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Studies on the Mango-Ecosystem In Institut für Phytopathologie und Angewandte Zoologie der Justus-Liebig-Universität Gießen Versuchsstation, Alter Steinbacher Weg 44 D-35394 Gießen 6WXGLHVRQWKH0DQJR(FRV\VWHPLQ3DSXD1HZ*XLQHD ZLWKVSHFLDOUHIHUHQFHWRWKHHFRORJ\RI 'HDQROLVVXEOLPEDOLV6QHOOHQ /HSLGRSWHUD3\UDOLGDH DQG WRWKHELRORJLFDOFRQWURORI &HURSODVWHVUXEHQV0DVNHOO +RPRSWHUD&RFFLGDH Thesis Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctor degree in agriculture (Dr. agr.) Fachbereich Agrarwissenschaft, Ökotrophologie und Umweltmanagement der Justus-Liebig-Universität Gießen By Dipl. Ing. agr. Stefan Magnus Eugen Krull Gießen, February 2004 Prüfungskommission Vorsitzender: Prof. Dr. Friedt 1. Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Basedow 2. Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Honermeier Prüfer: Prof. Dr. Kogel Prüfer: Prof. Dr. Mühling i Table of content *HQHUDOLQWURGXFWLRQ 7KHPDQJRWUHH 6WXG\VLWHV 6WXGLHVRQDUERUHDODQGHSLJHDOSUHGDWRU\DUWKURSRGV LQWZRPDQJRRUFKDUGVLQWKH&HQWUDO3URYLQFH RI3DSXD1HZ*XLQHD ,QWURGXFWLRQDQGREMHFWLYHV 0DWHULDODQGPHWKRGV 10 4.2.1 Study sites 10 4.2.2 Predator catches 10 4.2.2.1 Epigael predatory arthropods 10 4.2.2.2 Arboreal predatory arthropods 10 4.2.3 Study period 11 4.2.4 Identification of insects 11 5HVXOWV 4.3.1 (SLJHDOSUHGDWRU\DUWKURSRGV 11 4.3.1.1 Occurrence and composition 11 4.3.1.2 Araneae 12 4.3.1.3 Coleoptera 13 4.3.1.4 Hymenoptera 14 4.3.1.5 Gryllidae (crickets) and Chilopoda (centipedes) 17 4.3.2 $UERUHDOSUHGDWRU\DUWKURSRGV 17 4.3.2.1 Occurrence and composition 17 4.3.2.2 Araneae 18 4.3.2.3 Coleoptera 20 4.3.2.4 Hymenoptera 20 ii 'LVFXVVLRQ 4.4.1 Epigeal and arboreal Araneae 23 4.4.2 Epigeal and arboreal predatory Coleoptera 24 4.4.3 Epigeal and arboreal Hymenoptera 27 4.4.4 Gryllidae and Chilopoda 30 &RQFOXVLRQ 6XPPDU\ ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- $VXUYH\RQWKHRFFXUUHQFHDQGLPSRUWDQFHRIPDQJR SHVWVLQWKH&HQWUDO3URYLQFHRI3DSXD1HZ*XLQHD ,QWURGXFWLRQDQGREMHFWLYHV /LWHUDWXUHUHYLHZ 5.2.1 Fruit piercing moths 2WKUHLVIXOORQLD, 2PDWHUQD, (XGRFLPDVDODPLQLD (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) 38 5.2.2 Blossom feeders (Lepidoptera) &RVPRVWROD sp., *\PQRVFHOLV sp., 1DQDJXQDEUHYLXVFXOD 40 5.2.3 Mango leafminer $FURFHUFRSV spp. (Lepidoptera, Gracillariidae) 41 5.2.4 White mango scale $XODFDVSLVWXEHUFXODULV (Coccoidea, Diaspididae) 43 5.2.5 Soft scales 6DLVVHWLD sp. and 3DUDVDLVVHWLD sp. (Coccoidea, Coccidae) 44 5.2.6 Mango aphid 7R[RSWHUDRGLQDH (Homoptera, Aphididae) 46 5.2.7 Mango leafhoppers ,GLRVFRSXVFO\SHDOLV and ,QLYHRVSDUVXV (Homoptera, Cicadellidae) 47 5.2.8 Mango planthoppers &ROJDURLGHVDFXPLQDWD, &ROJDU sp., 6FRO\SRSD sp., (Homoptera, Flatidae, Ricaniidae) 50 5.2.9 Mango fruit fly %DFWURFHUDIUDXHQIHOGL (Diptera, Tephritidae) 52 0DWHULDODQG0HWKRGV 5.3.1 Study Sites 54 5.3.2 Determination of infestation levels 54 5.3.3 Identification of insects 55 iii 5HVXOWV 5.4.1 Infestation levels of mango fruits with fruit piercing moths 2WKUHLVIXOORQLD, 2PDWHUQD, (XGRFLPDVDODPLQLD (Lep., Noctuidae) 56 5.4.2 Infestation levels of mango inflorescenses with blossom feeders (Lepidoptera), &RVPRVWROD sp., *\PQRVFHOLV sp., 1DQDJXQDEUHYLXVFXOD 58 5.4.3 Infestation levels of mango leaves with mango leafminer $FURFHUFRSVspp. (Lep., Gracillariidae) 60 5.4.4 Infestation levels of mango leaves with white mango scale $XODFDVSLVWXEHUFXODULV (Homopt., Diaspididae) 62 5.4.5 Infestation levels of young mango twigs with soft scales 6DLVVHWLDsp. and 3DUDVDLVVHWLD sp. (Homopt., Coccidae) 64 5.4.6. Infestation levels of young mango twigs with the mango aphid 7R[RSWHUDRGLQDH (Homopt., Aphididae) 66 5.4.7 Infestation levels of mango inflorescenses with mango leafhoppers ,GLRVFRSXVFO\SHDOLV and ,QLYHRVSDUVXV (Homopt., Cicadellidae) 68 5.4.8 Infestation levels of young mango twigs with mango planthoppers, &ROJDURLGHVDFXPLQDWD, &ROJDU sp, 6FRO\SRSD sp., (Homopt., Flatidae, Ricaniidae) 70 5.4.9 Infestation levels of mango fruits with mango fruit fly %DFWURFHUDIUDXHQIHOGL (Dipt., Tephritidae) 72 'LVFXVVLRQ 5.5.1 Infestation levels of mango fruits with fruit piercing moths 2WKUHLVIXOORQLD, 2PDWHUQD, (XGRFLPDVDODPLQLD (Lep., Noctuidae) 72 5.5.2 Infestation levels of mango inflorescenses with blossom feeders (Lepidoptera), &RVPRVWROD sp., *\PQRVFHOLV sp., 1DQDJXQDEUHYLXVFXOD 73 5.5.3 Infestation levels of mango leaves with mango leafminer $FURFHUFRSVspp. (Lep., Gracillariidae) 73 iv 5.5.4 Infestation levels of mango leaves with white mango scale $XODFDVSLVWXEHUFXODULV (Homopt., Diaspididae) 74 5.5.5 Infestation levels of young mango twigs with soft scales 6DLVVHWLDsp. and 3DUDVDLVVHWLD sp. (Homopt., Coccidae) 74 5.5.6. Infestation levels of young mango twigs with the mango aphid 7R[RSWHUDRGLQDH (Homopt., Aphididae) 75 5.5.7 Infestation levels of mango inflorescenses with mango leafhoppers ,GLRVFRSXVFO\SHDOLV and ,QLYHRVSDUVXV (Homopt., Cicadellidae) 75 5.5.8 Infestation levels of young mango twigs with mango planthoppers, &ROJDURLGHVDFXPLQDWD, &ROJDU sp., 6FRO\SRSD sp., (Homopt., Flatidae, Ricaniidae) 76 5.5.9 Infestation levels of mango fruits with mango fruit fly %DFWURFHUDIUDXHQIHOGL (Dipt., Tephritidae) 76 6XPPDU\ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 2QWKHELRORJLFDOFRQWURORIWKHSLQNZD[VFDOH&HURSODVWHV UXEHQV0DVNHOO +RPRSWHUD&RFFLGDH ZLWKWKHLQWURGXFHG SDUDVLWRLG$QLFHWXVEHQHILFXV,VKLL <DVXPDWVX +\PHQRSWHUD(QF\UWLGDH ,QWURGXFWLRQDQGREMHFWLYHV /LWHUDWXUHUHYLHZ 6.2.1 &HURSODVWHVUXEHQVMaskell 83 6.2.2 Natural enemies of &HURSODVWHVUXEHQV 87 6.2.2.1 Parasitoids 90 6.2.2.2 Effectiveness of parasitoids of &HURSODVWHVUXEHQV 93 6.2.2.3 Pathogens 94 6.2.3 The pink wax scale parasitoid $QLFHWXVEHQHILFXV Ishii & Yasumatsu (Hymenoptera, Encyrtidae) 94 6.2.4 The correlation of honeydew producing Homoptera with ants 97 v 6.2.4.1 The effect of ants on the biological control of homopteran pests 98 0DWHULDODQG0HWKRGV 6.3.1 Study sites 98 6.3.2 Population dynamics of &HURSODVWHVUXEHQV 99 6.3.2.1 Seasonal history 99 6.3.3 Infestation levels of mango leaves with &HURSODVWHVUXEHQV 99 6.3.4 Endemic parasitoids of &HURSODVWHVUXEHQV 99 6.3.4.1 Determination of parasitization levels of &UXEHQV 99 6.3.4.2 Parasitoid identification 100 6.3.5 The importation of $QLFHWXVEHQHILFXV 101 6.3.5.1 Release of $QLFHWXVEHQHILFXV 101 6.3.5.2 Establishment of $QLFHWXVEHQHILFXV 102 6.3.6 The attendance of &HURSODVWHVUXEHQV by honeydew collecting ants 102 6.3.7 Statistical analysis 102 5HVXOWV 6.4.1 Population dynamics of &HURSODVWHVUXEHQV 103 6.4.1.1 Seasonal history 103 6.4.2 Infestation levels of mango leaves with &HURSODVWHVUXEHQV 103 6.4.3 Endemic parasitoids of &HURSODVWHVUXEHQV 106 6.4.3.1 Determination of parasitization levels of &HURSODVWHVUXEHQV 106 6.4.3.2 Parasitoid identification 108 6.4.4 The importation of $QLFHWXVEHQHILFXV 115 6.4.4.1 Establishment of $QLFHWXVEHQHILFXV 115 6.4.4.2 Determination of parasitization levels of &HURSODVWHVUXEHQV after the release of $QLFHWXVEHQHILFXV 115 6.4.4.3 Parasitoid identification after the release of $QLFHWXVEHQHILFXV 116 6.4.5 Further natural enemies of &HURSODVWHVUXEHQV 119 6.4.6 The attendance of &HURSODVWHVUXEHQV by honeydew collecting ants 119 vi 'LVFXVVLRQ 6.5.1 Population dynamics of &HURSODVWHVUXEHQV 119 6.5.1.1 Seasonal history 119 6.5.2 Infestation levels of mango leaves with &HURSODVWHVUXEHQV 120 6.5.3 Parasitization levels of &HURSODVWHVUXEHQV 121 6.5.4 Endemic parasitoids and their significance as control agents of &HURSODVWHVUXEHQV 122 6.5.5 The importation of $QLFHWXVEHQHILFXV 124 6.5.5.1 Establishment of $QLFHWXVEHQHILFXV 124 6.5.5.2 Parasitoids and parasitization levels of &HURSODVWHV UXEHQV after the release of $QLFHWXVEHQHILFXV 125 6.5.6 The effect of ant attendance on the establishment of $QLFHWXVEHQHILFXV 126 &RQFOXVLRQ 0DVVSURGXFWLRQRI$QLFHWXVEHQHILFXVDQGGLVWULEXWLRQ LQWRRWKHUSURYLQFHV 5HFRPPHQGDWLRQVIRUIXWXUHUHVHDUFKDFWLYLWLHV 6XPPDU\ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 6WXGLHVRQWKHELRORJ\RIWKHUHGEDQGHGPDQJR FDWHUSLOODU'HDQROLVVXEOLPEDOLV6QHOOHQ /HSLGRSWHUD3\UDOLGDH DQGLWVQDWXUDOHQHPLHV ,QWURGXFWLRQDQGREMHFWLYHV /LWHUDWXUHUHYLHZ 7.2.1 'HDQROLVVXEOLPEDOLV Snellen (Lep., Pyralidae) 133 7.2.1.1 Infestation levels and yield reduction 136 7.2.1.2 Natural enemies 136 7.2.1.3 Chemical control 137 0DWHULDODQGPHWKRGV 7.3.1 Infestation levels of mango fruits with 'HDQROLVVXEOLPEDOLV 137 7.3.2 Studies on the seasonal history and biological behaviour 138 7.3.2.1 Oviposition 138 vii 7.3.2.2 Pupation sites 138 7.3.2.3 Behaviour during mango off-season 139 7.3.2.4 General observations in the field 139 7.3.3 Determination of host plants other than 0DQJLIHUD 139 7.3.3.1 Field search 139 7.3.3.2 Laboratory trials (feeding study) 140 7.3.4 Natural enemies of 'VXEOLPEDOLV 140 7.3.4.1 Parasitoids 140 7.3.4.2 Pathogens 141 7.3.4.3 Predators 141 7.3.5 Statistical analysis 141 5HVXOWV 7.4.1 Infestation levels of mango fruits with 'HDQROLVVXEOLPEDOLV 141 7.4.2 Seasonal history and biological behaviour 146 7.4.2.1 Oviposition 146 7.4.2.2 Pupation sites 147 7.4.2.3 Behaviour during mango off-season 148 7.4.2.4 General observations in the field 148 7.4.3 Determination of host plants other than 0DQJLIHUD 148 7.4.3.1 Field search 148 7.4.3.2 Laboratory trials (feeding study)
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