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The Fall of Democracy in Syria

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The Fall of Democracy in Syria The Fall of Democracy in Syria Katarzyna KRÓKOWSKA* Abstract This paper analyses social, economic and challenges posed by late industrialization and political factors during the years between foreign competition. Particular importance is Syria’s independence (1946) and its unification attributed to the birth of a new middle class, with Egypt (1958) that led to the fall of radicalized by political parties directed against democracy. Despite the achievements of hard- oligarchy and imperialism. This paper assumes won sovereignty and the establishment of liberal that the democratic breakdown in Syria can institutions following 1946, the country faced be seen as a consequence of both internal numerous obstacles to democratic consolidation. developments and external pressures. Bitter social conflicts, aggravated by a deep sense of insecurity among the Syrian population, in combination with economic disparities and Key Words military intervention, led to the destabilization of the state. During its formative years, the Democratic breakdown, post-independence country was not immune to anti-colonial and Syria, United Arab Republic, defensive social unrest and Cold War rivalries. As a means modernization, political legitimacy. to overcome these challenges, the young democracy embarked on a path of defensive modernization elevating the army to political power. Introduction In order to identify the reasons behind the fall of Syria’s democracy, this paper analyses In the late 1940s, Syria’s newly factors such as: social conflict, institutional gained independence showed that weakness, the rise of radical parties, the establishing a viable state is an enormous politicization of the military and the role of challenge. After centuries of colonial an unfavorable external environment. The domination, the government was essay draws attention to changes in class such expected to efficiently perform its as the weakening of Syria’s liberal elites whose legitimacy diminished as they failed to meet the function of providing territorial and social security. As Linz and Stepan point out:1 a democratic system, in order to be * The author holds an MA in International Relations and Advanced European Studies sustainable, has to provide a minimum from the Institut Européen des Hautes Études provision of economic resources. Foreign Internationales (IEHEI). economic competition, regional conflicts 81 PERCEPTIONS, Summer 2011, Volume XVI, Number 2, pp. 81-98. Katarzyna Krókowska and Cold War rivalry added further strain sympathizing with either of the two to the already arduous task of forming a sides destroyed Syria’s chances for stable and responsive government. Bitter a stable democracy. Such focus on conflicts provoked by social disparities international conspiracies is criticized by led to the destabilization of the state. Heydemann.3 Heydemann contradicts Diverse concepts of the shape of the Moubayed in saying that the collapse of country caused rivalry among authority democracy in Syria was not caused “by representatives in Syria’s definition intrigues of foreign powers but by the process. Post-independence elites, pan- dynamics of Syria’s political economy”4 . Arabs, Nasserists and socialist parties – all Against this theoretical background, this competed to shape the pathway of Syrian paper reflects a dual preoccupation with political and economic development. both the endog enous and exogenous factors that caused Syria’s democratic Arab unity was seen as a way breakdown. It argues that a simultaneous calculus of external threats and internal to secure social and economic division brought the regime down. A development. combination of social factors and an unfavorable external environment had a determining role in the failure of Syria’s This paper will examine the factors democratic consolidation. that led to the undermining of Syria’s democratic system and caused the Its long history of colonialism, and transition to authoritarian rule. After the evidence of foreign meddling in a brief introduction to the question of its internal affairs, including support identity in the newly created state, the for military coups, shows that Syria’s paper will analyze the determinants that domestic policies were influenced not allowed the disintegration of democratic only by internal power struggles, but also structures, such as the crumbling of by inter-Arab relations and Cold War Syria’s liberal elites, social conflict, and competition. After the West supported the radicalization of a new class, the the formation of Israel and the Suez war, rise of radical parties and the influence Syrian enmity towards the West became of external factors and defensive even stronger and the Soviet Union modernization. It will concentrate on gradually began to counter Western the external threat and intense social influence in Syria. Arms deals and conflict that preceded the United Arab other forms of economic cooperation Republic (UAR). strengthened Syria’s left-wing elements and violently brought social issues back There are various interpretations on the agenda. of the reasons behind the democratic breakdown in Syria. Moubayed2 In this paper I concentrate on the claims that attempts to overthrow the period before Syria’s union with Nasserist government led by Cold War rivals Egypt, which practically brought an end 82 The Fall of Democracy in Syria to the brief democratic interval, rather a burst of Pan-Arab euphoria, control than on the events directly preceding of liberal institutions was ceded to the 1963 Ba’th coup. Instead, I analyze authoritarian Egypt. Arab unity was seen the factors that allowed for the coup as a way to secure social and economic to occur and that led indirectly to development. The minorities in Syria authoritarianism. were particularly susceptible to the Pan- Arab ideology, as a way of safeguarding Question of Identity their status and security. They radicalised because of a “double vulnerability”: the threat of foreign invasion and danger to The particular historic context their domestic position from the Sunni is crucial to understanding Syria’s majority. democratic interlude. The birth of the Syrian state ensued as a result of the nationalist struggle against imperialism, Weakness of Liberal Elites which radicalised nationalist sentiments in Syria.5 An arbitrary delineation of In the 1940s, Syria was dominated borders by the colonial powers and the by a group of fifty prominent families of resulting territorial losses of historic landed aristocracy, who had unrivalled Syria - Palestine, Alexandretta, the Bequa power both in economic and political valley and parts of the Mediterranean terms derived from owning land in the coast - left ambitions for Greater Syria country and holding important public unfulfilled. The historic, cultural and offices in the cities. Nevertheless, the political bonds among the divided states aforementioned social tensions, lack of paved the way for radical movements; reforms and marginalization of some Pan-Arabist, Islamist and nationalist social groups led to the “explosive 7 ideologies were so deeply rooted in disintegration of the oligarchic order.” Syrian minds that public opinion would not tolerate divergence from Arab nationalism.6 Although since 1946 the For the most part absentee focus of Syrian political life has shifted landlords, they did not develop from the nationalist struggle to the a sense of social and political challenge of constructing a viable state, responsibility toward the nationalism has remained a dominant countryside. current in Syrian politics. The main objective of Arab nationalism was to compensate for colonial humiliation The veteran nationalists lacked by reuniting divided Arab territories. popular support from the very beginning. This mindset provided ideological The leadership of the members of the support for the union with Egypt. In National Bloc was questioned due to 83 Katarzyna Krókowska unsuccessful treaty negotiations with of whom it was composed had no overall the French which failed to prevent losses view; their ambition was restricted to their own political survival and a limited of Syria’s historic territory and left the degree of independence for the country. country with a currency still attached to They lagged a long way behind public the franc. opinion, particularly to the young, who had for several years been subject to In terms of Max Weber’s criteria Ba’th and Communist ideas. The Ba’th for political legitimacy,8 the notables gave the public wider ambitions, on lacked traditional authority for their both the social and national plan.10 position. They had acquired land in the The People’s Party represented no later phase of Ottoman rule and became real alternative to the National Bloc– it enriched through trade opportunities was compromised in the public eye by brought about by World War II. For the its link with Iraq and ties with feudal’ most part absentee landlords, they did interests. Public discourse focused on not develop a sense of social and political progress rather than democracy. Of responsibility toward the countryside. major concern was defense of class and The leading parties were elitist, had little national interests, and not the protection contact with the masses, and were not of a democratic regime. 11 representative of a nation composed of almost two thirds peasants. The Ba’thists and Communists The post-independence government began to succeed in gaining did not live up to various political more control over the National pressures, such as long term
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