubling and authoritarian Korean North the Kim Jong both Il turmoil any of afraid regime. mentality, “risk-averse” the has also Beijing growth, economic Thirdly, a stable North Korea also Jintao’s presidency, the existing North Korean policies do not seem to change radically. 81 80 maintain peninsula.” peaceandstability tothe on andhas consistently worked Peninsula, is [it] always concerned about thedevelopment of situationthe peninsulathe on of presidentthe hosts becausetime,that repeatedly Chinais“close Korean to told the buffer zone mentality still prevails. Duringhis visit toNorth Korea in 2001, Jiang Zemin, the Koreanthe War US’s the after new of For leadership, generations this intervention. Chinese Kim:2 Scobell (2003)a:3 In order achieveto this goal, Beijing has been playing amuch more proactive role in key Besides this, under guidancethe of giving priority modernization to and years after of 37 81 80 And in Hu CEU eTD Collection Measures for taking such kind of reform came subsequently. Itwas observed that Jong Ilviewed Chinese the as economic reforms a success andas a model for development. shows interest in adopting sucha reform. is It reported inthat his visit toChinain 2000, Kim that China underwent in the pastKorea decades. with sustainable Pyongyang is alsoeconomic aware of developmentChina’s success, and becomeand more open to the world, a way 84 83 82 opening-up. Guangdongvisit Provinceof learnChinato in secret of theexperience South to the Pyongyang regime. andmore reform-minded”North Korea is bethought to thefundamental maintainway to the because cultivating a“kinder,carry Chinese gentler reform economic style Pyongyang to out in Korea. Six-Party Talkthe survival initiative ensure of its the to North endeavor from comes Jong Il’s rule. Kim of end the and intervention Thus,military American in result will Korea it North nuclearized is justifiable to say thatKorea, the anothermost important “rogue North of collapse the dangerof immediate state” of madethe aware China also Asia, but Northeast rationale in White behind House’s China’s Iraq not only led to name warmingthe Korean of China-North relations tobalance the US in list. There is seriousandan leading activist role in nuclear issue.the possibility that a Sweda:33 Scobell (2003)b:278 Scobell (2003)a:12 hotels, to individuals. to hotels, beganleasinggovernment state-run businesses,including restaurants and stores, businesscontrols and private activities. In addition, allowing Korean the North by July 2002 China’sof prodding begantopay off with Kim lifting someprice At end the of 2006, itwas reported by journalistsChinese Kim that Jong Il had paid a persuading been also has Beijing crisis, nuclear the in solving effort its Besides 83 Essentially, China would like to see a demilitarilized and stable North stable and ademilitarilized see to like would China Essentially, 84 38 82 Washington’s unilateral military actions in CEU eTD Collection 85 andis in increasingly rooted mutual the and interests economicsecurity of two rivalry the on contrary,the of the“constraining” that thinks US-Japan function isthe alliance weakening, US’s the lesser extent, Japan’sconstrain Beijing, means after the to WWII, aggressive traits democracy, human rights and rule of law according to official discourse of two sides, and to a region,the aligning with Beijing and Pyongyang. in politics alsoin thepower plays arole To partnership. a lesser Moscow Korea extent, North and China is the there hand, other the on allies; Korea US-South and US-Japan are there in East the Asianpicture. security development the central has been superpower aspiring and power great emergence asaregional The of China recent powers. great involves mainly to see. want not is Beijing regime. does Korean a scenario This collapse the of North the accelerates the defectors as refugees, thus results in alarge outflow of North Korean citizens to China and the North Korean regime, but an ideal solution of defector crisis could well be recognition of solution of the nuclear crisis is beneficial for the maintenance of the survival and stability of manner,cooperative beissue? applied whycanit refugeenot the peaceful I arguethatthe to Question if arises, itChina considers in its own interest to address the nuclear issue in a Marvin C. Ott, “East Asia: Security and Complexity”, Current History (2001):147 Although the close the theUSand tiesAlthough between Japanarebasedshared of on values The legacy of the Cold War shapes two combating forces in the region. On the one hand, and confrontational is quite Asia in Northeast politics international above, noted As P3. there istheneedtobalance theUS and Japan coalition inNortheast Asia. 39 85 CEU eTD Collection can not becan not peaceful. elsewhere”. in Asia-Pacificand regional level, “as always, the USA is seen to be seeking military dominance and superiority worldview, USrepresents the amajor strategic challenge toChina. “Only UShasthe the integrity”. territorial and sovereignty its maintain to attempts China’s for blocks see theUSA’s military ‘hegemony’, andalliances with asmajorothers presence stumbling 90 89 88 http://www.gallup.com/poll/105835/North-Korea-Drops-Top-Three-US-Enemies.aspx 87 86 14% of Americans view Chinaas US’sthe enemy greatest for its economic growth. hegemony in status nearthe future. According toalatest Gallup opinion inpoll February 2008, influence. Consequently, China is perceived by the US as its biggest rival and challenger to its and China’s trade. growing economic involvementleads its strengtheningto political neighborhood, e.g. Africa, the Middle East and South America,in fields of energy cooperation With its risingcapacity, state is there anincreasing of presence China in beyondits regions period, it is to contain China’s strategic space and “peaceful rise”. China:counter in past,itthe was kill to communistregime;the inand post-ColdWarthe states. Lee:27 John J.Mearsheimer, “China’s Unpeaceful Rise”, Current History(2006):160 Lee Lai To, “China, the USA and the South China Sea Conflicts”, Security Dialogue (2003):27 Lydia Saad, “North Korea Drops Out of Top Three U.S. “Enemies” “(2008), available Chung:159 States to contain China’sStates tocontain power. Japan, with considerable for potential war. of Most China’s neighbors—including India, Singapore, Unitedthe and States Chinalikely engage are in intenseto an security competition South Korea, Russia, and Vietnam—will join with the United In Asian-Pacific where China has immediate strategic concern, the Chinese “continue to “continue Chinese the concern, strategic hasimmediate whereChina In Asian-Pacific The competition between China and the US is taken at both global and regional level. 86 In its perception of geopolitics in this region, the aim of the US-Japan coalition is to is coalition US-Japan the of aim the region, this in geopolitics of perception its In If itsimpressiveChina continues economic over growth few nextthe decades, 88 Pessimists such as Mearsheimer thus argue that China’s rise 89 40 90 In In Beijing’s 87 At the CEU eTD Collection 93 available at http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/features/ NDpaper/nd1.html 92 (2002):.292 91 away. Although Beijing expects and wishes forimproved relations with Japan, in the long run, argues short-term that policy will makenot changes fundamental the geopolitical go dilemma official visits during Fukuda’s presidency have warmed upbilateral ButChungrelations. favorable for development the environment of bilateral Therelations. densehigh-profile and short the presidency Abeof Yasuo Shinzo, Fukuda seems tohavea brought more demonstration even outinbroke major cities in China. After Koizumi stepped down in 2006 sovereignty of Diaoyu andEastChinaSea.At peakof Island the hostility,the anti-Japan historicalof and the territorial Yasukunidisputes: Shrine issue,and the disputesonthe is USA.” the concerned, that the most ‘meddlesome’ extra-regional power in the South China Sea, as far as China is military might toinflictconsiderable damage on China.” this issue”. interfere in are attemptingto andsomecountries infrequent, extra-regional not China Seaare in on China’sinterests South the and “encroachments that Beijing sovereignty hasstated area. US relations with countries those concerned. TheUSmaintains its naval operations in this has territorial disputes with counter China’s influence. Movingalittle tothe south, in China South the SeawhereChina several Southeast Asian thinks Washingtonthat countries, is playing the Taiwan asitscard majorin Asia stake limit to and Beijing is quite aware of the Lee:.27 Information Office of the State Council, People’s Republic of China, “China’s History National Current Defense in 2000, Part I” Cooperation”, (2000), and Competition Relations: “Sino-Japanese B.Macdonald, Scott and Jonathan,Lemco, Regarding China-Japan relations, the hostility between two countries hostility persistsasaresult between the two relations, Regarding China-Japan The intervention of the US has made the situation more complicated and subtle. Beijing 92 Although the powers here referred to are not specified, “itis not difficult tosee 93 41 91 CEU eTD Collection 96 95 94 the US.” –utilizingitsnever geo-strategicup given interests NorthKorea asan effective buffer against “has it peacefully, peninsula in Korean crisis nuclear the solve to beneficial it finds Beijing keyissues,other considerations arealways balanceof concern power to China.Although Russia and North Korea to balance the influence of the US.a rising China in Asian-Pacific rather In“exacerbate, could improve,than its ties with Japan”. the Six-Party Talks and any Pyongyang refused toresume diplomatic talks. China approved imposing sanctions onNorth Korea in Unitedthe Nations resolution if bilateral Forinstance,deteriorating relations. after Pyongyang’s in nuclearweapon test 2006, that Beijing will do everything is anempty more commitment indicates mentality promise. than And therisk-averse actual to stop North this However, Koreaintervene. to responsibility the has fromChina countries, other or US the going war even at the expense in NorthKorea once engagesin that with military 1961treaty stipulates the commitment war of beThe outineffective. to leverage affinity. of turn latter aspects ideological three But the and commitment, military aid, material includes: Pyongyang to leverage possible Beijing’s survival of the current latter actions onPyongyangagainstthesepunitive sanctions the and Pyongyang be found inalmost every crisisnuclear in theregion when formerthe regime,insists imposing but also its influence on its communist ally. has several times criticized Beijing as traitors of communism after Deng Xiaoping induced Xiaoping Deng after communism of traitors as Beijing criticized times several has BBC,“ UN slaps sanctions on North Korea: (2006) available at Ibid:161-162 Chung:159 Consequently, actual perceived dueto or rivalry,itis in China’sally interest to with For this purpose of this For balancing purpose ensurecoalition, Chinaneeds US-Japan the not only to the 95 The bifurcation between US-Japan and China-Russia-North Korea coalition The bifurcation US-Japan can between and China-Russia-North 42 96 In regard of ideological affinity, Pyongyang http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6051704.stm 94 CEU eTD Collection 99 98 97 Korea’sisleverage North on dependence economic China. market economy and normalized China’s relations with South Korea. economic and societal collapse, a scenario that Beijing does not want to see. A want notto does Beijing that second scenario a collapse, societal and economic this means, e.g. withdrawing economic aid or imposing sanctions, itmay cause North Korea’s Beijing does notuse this means,itis quite likely itsthat voice will unheard;go butif ituses the most effective, probably the only effective way, to impose influence on Pyongyang; if that this kind of over dependency on China also causes resentment from Pyongyang. argues Kim hand, other the On by Beijing. expected ways in certain behave or Talk Six-Party imposing sanctionseffective instrumentin influencing Pyongyang’s behavior. Withdrawing material support or can be disastrousby China after USwithdrawingthe its aid. to North recently, 90% Korea’sof 70%to North andits of oil aidfood and imports 1/3 wereprovided Korea and forcesmid 1994,China accountedfor around3/4 Korea’sof North food and oil More imports. Pyongyanggenerally supportforits Korea North is estimated at1/4 to 1/3 itsof overall foreign aid. By to joinongoing no crisis.statistics Although areavailable indicatingamount exact the of China’s aid, the the from it save to continues and 1990s the in disintegration from society Korean North saved Ibid Kim:13 Chen:10 Kim Jong Il have demanded butalso resented Chinese aid. and resented Soviet aidpolitical survival has led tomutual anddistrust for resentment. Just as Mao demanded China’s nuclearParadoxically, Pyongyang’s onBeijing growingfor dependence economic and development, first Kim Il Sung and now North Korea’s relationship with China is more pragmatic than ideological. Beijing’s real Beijing’s ideological. than pragmatic more is China with relationship Korea’s North In this regard, the Chinese leadership isnow facingmeans Chineseleadership adilemma: the are aseconomicIn this regard, However, aid is a double-edge sword for Beijing. On the one hand, it is the most 98 43 97 China’s food and energy aid has 99 CEU eTD Collection interest and ignores non-material factors that can influence state’s policies. Security can influence state’sis that factors one policies. Security non-material ignores and interest much material Secondly, too consideration. on focuses it into domestic politics the to take that foreign policy making is actually a two-level game according to which itis also necessary reality the ignoring while given exogenous as analysis policy foreign China’s ittakes Firstly, understandingChina’s of it policy limitations.still has considerations, North Korean defector Defector Policy 3.4. Outside Neorealism: Ideology, Liberalism and China’s North Korean in Northeast US-Japan Asia. the of balancing and purpose Korea servethe in North isBeijing bind able of to soas two interests the countries the maketogether to its voice heard which China maintains its limited influence overNorth Korea. With this hard-line policy, Korean regime,survival onthe North of be hand,other to aform serves leverageof from admonishments in public view.” encouragementfrom suggestions or behind scenes the insteadof bluntandthrough direct issuesother such as NorthKorean issue,defector and “can only be exerted through expect. Korea’s behavior than country,any other this is limited influence rather than wouldone 102 101 100 analysts. Chinese some by raised a possibility retaliation, Korea’s canbeNorth even blackmail or sanctions nuclear from economic resulting scenario Scobell (2003)b: 277 Chen:10 Scobell (2003)a:12 Although neorealism provides animportant and effective to the framework In the defector’s case specifically, China’s current policy can, on the one hand, ensure the In short, despite the fact that China has more influence on the orientation of North of orientation the on influence more has China that fact the despite short, In 101 Currently,itis unlikely Beijingthat willpush Pyongyang toohard on nuclear or 102 44 100 CEU eTD Collection salience. anddiscourse ideas of USpresident,the major think tanks andmedia todemonstrate its to refer Ryn mainly policy, foreign American post-9/11 the in shaping ideology of influence their claimed of influencethe ofideology in foreign policy mostmaking, studies refer to official discourse, goals and meanings to achieve the goals. For example, in examining the Chinese-style Pyongyang regimeChinese-style all Pyongyang evidence itsprovide influence. to strengthen communistideology the domestically its goal and meansand toshape a emphasized in official discourse, various efforts from the Communist Partymeaningsfor which claimpolitical actors exclusive authority. of China to 105 104 Era”, GIGA Working Papers (2006):7 103 how worldthe be should organized.” of views normative by colored are construct individuals theories the religions, or communism explanationsorganizedintegrated ideologies pastand of providingthe present,such the as around them. atthemicro “Whether level individual atof or relationships macro the level of world the explain to possess people all theories) (models, perceptions subjective means the it influencefactors China’s policy making and the dynamics within them how each of picture more completed a neorealism gives and of weakness the overcome isto This necessary defectors. the towards of China’s considerations policy explanation play a crucial role. In this part, I will adopt the two theories of ideology and liberalismideology and to the Warmentality Cold the that obvious is also It development. economic its harm thecollapseaspect, meaning of North Korea may cause turmoil China’son and border eastern Claes G. Ryn, “The Ideology of American Empire”, RYN Ibid (2003) Douglass North in Holbig, Heike, “Ideological Reform and Political Legitimacy in China: Challenges in the Post-Jiang There is nouniversally definition accepted of ideology, butaccording toNorth,generally 105 In China-North Korean relations, although the communist affinity is no longer 103 More narrowly, it is defined as a unified system of 45 104 Regarding measurement the Regarding CEU eTD Collection Moravcsik codifies classical liberal insight into three core theoretical assumptions: theoretical core three into insight liberal classical codifies Moravcsik 108 (1997):513 51 (4) Organization 107 W.Kegley (ed.): Controversies in International Relations Theory: Realism and the LiberalChallenge, (1995):117-118 106 science.” relations theory in a non-ideological and non-utopian form appropriate to empirical social so on. and rights individual peace, democratic cooperation, international progress, human in believe this question. policy the defectors. In to thisliberalism be regard, in can asupplementframework answering hard-line a adopts China why reason important an is also consideration political international views China’sThe major is problem thatitfocuses toomuch on state-level.the approach This top-down explanation. the for enough sufficient statenot is framework realist the sense, this In legitimacy. interestcommon communistas fixedmeaning thatChina’s support for North Korea is because of incomrade armsrelations anda goal, and but and shapedits foreign policy. ideology unified.mentionedalso But hereis not only “ideology” perse, a term usedmindset official the dominated Mao Zedong’s discourse, anti-capitalist era,revolutionary and Asto definea matter “we” and of “they” fact, and domesticdomestic and Moravcsik: 516-521. Andrew Moravcsik, “Taking Preferences Seriously: A Liberal Theory of International Politics”, International Mark W. Zacher, and Richard A. Matthew,”Liberal International Theory: Common Trends, Divergent Strands”, in Charles 3. The configuration of interdependent state preferences determines state preferences3. The behavior. interdependent state configuration determines of state state officials preferences define state and actpurposively in politics. world interests basis ofwhose society, the domestic subsetof on some States represent 2. influence. in societal variations and values, conflicting scarcity, material imposedinterests by underconstraints promote differentiated action to collective and organize exchange who and risk-averse rational on average the who are 1. Thefundamental in actors international areindividuals groups, politics andprivate Traditionally, liberalism is a theory with normative and ideological color. Liberalists color. ideological and normative with a theory is liberalism Traditionally, Ideology had played a central role in China’s policy making in that period of time. In 106 Based on this tradition, Moravcsik in “reformulates1997 liberalthe international 107 In In his Taking Preferences Seriously: aLiberalInternational Politics Theory of 46 108 , CEU eTD Collection 109 growing, so are the oppositional voices. is society Civil norms. liberal from challenges great facing now is it economy, market of development the with Party, Communist the to legitimacy more given has Opening-Up Century, fact economicmiracle the that has the achievedsinceReform and despite China Tiananmenthe Incidentwhich was suppressed bytheCommunist Party by force. Inthe 21 Chinese society andunstable voices for a weregrowing democratic by change,represented left sphere inpost-Communist transformation big The country. the inside crisis legitimacy When Beijingfirst tookthe Sovietresponsibility for aiding Korea, North itwas facing a remaining socialist-party party.for two eachof the ofthecommunist that Scobell rule matters tothe argues se, but per states, the survival of the China’safter it reform, still other exists andplays inbilateral a role Thisisrelations. ideology not is crucial for its own legitimacy. saveit. actions to policies take and make still will authority Chinese the China, to materially beneficial not is regime Korean concern for the ruling party. According tothis argument, even if survival the North the of first isa legitimacy Thus, society. civil from challenges faces also it governments, democratic Party of China, although itenjoys alarger degree of autonomy in policy making than andmutual-determineother. areinterdependent each theCommunistfactors international For foreign policy making process, two-levelthe game should beapplied. Domestic and analyzing In time. to time from varies and politics domestic by the isit defined Rather, states. domestic interest groups. In this sense, the state interest is not exogenous given, as realism Scobell (2003)a:2 Although Although ideologicalthe affinity between China Koreaand North has been decreasing The liberal theory, stateisof the holds representation the that neorealism, unlike 47 109 st CEU eTD Collection 111 110 Communist Party of China in domestic politics. in domestic China of Party Communist security and balancing the US-Japan rulingthe party upholdto its regime legitimacy.” alliance, for factor asanimportant matter indeed does authority– claim exclusive actors which political but also important“instead in that present-day China ideology as – understood a unified system meaningsof for to the legitimacy reform of Holbig “Threethe counters discourse, Representatives” wisdom this and argues of the to thecase legitimation party’s study of Chinese communist production, reproduction and Douglass North’smarginalizedmore in role legitimacythe CommunistParty the of of China. Butafter applying theory reform,is ideology after economic amorethat seems aand playing wisdom conventional of institutional change and David Beetham’s theory of political Holbig:7 ibid Party’s continued right to rule, and Party leaders cannot renounce this mantle. renounce Party’sleaders cannot torule, right andParty continued Zedong Thought are crucial to the formal justification of the Chinese Communistshrinkingshore up remainder to legitimacy.their own Marxism-Leninism Mao and If Leninist regimes continue to be toppled, it will be much more difficult for the It has been asked to what extent ideology matters in bilateral relations these days.It these in bilateral relations matters ideology extent what It hasbeenaskedto Consequently, Korean regime mattersChina’s survivalof North not the only to national 48 111 110 CEU eTD Collection and the defector issue, has caused Beijing frustration issue,andand defector the hascaused embarrassment. frustration Beijing Moreover, Pyongyang’s continuing Chinaprosperous, sees less andless benefitin maintaining twoKoreas in peninsula.the provocative behavior,Especially when relationshipthe between China and KoreaSouth is getting closer andmore e.g. the nuclear test, threatfirst glance for geopolitical benefits isbut simultaneously becoming aliability for China. of war regime has changed from “lips” “lipsticks”to to Beijing,meaning itstill looks good at the Korean benefits. the andwill theNorth Scobell argues that day some increasing exceeds is cost the but now, Beijing to beneficial is regime Korean North current the retaining that indicates cost-effectcalculations neorealists, the For relations. Korean within China-North the possible changein China’s Korean North defector policy? Isuggest they do. benefit. Question arises: do dynamicsthe of China-North Korean bilateral forecastrelations a than burden rather Beijing asagrowing in seesPyongyang sensethat undergoing achange the is Pyongyang and Beijing between politics the that noticeable is also it analysis, the from dimensions. arethe However, in two Peninsular interests Korean the its strategic and security policy toward North Korean defectors in the framework of neorealism: China’s national 112 C Andrew Scobell, “China and North Korea, the Limits of Influence”, Current History(2003):276 HAPTER However, theneorealist notview does precisely imply ina “policy change” sense the dynamics is apparent there above, mentioned view liberal and neorealist both From The above analysis has answered question the of such why China adopts a hard-line 3: T HE D YNAMICS OF P OSSIBILITY OF C HINA 49 P -N OLICY ORTH C K HANGE OREAN R ELATIONS AND THE AND ELATIONS 112 CEU eTD Collection debates on whether Beijing should readjustits North Korean policy. China’s initiation and participation in the Six Party Talks heatedcoincidedinternal with that noted be also should It regime. Il Jong Kim the change to itself Party Communist the well. as policies China’s in changing effective 113 behindor scenes. the publicly policy American party’s communist the shaped extent some to opinions intellectuals’ anti-Americanism insentiment Chinesethe society during the Iraqi Warin 2003 and media,the public inopinion internet,the intellectuals and think-tanks. They argue that the policies: state on impact had that factors three identify they US, the toward policy China’s of and case aspecific Suexamines Hao book, a pluralistIn theirapproach. change to significant policy making process. is it defectors, look change regardingthe at to necessary dynamics the China’swithin foreign lessproducing less and refugees. toanswerThus, thequestion whether will there be apolicy and economy Korea’s North restructuring meaning fundamentally, problem defector rather itimplies a change to a new Pyongyang regime that is easy dealto with which solve the itthat allows more defectors to settle in down Chinese territory beingwithout repatriated, Hao and Su granted, while others actively call for the de-nuclearisation of North evenat Korea North of de-nuclearisation for the call actively while others granted, done to resolvebe whatshould asto Chinesescholars witness wagedamong debates to been rare not has it inChina, workshops and seminars in semi-open the then, Since regime. Jong-Il North Koreanand Management problem.in Korean Sino–North the Friendship Treaty. In 2004, a prestigious journal Some automaticclausethe In 2003,awell-known for deleting scholar involvement called take a nuclear North Korea for In regard of domestic pressure, there is an increasing voice within Chinese society and society within isChinese increasing voice pressure,there an In regard of domestic For liberalistsFor it is demonstrated China’sthat foreign policy makingis undergoing a was terminated for carrying an article that criticized the Kim 113 In the age of globalization, international pressure proves to be to proves pressure international globalization, of age the In 50 Strategy CEU eTD Collection http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,20867,20587473-2703,00.html 115 114 business not with only democratic butalso This authoritarian andgovernments dictators. kind does It economic. is Asia exclusively America South Central and Middle the East, Africa, countries interveningwithout in their domestic affairs. Consequently,its involvementin Co-existence of Peaceful its policy inand practices Darfur. has its foreign China long based policy on the notably countries, world third the with relations its in rights human ignoring of criticized in Chinahasbeen However, power in affairs. international great general practice, responsible andengagingindevelopment) It is socalledthe “peaceful China’srise”. interesttobecome a Guang Yang one’s Hui (concealing intentionscreate afavorable true to for environment capability, during HuJintao’s presidency, China is gradually itsabandoning strategy of Tao the communist party and in internet. the possibility of changing the loyalchange has impact Beijing’son agenda.Forinstance, after North Korea’s nuclearin test 2006, Kim Jong Il regime was open the of possibility on the debate to the that indicating evidence isalso there change, regime discussion both within mindset in asnoted and previousthe part, prefers astable North Korea withoutnukes than a Michael Sheridan, “China may back coup against Kim”, The Sunday Times(2006), available at Scobell (2003)a:13 unconfirmed. have exposed plots and purgescommentators military insideonline NorthChinese Korea options, the thatat were previouslyco-operation…Hinting and unknown or friendship of treaty a maintains Beijing which with an ally about comment internet ruling The Chinesepermitted havealso elite. an astonishing rangeof vituperative The balance of risk reform between and chaosdominated arguments within China's the expense of worsened ties with Pyongyang. The second pressure comes from The second pressurecomesfrom international the community.With its fast growing Although there isevidence also showing that the Chinese authorities have the risk-averse 115 accordingwhich to Chinaits with relations establishes other 51 114 Five Principles CEU eTD Collection this a issueindicate possible change toapositivepolicy direction. in community international and society civil of involvement the as well as Peninsula Korean in calculations Beijing’s and relations Korean China-North within dynamics the liberalism, makingdecision of process Chineseauthority,the the through framework of neorealism and because isin possibility future there of the nearevidence showing nontransparent the the in Korea. settled South be have to been transferredasafeattention international approved finally to thirdand country beto effective ininfluencing Beijing’s behavior. Thosedefectors who successfully caught isissue. There from increasingpressureinternational community. This kind of proves pressure the political agenda of countries involved,more and more attention is now paid to the defector dominates issue still nuclear the factthat despite the defectors, Korean North the caseof the political means to press the Beijing has changed its long-establishedSudanese policy “non-intervention”of and uses economic and authorities to holdfrom pressure Undercauses humanitarian tremendous crisis. community, international the peace talks with the opposition.been blamed of supporting the authoritarian againstgovernment minorities in and Darfur In countries. Inthe case of Darfur, China’s economiccooperation with Sudanauthority the has Western imperialist former by neo-colonialism of criticized been has policy foreign of Although a change in China’s North Korean defector policy has not taken place, nor place, taken not has policy defector Korean North China’s in achange Although 52 CEU eTD Collection China is mostly state driven and civil society plays a marginal role. Three assumptions are assumptions Three role. marginal a plays society civil and driven state mostly is China is forThe in using foreignreason approach thatthe theneorealist makingpolicy procedure is amost widely theory. Neorealism approach. state-centric pluralist and used state-centric competing aretwo fact, there lens ofneorealism. In human rights costs through the the regarding approaches in corresponding in benefits theChina, nor find they way outtoasafe in third most country cases. studyin But recognized asrefugees. reality, can and they neither status the begranted of refugeeconditions and being exploited by their Theoretically, employers. shall these defectors be issuetrafficking, such crimes stealingas andsexual services.work Andtheyalso in have to poor from thein perspectiveChina is desperate.their stay in China isillegal and they face repatriation once being caught. Generally, theirlife of In economicthe in home hardship country. their IR: recognize their Since status, not China does order theto make residedifferentindefectors to for defect China according sources. Inmost cases, defectors the a living, many degradingserious persecution other 300,000 or Anestimated punishments. of 10,000 to of them arecaught by Chineseinvolved policy will be sent back to North Korea inimmediatelyare who a defectors are result them.China’sThose of toward of defectors the hard-line policy human where they may face Partly,iscrisis. issue asahumanitarian becoming agrowingconditions concern desperate the defector Korean North most the attention, issueof the attracted has nuclear Korean North the In this paper, Ihave answered the question of why China adopts policythis without The Korean Peninsula has been one of the most contentious regions in the world. While Conclusion 53 CEU eTD Collection Propositions, itis found that in Beijing’s perception, North Korean refugees docause After the testing the USinAsian-Pacific. Beijing’s of the influence tobalance interest China’s economic modernization; maintainingand 3, the current Pyongyang regime isin to isdetrimental which neighborhood inChina’s turmoil and Korean North the of collapse defectors may cause domesticto the understanding of China’s North Korean defector policy considerations:social 1, North Korean stability; Within making Propositionsframework, three and aregiven procedure. policy theneorealist 2, the large flow of defectorsmostproper theory to explain China’s policy thedefectors toward due to thepolitical system may cause the Thus, pluralist the is approach optimistic in any change of hard-line refugee state policy. security by nature; they becan also treasures tothehosting state by labor force, etc. providing arenot state interests fixedAndrelated insist. arenot refugees tonational asneorealists threat other and security National interest. national in shaping involved are factors supranational differs in from not but state-centric approach the saying that only alsosub-state, and issuerecently. in anincreasingattention refugee attracts It regime. The pluralist approach national is security material itand describes us picture a pessimistic of a favorable refugee manipulate refugee issue for policy benefits. According toneorealism, state perception of avoidlarge flow of refugeesillegal or immigrations. In regard foreignof policy, states often barrier to entry they raise instability tothem.Thus, fiscal burden of and assources refugees politics: national security and policy foreign stateconsiderations. Host authorities often view high-profile with mainly issues related refugee the explains neorealism level, state on focus andare rational, and states unitary autonomous, inactors pursuit interests. of Withnational a isanarchic; society international the actors; major the are states neorealism: to fundamental Despite the popularity of the pluralist approach, it was argued that neorealism was the 54 CEU eTD Collection hard-line North Korean defector policy to a positive direction. a positive policy defector Korean to North hard-line to believe that theauthority’s behaviorin previous cases asliberalistsindicate. Consequently, arereasons there dynamics of the growingthe domestic andinternational has effectiveproved pressure inchanging the Chinese China-Northhand, other the On brings. it benefit the exceeding is gradually cost the regime, Korean Korean North relations predict a changelegitimacy. Party’s Communist the of the liberalism answergive to this question by thatideology saying still an plays important role in effective explain theory to China’s behavior.neorealism, Inaddition ideology to and an be to proves neorealism and policy defector current the adopt to China for beneficial itis Asia. Thus, in Northeast alliance theUS-Japan balance need to andthe development its own for environment external of a stable for reasons in its survival sees interest regime. Although Korea North is becoming aliability China,to Chinese the authority still policy current is avoidingrejecting defectors of aimedat asudden Pyongyang of the collapse human trafficking, sexual services, stealing andforgery of More importantly,documents. the instability in China, e.g.storming foreign engagingembassies, inillegal activities such as However,despite fact interest inthesurvival thatChinastill Current the the the sees of 55 CEU eTD Collection Foreign Foreign Ministry People’sof Republic of China, “2005Nian 1 Yue 13Ri Wai Jiao BuFa Yan Chung, Jae Ho, “China and ChenNortheast Jian, “Limits of the “Lips and Teeth” Alliance: Asia:An Historical Review of Chinese-NorthA Complex Equation for “Peaceful Rise””, Ko, Sung Ho, Kiseon Chung, Yoo-seok Oh, “North Korean Defectors: Their Life and Life Their Defectors: Korean “North Oh, Yoo-seok Chung, Kiseon Ho, Sung Ko, Kim, Samuel S., “China and North Korea in a Changing World, in Uneasy Allies: Fifty Years Information OfficeHyde-Price, Adrian,“Normative Europe: Power A RealistCritique”, Journal of European of the State Council, Watch, Human Rights Koreans in“The Exodus:North Invisible People’sthe Republic of People’sin the Challenges inChina: Legitimacy Political and Reform “Ideological Heike, Holbig, Republic of China, “China’sGrieco, Joseph M.,”Realist International Theory andNational the Study of World Politics”, in: Michael Jiang Zemin, “Jia Kuai Gai Ge Kai Fang He Xian Dai Hua Jian She Bu Fa, Duo Qu You http://ipc.fmprc.gov.cn/chn/fyrth/t179590.htm Ren Kong Quan Zai LiXing Da Ji ZheHui Ji ZheShang Wen” (2005),available Politics (2007):156-164 Program (2003):4-10 Special Report Years Fifty Asian Allies: in Relations, Korea Uneasy Relations”, Korean of China-North Well-being Defection”, after A FoundationFord funded(2002):1-19 project Korea Relations”, (2003):11-17of China-North Report Special Asian Program http://english.gov.cn/official/2005-07/27/content_17524.htm Defense in 2000, PartI” Public Policy (2006):217-234 China”, Human Rights Watch (2002):1-36 Post-Jiang GIGA Era”, Working Papers(2006):1-35 (1997):163-177 Theory Relations in International Thinking New (eds.): G. 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