Het Verleden in Hiphopmuziek Verwijzingen Naar Het Verleden Van Onderdrukking in De Hiphopcultuur Van De Jaren Negentig

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Het Verleden in Hiphopmuziek Verwijzingen Naar Het Verleden Van Onderdrukking in De Hiphopcultuur Van De Jaren Negentig Het verleden in hiphopmuziek Verwijzingen naar het verleden van onderdrukking in de hiphopcultuur van de jaren negentig. Naam: Joris Martens Studentnummer: S4381459 Begeleider: Dhr. Riswick Inleverdatum: 15-6-2017 Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen Inhoud Inleiding .................................................................................................................................................. 2 Status Quaestionis ................................................................................................................................... 4 Bronselectie en methode ......................................................................................................................... 8 Hoofdstuk 1: ‘Verandering hangt in de lucht’ 1990-1993 .................................................................... 11 Hoofdstuk 2: ‘Hernieuwde assertiviteit’ 1994-1997 ............................................................................. 16 Hoofdstuk 3: ‘Over de grenzen van het genre heen kijken’ 1998-2000 ................................................ 23 Conclusie ............................................................................................................................................... 28 Bibliografie ............................................................................................................................................ 30 Bronnen ............................................................................................................................................. 30 Internet .............................................................................................................................................. 30 Literatuur ........................................................................................................................................... 31 Bijlage ................................................................................................................................................... 33 Album 1: Ice Cube – AmeriKKKa’s most wanted (1990) ................................................................ 33 Album 2: KRS-One – The return of the boom bap (1993) ................................................................ 60 Album 3: Arrested Development – 3 years, 5 months & 2 days in the Life Of (1992) ..................... 86 Album 4: 2pac – Me against the world (1995) ................................................................................ 103 Album 5: Outkast – ATLiens (1997) ............................................................................................... 140 Album 6: Nas - Illmatic (1994) ....................................................................................................... 166 Album 7: Dr. Dre – 2001 (1999) ..................................................................................................... 188 Album 8: The Roots – Things Fall Apart ........................................................................................ 229 Album 9: Lauryn Hill – The miseducation of Lauryn Hill (1998) .................................................. 264 1 Inleiding In januari 2017 is er door de Harvard universiteit besloten een archief aan te leggen met als doel het behouden en vastleggen van hiphop. Grofweg 30 jaar na het ontstaan van hiphop krijgt het de herkenning die het volgens kenners al lange tijd verdient.1 Het project is echter niet geheel verassend. In 2015 werd al een wetenschappelijk artikel gepubliceerd waarin hiphop bestempelt wordt als een van de meest invloedrijke muziekgenres van de laatste vijftig jaar.2 De ontwikkeling van hiphop sinds haar ontstaan is opzienbarend. Hiphop is ontstaan in het midden van de jaren zeventig in de achterstandswijk de Bronx, New York, als culturele expressie van de gemarginaliseerde zwarte, stedelijke bevolking van de Verenigde Staten.3 Deze lokale en cultureel geïsoleerde stroming heeft zich in de decennia hierop volgend ontwikkeld tot een miljoenenindustrie met luisteraars en beoefenaars wereldwijd. Door deze verschuiving is het duidelijk geworden dat hiphopcultuur serieus genomen dient te worden en net als andere Afro-Amerikaanse culturele bewegingen wetenschappelijk onderzoek verdient. Hiphop als begrip is lastig te definiëren, omdat hiphop door de jaren heen voortdurend veranderd is.4 Hiphop is het product van een Caribische, Afrikaanse en Afro-Amerikaanse culturele kruisbestuiving die plaatsgevonden heeft in de achterstandswijken van de Verenigde Staten. In deze cultuur lag de nadruk op het ritmisch vertellen van verhalen (rappen), op elektronisch geproduceerde muziek. Hierin neemt de artiest of rapper vaak het perspectief van verteller of waarnemer aan, en articuleert hij de problemen en genoegens van het leven in de achterstandswijken. Het breakdansen ontstond als reactie op deze nieuwe muziekstijl, en werd onherroepelijk verbonden met de muziek. Het ontstaan van deze nieuwe hiphopcultuur ging gepaard met technologische ontwikkelingen die het voor iedereen mogelijk maakte om relatief gemakkelijk muziek te produceren. Hiermee ontstond een podium voor hen die zich aan de rand van de samenleving bevonden. Een ander element dat al snel met hiphopcultuur verbonden werd, was graffiti. Graffiti wordt gekenmerkt door eenzelfde stijl als hiphopmuziek. Het illegaal beschilderen van wc’s, muren en metro’s gaf veel anonieme artiesten een miljoenenpubliek en maakte het zo mogelijk vanuit de marge de aandacht te trekken. In dit onderzoek zal de term hiphopcultuur gehanteerd worden, die als volgt te definiëren is: een culturele stroming die ontsprongen is aan het begin van de jaren zeventig in 1 Kristin Toussaint, ‘At Harvard, hip-hop is getting its place in history’, Metro <http://www.metro.us/boston/at- harvard-hip-hop-is-getting-its-place-in-history/zsJqbo---xy252FAg2aqI> [geraadpleegd op 27-4-2017]. 2 Matthias Mauch, Robert MacCallum, Mark Levy en Armand Leroi, ‘The evolution of popular music: 1960- 2010’, Royal Society Open Society 2 (2015), 1-10, alhier 5. 3 Tricia Rose, Black noise: rap music and black culture in contemporary America, (London, 1994), xi. 4 Derrick Alridge en James Stewart, ‘Hiphop in history: past, present and future’, The Journal of African American History 90:3 (2005), 190-195, alhier 190. 2 de overwegend zwarte achterstandswijken van de grote steden in de Verenigde Staten, bestaande uit tenminste vier elementen; rappen, beatproductie, breakdansen en graffiti en diepgeworteld is in andere Afro-Amerikaanse culturele uitingen. Sommige auteurs schrijven andere karakteristieken toe aan hiphopcultuur, maar in de literatuur bestaat er consensus over deze basis elementen.5 In de jaren negentig verschoof hiphopmuziek van de underground naar de mainstream, en werd het onderdeel van de Amerikaanse popcultuur. Deze verschuiving is van belang voor dit onderzoek. In de jaren zeventig en tachtig was hiphopcultuur fel gekant tegen commercialisering en de muziekindustrie an sich. Dit was in overeenstemming met kritische reflectie op de samenleving, en in het bijzonder op de sociaal-economische positie van Afro- Amerikanen. Deze maatschappijkritiek werd vaak onomwonden en op een agressieve toon gearticuleerd. Daarentegen werd hiphop in de loop van de jaren negentig een van de meest gecommercialiseerde en meest winstgevende subculturen.6 De onomwonden maatschappijkritiek en de persoonlijke verhalen van de overwegend Afro-Amerikaanse artiesten zouden vermarkt worden door de vele, kleine, door Afro-Amerikanen geleide, platenmaatschappijen. Deze platenmaatschappijen zouden aan het eind van de jaren negentig de eerste hiphopmiljonairs hebben voortgebracht.7 Deze ontwikkeling roept vragen op omtrent het karakter van hiphopcultuur in de jaren negentig. Wat ontstaan is als een geïsoleerde, stedelijke, Afro-Amerikaanse culturele beweging werd gecommercialiseerd en onderdeel van de popcultuur. Hierom zal gebruikmakend van theorieën over culturele trauma’s, de representatie van het verleden van onderdrukking onderzocht worden in de hiphopcultuur van de jaren negentig. Bovendien hebben opeenvolgende generaties de herinnering aan dit verleden aangepast aan hun behoeften en ingepast in hun belevingswereld.8 Het is om deze reden relevant om de volgende onderzoeksvragen te beantwoorden: naar welke thema’s uit het verleden van onderdrukking van de Afro-Amerikanen wordt er in de hiphopcultuur van de jaren negentig gerefereerd? En hoe worden deze thema’s gerepresenteerd? Het antwoord op deze vraag zal laten zien naar welke thema’s uit het verleden van onderdrukking gerefereerd wordt. Daarnaast zal de representatie van deze thema’s de 5 Cheryl Keyes, ‘The roots and aesthetic foundation of hiphop culture’, in: Todd Boyd (red.) African Americans and Popular Culture III (London, 2008), 87-116, alhier 87; Alridge en James, ‘Hiphop in history’, 190; Rose, Black noise, 2. 6 Christopher H. Smith, ‘Hiphop moguls’, in: Todd Boyd (red), African Americans and Popular Culture III (London, 2008), 62-81, alhier, 70. 7 Smith, ‘Hiphop moguls’, 71. 8 Ron Eyerman, Cultural trauma, slavery and the formation of collective identity, (Cambridge, 2003), 15. 3 motieven voor het verwijzen naar het verleden van onderdrukking verduidelijken. In de status quaestionis zal de literatuur over culturele trauma’s en de positie van muziek in de Afro- Amerikaanse cultuur en hiphop verkend worden. Vervolgens wordt beargumenteerd op basis van welke criteria de bronnen geselecteerd zijn en hoe deze onderzocht zijn. Deze criteria bieden tevens handvatten voor de conclusie. Zo wordt
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