The Influence of Folklore on the Modern Czech School of Composition BORIS KREMENLIEV The influences which shaped musical growth in European countries such as France, Italy, and Germany, played a part in the development of Czech music as a major cultural achievement. But in addition, the Czech people shared the rich heritage of the Slavs, whose cultural resources had begun forming in primitive societies at the start of the Christian era, or even earlier. When Cyril and Methodius went to Moravia in the 9th century 1 at the invitation of Prince Rostislav, the culture of Byzantium was at a much higher level than that of the Moravians. Thus, the Gospel passages which Cyril translated into Slavic dialects in preparation for his trip 2 can be said to mark the very beginning of Slavic literature. It is not equally clear, however, to what extent Byzantine music influenced that of the Western Slavs in general, and of the Moravians in particular, since the earliest musical records we have go back only to the 12th century.3 After the Great Moravian Empire collapsed in the 10th century, the Roman liturgy emerged victorious in its bitter struggle with the Slavonic liturgy, but the seeds had already been sown so deeply that some Slavonic liturgical tunes lingered long after the 10th and 11th centuries half as sacred tunes, half as folk songs. One of them, for instance, Lord 1 Cyril and Methodius arrived in Moravia in the spring of 863, although, ac- cording to Samuel Hazzard Cross, Rostislav seems to have requested Slavic- speaking missionaries three years earlier (Slavic Civilization Through the Ages, pp. 56-7). And although intrigue was finally successful in driving out of Moravia Methodius' disciples, and by 885 Czechs and Moravians, together with the Slo- vaks, gave in under pressure from Rome, the legacy of the Macedonian brothers was nevertheless instrumental in stabilizing Slavic Christianity in the Balkans; less than 100 years later, conversion took place in Russia. 2 There seems to be some doubt whether these translations were written in the already-existing Glagolitic alphabet or in the Cyrillic alphabet which bears the name of its inventor. 3 Ivan Kamburov: Cehoslovaska muzika (Sofia, 1948), p. 14 ff. 1320 Boris Kremenliev Have Mercy On Us, became so popular that it was used during the coronation ceremonies of Czech kings.4 In the succeeding years, Czech musical art fell under the spell of Western Europe: minnesingers and trouvères came to the royal court, bringing secular music with them, as did France's foremost poet- composer, Guillaume de Machaut, during the time of John of Luxem- bourg, King of Bohemia. When Prague became the seat of the Holy Roman Empire, Charles IV founded Prague University (1348), now recognized to be not only among the oldest, but also among the most important universities in Europe. As a cultural center, the university presented many musical performances, especially of Easter Passion Mysteries, which combined national and liturgical elements. The Hussite movement in the early part of the 15th century left a permanent imprint on the aspirations of the Czech nation. In the process of fortifying themselves against foreign ideologies, and in the attempt to resolve the conflicts among various religious factions, the regrouping of emotional forces resulted in a strong national consciousness and a musical outpouring whose influence lasted for generations.5 Hussite revolutionary songs (Rise Thou City of Prague, Ye Warriors of God, Children Let Us Meet Together) are among the earliest examples of such types in any European country. The Brethren Hymn-Book, which furnished an impetus for many other hymnals, is thought by Czech musicologists to be the first such publication anywhere in the world.0 Thus, Hussite church music exercised great influence not only on the development of Czech church music until the 17th century, but also on the music used in Lutheran services in Germany. Czech folklore is enriched by records of her struggle against political and religious oppression, domestic and foreign, much as Russian folklore reflects conflicts with the Tartars, and the folklore of the Balkan Slavs and the Ukrainians shows the mark of the Turkish invader. Czech music, however, continued to be affected by stylistic changes in the 4 Vladimir Stëpânek and Bohumil Karâsek: An Outline of Czech and Slovak Music. Part I, Czech Music (Prague, 1964), p. 10 ff. 5 There emerged three religious groups, in addition to the Hussite: Roman Catholic, Lutheran, and the Czech Brethren. 6 While the Czech reformation of the 15th century provided the people with religious music, however, it did not necessarily preserve the authentic folk tradi- tion; in cases where traditional melodic types were used, new religious texts were added. The latest research has shown that old Czech and Slovak melodies were similar to those of the pre-Christian Slavs, certain genre still being present in Russia and in the Balkans. The Modern Czech School of Composition 1321 music which was sweeping Europe. During the reign of Rudolf II (1576- 1612), Prague became one of the most important musical centers in Europe,7 and Philippe de Monte, the Flemish master of polyphony, took over musical activities in the Czech capital. The Czech defeat at White Mountain (1620) and, later, the Thirty Years' War were detrimental to creative work. And while Bohemia had the reputation of being the "conservatory of Europe", many native musicians had to go abroad to make a living. Those who stayed home played in the orchestras of the nobility, where Italian and German influences were dominant. But composers used native elements in their compositions, both secular and religious; in addition, Hussite singing preserved the folk tradition. But when, in the 18th century, instrumental music gained popularity among the Czechs, it was inspired largely by the modest school teachers in the rural areas. There followed the development of a first-rate instrumental tradition to train many native musicians, who then invaded the European capitals in the middle of the 18th century, making their homeland famous.8 Unable to practice their art at home, many leading musicians left just as Prague was becoming one of the important musical centers of Europe. Prominent European musicians gave concerts there and important works were presented for the first time, among them Mozart's masterpiece, Don Giovanni, which was commissioned in Prague while Mozart was performing his "Prague" Symphony there. The com- poser's opera, La Clemenza di Tito, was also premiered in the Czech capital.9 Czech musicians moved out in all directions: to France, Russia, Ger- many, Italy, and Austria.10 In Mannheim, for example, Jan Vaclav 7 Prague maintained its cultural importance until the 18th century. 8 The composer-clarinetist, Frantisek Tadeus Blatt (b. Prague, 1793), was among those responsible for the brilliant clarinet playing which made such an impression on Fetis and Berlioz. He was a professor at the Prague Conservatory and wrote for his instrument. Some of his studies advocating the singing quality of the clarinet are still in use. Thus, folk music of Bohemia was strongly in- fluenced in its melodic contour by Baroque instrumental music, while the music of Slovakia and southern Moravia seem to have remained more faithful to Eastern patterns. 9 The operas were performed in Prague in 1878 and 1791 respectively, the latter for the coronation of Leopold II, King of Bohemia. 10 To France: J. L. Dusik, A. Rejcha; to Russia: J. A. MareS, J. Prac; to Germany: the Benda brothers, Jan Vaclav Stamic (1717-1757), F. X. Richter, A. Fils; to Italy: H. A. Jelinek, V. PichI, J. Myslivecek; to Vienna: J. Vanhal, L. Kozeluh, V. Jirovec, J. Vorisek, and others. 1322 Boris Kremenliev Stamic 11 became known to his contemporaries (and to history) as the founder of the German school of violin-playing and also, together with Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, as one of the architects of the symphony as a form. But the creative Czech musician was not entirely engulfed by the wave of Europeanism. He carried the memory of his country's suffering with him wherever he went, so that, as early as 1793, Pavel Vranicky (1756-1808) composed his Symphony in C, subtitled Grande symphonie caractéristique pour la paix avec la République Française, whose per- formance was suppressed because the work was found to be "sub- versive".12 The compositions of many other Czech composers later were similarly found to be politically unacceptable. The fall of the Bastille (July 14, 1789) marked a turning point, not only in politics, but in the arts as well. It was the time of the French and American Revolutions; the masses were on the move, and it seemed that the individual might finally be entering an era that belonged to him, when he might reëvaluate his position in the community and in the country. Music, which since the Middle Ages had belonged either to the church or to the court, emerged as a vital force. The music of the people aroused new interest, music which since the time of tribal society had reflected everyday events, such as work, hunting, celebrations, putting the baby to sleep - or merely sadness or unrest, exuberance or vehe- mence. Against such a background as this, 19th-century Czech music began to develop: an art deeply rooted in its Slav history and tradition, but affected by the music of Rome and Byzantium on one hand, and by Italian, French, and German currents on the other. It would seem, how- ever, that the influence of Gregorian chant had diminished with time, especially in Slovak folk songs, where skips, for instance, predominate. But inasmuch as this music had previously belonged either to the aristocracy or to the church, it was mostly void of national expression.