ECO-CHRONICLE 25

ECO CHRONICLE ISSN: 0973-4155 Vol. 12, No. 2, June, 2017 PP: 25 - 34

TREATMENT OF CADMIUM, LEAD AND COPPER USING PHYTOREMEDIATION ENHANCED BY TITANIUM DIOXIDE NANOPARTICLES.

Harikumar, P.S. and Megha, T.

Water Quality Division, Centre for Water Resources Development and Management, Kozhikode, Kerala, India. Corresponding author: [email protected]; [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Presently, phytoremediation is a beneficial and affordable technique used to extract or remove inactive metals and metal pollutants from contaminated water. Remediation of heavy metal from water and soil is extreme necessary. Phytoremediation ability of two aquatic plants Eichhornia crassipes and Salvinia molesta for the removal of toxic heavy metals like Pb, Cd and Cu were attempted in the present study under three different conditions. Maximum

removal of Pb, Cd and Cu was observed in TiO2 nanoparticles applied plants used phytoremediation system (C). Results obtained from heavy metal accumulation in plants parts, bioconcentration factor, translocation factor indicates

that phytoremediation systems enhanced by TiO2 nanoparticles showed more tendency to translocate metals to its

areal parts. The results showed that, plants applied with TiO2 nanoparticles exhibited significant increase in physiological response like relative growth and the production of chlorophyll content compared to others. Compared to control (A)

and the phytoremediation system in which TiO2 nanoparticles entrapped calcium alginate beads were applied to plants (B), fast and efficient removal of lead, cadmium and copper was observed in phytoremediation system enhanced

by TiO2 nanoparticles i.e., in C. Phytoremediation technique enhanced by TiO2 nanoparticles seems to be promising in the treatment of heavy metals from water.

Key words: Eichhornia crassipes, Salvinia molesta, bioconcentration factor and translocation factor

INTRODUCTION

Heavy metal contamination is a widespread issue that reproductive processes; lead reduces chlorophyll disrupts the environment as a consequence of several production; arsenic interferes with metabolic processes, anthropogenic activities and their invariably persisting while zinc and tin stimulate the growth of leaves and nature in the environment. The ecological balance of the shoots; ultimately plant growth becomes limited or environment and diversity of aquatic organisms have impossible (Ashraf et al. 2011). The results of some of the devastatingly affected by heavy metal pollution (Nilantika experiments indicated that accumulation of some heavy et al. 2014). Some heavy metals like cadmium, lead and metals such as Cd and Pb may damage chloroplasts in chromium etc. are phytotoxic at both low concentrations young leaves and the first impact of Cd on plants is the as well as very high concentration (Amin, 2012). The reduction of photosynthetic activity (Ali et al. 2014). prevailing technologies on purification that are used to Moreover, it has been proved that a decrease in the growth eradicate these toxic contaminants are costly and of plants under some stress is due to the restriction of sometimes non-ecofriendly also. For the beneficial of photosynthetic process (Ackerson and Herbert, 1981). community, the research on water purification is focused towards low cost and eco-friendly technologies (Dhote and Nanoparticles can be used to increase the supply of Dixit, 2009). Phytoremediation is energy efficient, cost- elements to plant shoots and foliage and its application effective, aesthetically pleasing technique of remediation can also increase seed germination and seedling growth sites with low to moderate levels of contamination. (Morteza et al. 2013). Furthermore, nanoparticles can facilitate enhanced ability of water and fertilizer absorption The excessive concentration of heavy metals in plants can by roots, and increase antioxidant enzyme activity such cause oxidative stress and stomatal resistance and can as superoxide dismutase and catalase. Thus, also affect photosynthesis and chlorophyll florescence nanoparticles can increase plant resistance against processes. Copper can inhibit photosynthesis and different stresses. Titanium dioxide nanoparticles are used 26 ECO-CHRONICLE in agriculture to increase growth and can improve yield; wetland area, viz. Kottooli wetland in Kozhikode City. In improve the rate of photosynthesis and reduce diseases order to simulate the natural environment, plants were

(Morteza et al. 2013). Titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles placed under natural sun light for one month and the (NPs) are known for its photocatalytic activity, second generations of the plants with similar size were environmental friendly nature, high stability and are found utilized for this study. Before starting the phytoremediation to be safe for human. These particles have been used in experiment, the epiphytes and insect larvae grown on pathogen treatments as well as decomposition of plants were removed by rinsing with distilled water. The phytotoxic compounds (Raskar and Laware, 2013). present study was conducted in two stages. During the Stage I, three different conditions (A, B and C) were applied The effects of nano-TiO on the germination and growth 2 to Eichhornia crassipes and Salvinia molesta for 10 days. of spinach seeds were studied by many researchers. Tanks were setup with different operating conditions and These nanoparticles improved light absorbance and each contained plants and distilled water. Condition A was promote the activity of rubisco activase thus accelerated the control, in which the plants were kept in water under spinach growth (Remya et al. 2010). Nano- TiO improved 2 natural conditions. In condition B, TiO nanoparticles the plant growth by enhanced nitrogen metabolism (Yang 2 entrapped calcium alginate beads (2gm) was applied to et al. 2006) that promotes the absorption of nitrate in the plants and in condition C, TiO powder (2gm) was spinach and accelerating conversion of inorganic nitrogen 2 applied. TiO photocatalyst does not require ultraviolet rays into organic nitrogen, thereby increasing the fresh weight 2 that have an energy level as high as 254nm and are and dry weight. It has also been found that nano-anatase hazardous to humans. It also allows reaction to be initiated TiO2 promoted antioxidant stress by decreasing the accumulation of superoxide radicals, hydrogen peroxide, by the near – ultraviolet rays with relatively long wavelength malonyldialdehyde content and enhance the activities of contained in sunlight. So, all the experimental setup was superoxide dismutase, catalase, ascorbate peroxidase, placed in the outdoor for maximum sunlight exposure and guaiacol peroxidase and thereby increase the evolution was conducted during the summer season. Before and oxygen rate in spinach chloroplasts under UV-B radiation after stage I, the chlorophyll content and fresh weight of (Lei et al. 2008). In this perspective, we tried to enhance Eichhornia crassipes and Salvinia molesta in A, B and C efficiency of phytoremediation capacity of Eichhornia were determined. crassipes and Salvinia molesta using titanium dioxide nanoparticles in this study. The aim of our study was to In stage II, plants exposed to different conditions were offer an effective approach to enhance the efficiency of used for the treatment of heavy metals like lead, cadmium the phytoremediation system for the treatment of heavy and copper from water. Before that, plants were washed metals like Pb, Cd and Cu from water. and rinsed with distilled water. Thirteen liters of mixed heavy metal (Cd, Pb and Cu) solution was taken in each MATERIALS AND METHODS tank (45 × 30 × 15cm) and the tanks were named A, B Experimental setup and C for both experiments using Eichhornia crassipes and Salvinia molesta. Thirteen liters of simulated Two free-floating aquatic plants, Eichhornia crassipes and contaminated water was prepared for each tank by Salvinia molesta (plate 1) were collected from a natural dissolving 0.416g of Pb (NO3)2, 1.022g of CuSO4.5H2O,

Plate 1: (A) Eichhornia crassipes and (B) Salvinia molesta ECO-CHRONICLE 27

and 0.593g of (3CdSO4).8H2O in distilled water. All Synthesis of TiO2 nanoparticles and the encapsulation chemicals used were of the highest purity available and method for immobilization of nanoparticles in of analytical grade procured from Merck. The heavy metal semipermeable alginates beads concentrations were determined by Atomic Absorption

Spectrophotometer AAS (Thermo Series) with GF 95. The TiO 2 nanoparticles were synthesized by simple phytoremediation experiments using Eichhornia precipitation method. TiO2 (Fluka 15%) solution in HCl (10- crassipes was conducted with water having initial 15%) was stirred in deionized water ([Ti3+] = 0.15 mol L -1). concentration of Cd, Pb and Cu were 20.32 ± 0.44 mg/L, A blue-violet solution was obtained at room temperature. 21.45 ± 0.18 mg/L and 21.34 ± 0.22mg/L respectively. The pH was adjusted between 0.5 and 6.5 with sodium The water with initial concentration of Cd, Pb and Cu hydroxide (NaOH) solution. The solution was then heated were 20.99 ± 0.37mg/L, 20.78 ± 0.45 mg/L and 20.56 ± at 600C in an oven for 24h. The solid obtained was 0.46mg/L respectively, was used in phytoremediation centrifuged, washed with dilute acid (pH=1) and distilled experiments using Salvinia molesta. Tank A was the water in order to remove salts (Sophie et al. 2007). A control which comprised of only plants (phytoremediation solution containing TiO2 nanoparticles (0.5wt %) and system). In tank B and tank C, the plants exposed to sodium alginate (0.5wt %) was prepared with 25ml distilled water and stirred for 30 min at 850C. Afterwards, the TiO2 nanoparticles entrapped calcium alginate beads and solution was extruded as small drops by means of syringe TiO2 nanoparticles powder respectively were used in the treatment of Cd, Pb and Cu. into a stirred solution of calcium chloride (4.0wt %), where spherical gel beads were formed (plate 2). The gel beads Experiment was continued for 24 days and water samples were retained in the calcium chloride solution for 12 h for were taken in every 3 days. When the experiment was hardening and then washed with distilled water. Stability completed, stem, roots and leaves of the plants were of beads depends on pH values of the aqueous solution separated and dried in a hot air oven. The residual Pb, and the initial physical states of the beads (Harikumar et Cd and Cu concentrations in water and the accumulated al. 2013). metals in different parts of the plants at the conclusion of the experiment were analyzed using Atomic Absorption Analytical procedures Spectrophotometer. The effect of the applied conditions on the growth of Eichhornia crassipes and Salvinia The plant samples were rinsed with tap water twice and molesta was examined by using relative growth and deionized water three times. Rinsed samples were cut into 0 chlorophyll content. Phytoremediation potential of these pieces and oven-dried at 70 C till constant weight was native aquatic macrophytes under different applied obtained for the dried samples. The oven-dried samples conditions was also evaluated by metal accumulation, were ground to pass through a 100-mesh sieve and were translocation factor and bioconcentration factor. digested with HNO3–HClO4 (4:1) mixture and filtered. The filtrates were analyzed for heavy metals using AAS with GF 95 (Xinshan et al. 2011). Chlorophyll (chl.a + chl.b, Plate 2: CHLab) was determined by OD (optical density) values (663 nm and 645 nm using UV-Visible spectrophotometer, TiO2 nanoparticles entrapped calcium alginate beads Thermo Evolution 201) of extracting solution, which was made by adding 80% acetone into grinding solution of 0.5 g of fresh leaves (Xinshan et al. 2011).

Relative Growth

The relative growth of plants was calculated to assess the effects of applied conditions on the growth of Eichhornia crassipes and Salvinia molesta.

RG = FFW/IFW Where RG denotes relative growth of plants during experimental period, dimensionless; FFW denotes final fresh weight in grams of plants taken at the end of each experiment, and IFW denotes the initial fresh weight in grams of plants taken before starting experiment (Gakwavu et al. 2012). 28 ECO-CHRONICLE

Bioconcentration Factor and Translocation factor metals other than Cu, Cd and Pb were found to be within the permissible limit. The bioconcentration factor (BCF) was calculated as the ratio of the trace element concentration in the plant tissues a) Removal of lead from synthetic heavy metal solution at harvest to the concentration of the element in the external environment (Zayed et al. 1998). BCF is given by In the case of phytoremediation by Eichhornia crassipes, BCF = (P/E) the maximum amount of lead reduction was observed in P represents the trace element concentration in plant C with minimum time. Within 3 days, it attained 95.53% tissues (mg kg-1 dry wt); E represents the trace element reduction, whereas control showed only 10.77% reduction. concentration in the water (mg/L). BCF is dimensionless. The TiO2 nanoparticles applied Eichhornia crassipes used A larger ratio implies better phytoaccumulation capability. phytoremediation system (i.e. C) attained faster removal

The translocation of heavy metal from roots to aerial part of Pb compared to control (A) and TiO2 nanoparticles and the internal metal transportation of the plant are entrapped calcium alginate beads applied Eichhornia generally indicated by Translocation Factor (TF). The crassipes used phytoremediation system (B). Lead was translocation factor is determined as a ratio of metal reduced to 50.72% by TiO2 nanoparticles entrapped accumulated in the shoot to metal accumulated in the root calcium alginate beads applied Eichhornia crassipes used (Deng et al. 2004). phytoremediation experiment (B) within 3 days. Salvinia

TF = (As /Ar) molesta also exhibited a similar trend. All the systems attained a reduction of lead ranged from 85.61 to 100% Where, TF>1 indicates that the plant is capable of within 24 days. But fast reduction in lead concentration effectively translocating the accumulated metals from the root to its aerial part. TF is the translocation factor and is Figure 1. SEM micrographs of titanium dioxide nanoparticles dimensionless. Ar represents the amount of trace element -1 accumulated in the roots (mg kg dw), and As represents the amount of trace element accumulated in the shoot/ leaf (mg kg-1 dw). All the tests were conducted in triplicates and the data were statistically analyzed.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The Eichhornia crassipes and Salvinia molesta grown under different conditions were used for the treatment of heavy metals. TiO2 nanoparticles that applied to plants were synthesized by chemical precipitation method. The materials were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (Figure 1) and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (Figure 2) spectra. While synthesizing TiO2 NPs by precipitation method, a mixture of anatase and rutile was precipitated at pH 3. By increasing the pH of the solution, the formation of anatase was favored and at Figure 2. EDS spectra of titanium dioxide nanoparticles pH 5, only anatase TiO2 could be formed (Cheng et al.1995). SEM micrograph indicates the presence of nanoparticles below 50nm. The energy dispersive X-ray spectra confirm the presence of TiO2 and showed no significant levels of impurities.

Phytoremediation of heavy metals

The ability of Eichhornia crassipes and Salvinia molesta to uptake more than one metal was analyzed by the phytoremediation of the simulated multi metal contaminated water. The residual concentration of Cd, Pb, and Cu were analyzed for each phytoremediation system (A, B and C) during the study, at an interval of 3 days using AAS and the results are summarized in table 1. The ECO-CHRONICLE 29

was observed in C. It showed 77.37% of lead reduction TiO2 nanoparticles entrapped calcium alginate beads were on 3rd day and 100% of reduction on 15th day. The results applied Eichhornia crassipes was used. Titanium dioxide suggest that the plants exposed to TiO2 nanoparticles exposed Salvinia molesta (C) attained 89.57% cadmium showed efficient phytoremediation ability to remove lead removal within 3 days and 100% of cadmium removal from water. within 12 days. The cadmium removal efficiency was found to be 81.99 and 96.81% after 24 days in A and B b) Removal of cadmium from synthetic heavy metal respectively. The phytoremediation of cadmium by TiO2 solution nanoparticles applied Eichhornia crassipes and Salvinia molesta showed better performance than control plants. When titanium dioxide nanoparticles applied Eichhornia In Eichhornia crassipes, 100% of cadmium was removed crassipes (C) was used in the phytoremediation of heavy in C within 9 days, while in Salvinia molesta the same metals, 99.06% reduction of cadmium was observed within reduction was observed only after 12 days. Results from 3 days. Only, 10.78% of cadmium was removed in the this experiment indicate that, one of the main limitations control experiment after 3 days. Cadmium was completely of phytoremediation of heavy metals, i.e. the long retention removed in C within 9 days, while in A and B, the efficiency period required for remediation by plants can be overcome of cadmium removal was found to be 88.78 and 97.64% by, phytoremediation with TiO2 nanoparticles. respectively after 24 days. Maximum cadmium removal with minimum time period was observed in C; that is the c) Removal of copper from synthetic heavy metal phytoremediation system enhanced by titanium dioxide solution nanoparticles. Compared to A, better cadmium removal Maximum removal of copper was observed in C within 18 was exhibited by B. B is phytoremediation system, where days of exposure to contaminant water by

Table 1. Residual concentration of lead, cadmium and copper in water

Residual concentration of heavy metals, mg/L Eichhornia crassipes Salvinia molesta Metal DAY A B C A B C 3 19.14 ± 0.25 10.57 ± 0.07 0.95 ± 0.03 19.64 ± 0.01 12.55 ± 0.11 4.70 ± 0.01 6 15.48 ± 0.23 7.96 ± 0.03 0.46 ± 0.02 15.89 ± 0.02 9.37 ± 0.06 1.42 ± 0.004 9 11.57 ± 0.13 5.89 ± 0.12 0.35 ± 0.01 12.41 ± 0.05 7.52 ± 0.02 0.86 ± 0.01 12 9.75 ± 0.09 3.55 ± 0.05 ND 8.21 ± 0.01 5.72 ± 0.04 0.01 ± 0.0002 15 6.95 ± 0.04 1.51 ± 0.01 ND 7.04 ± 0.01 3.30 ± 0.04 ND 18 5.12 ± 0.02 0.82 ± 0.01 ND 5.18 ± 0.23 2.15 ± 0.02 ND 21 3.01 ± 0.01 0.32 ± 0.01 ND 4.53 ± 0.01 1.48 ± 0.002 ND Pb 24 2.08 ± 0.01 0.14 ± 0.001 ND 2.99 ± 0.003 0.97 ± 0.001 ND 3 18.13 ±0.12 14.25 ±0.28 0.19 ± 0.01 18.08 ± 0.05 16.11 ± 0.01 2.19 ± 0.005 6 14.18 ±0.03 11.24 ±0.05 0.08 ± 0.01 16.13 ± 0.02 14.18 ± 0.08 0.51 ± 0.01 9 12.11 ±0.11 8.16 ± 0.16 ND 14.16 ± 0.07 10.13 ± 0.01 0.05 ± 0.001 12 9.88 ± 0.21 4.98 ± 0.21 ND 11.06 ± 0.04 7.96 ± 0.04 ND 15 5.19 ± 0.11 2.15 ± 0.04 ND 8.11 ± 0.02 5.04 ± 0.05 ND 18 4.05 ± 0.06 1.01 ± 0.01 ND 6.01 ± 0.05 2.81 ± 0.01 ND 21 3.59 ± 0.03 0.89 ± 0.04 ND 5.13 ± 0.06 1.02 ± 0.001 ND Cd 24 2.28 ± 0.03 0.48 ± 0.01 ND 3.78 ± 0.01 0.67 ± 0.03 ND 3 14.87 ± 0.13 11.59 ± 0.03 4.07 ± 0.02 18.03 ± 0.02 14.45± 0.11 8.05 ± 0.13 6 11.92 ± 0.06 8.37 ± 0.17 2.67 ± 0.05 14.79 ± 0.04 11.64 ± 0.03 2.51 ± 0.01 9 8.29 ± 0.02 5.48 ± 0.05 1.41 ± 0.04 11.87 ± 0.03 7.81 ± 0.03 2.51 ± 0.03 12 7.01 ± 0.09 5.02 ± 0.08 0.36 ± 0.03 7.37 ± 0.13 4.66 ± 0.01 1.21 ± 0.01 15 4.62 ± 0.05 3.98 ± 0.05 0.26 ± 0.01 5.20 ± 0.03 2.64 ± 0.01 0.90 ± 0.01 18 3.18 ± 0.05 2.32 ± 0.04 ND 4.91 ± 0.07 1.94 ± 0.02 ND 21 2.47 ± 0.01 1.14 ± 0.01 ND 3.89 ± 0.04 0.69 ± 0.01 ND Cu 24 1.64 ± 0.01 0.89± 0.001 ND 2.42 ± 0.01 ND ND (Values represent Mean ± SD of three replicates) ND- not detected 30 ECO-CHRONICLE phytoremediation using Eichhornia crassipes. In control respectively. In control plant (A), all the three metals were (A), compared to other metals, more amount of copper accumulated at highest level in roots. Roots remain in di- was removed by Eichhornia crassipes within 3 days. This rect contact with the medium and hence this might result may be due to the fact that; copper is one of the in increased metal concentration in the roots. More amount micronutrient. In the phytoremediation system using of metal accumulation was observed in leaf of B compared Salvinia molesta, 95.62% reduction was observed in C to A. The results indicate that titanium dioxide nanoparticles within 15 days. On 3rd day, the percentage removal of applied plants were efficient to translocate the metals from copper was 60.85% in C and in control (A) it was 12.31%. root to its aerial parts. The residual concentration of copper observed in control (A) during the final stage was 2.42 ± 0.01 mg/L. The Bioconcentration factor and translocation factor effectiveness of two aquatic macrophytes Eichhornia crassipes and Salvinia molesta grown under three different The mobility of the heavy metals from the polluted medium conditions were tested for their phytoremediation capacity to the roots of the plants and the ability to translocate the of three metals (Pb, Cd and Cu) and the results indicated metals from roots to the harvestable aerial part were that Eichhornia crassipes exposed to nanoparticles evaluated respectively by means of the bioconcentration reported the maximum and fast removal of these heavy factor (BCF) and the translocation factor (TF). metals. Bioconcentration factor is a useful parameter to evaluate the potential of the plants in accumulating metals. The Heavy metal accumulation in plants BCF values for Cd, Pb and Cu in Eichhornia crassipes and Salvinia molesta at 24 days’ exposure to heavy metals The heavy metal analysis of plant segments of both the are shown in figure 5 and 6, respectively. Higher BCF aquatic native plants, Eichhornia crassipes and Salvinia values indicates the higher phytoaccumulation capacity. molesta were carried out. Distribution of Cd, Pb and Cu in Maximum bioconcentration factors of Cd, Pb and Cu in the organs of Eichhornia crassipes and Salvinia molesta Eichhornia crassipes was observed in C. In C, the highest are presented in figure 3 and 4. In A (control), maximum BCF values found for Cd, Pb and Cu were 852.49, 848.20 accumulation of metals was observed in root and and 1047.99 respectively. If the BCF value is more than accumulation of Cd, Pb and Cu in roots of Eichhornia or equal to 1000 then that plant species is considered as crassipes was 6285.04, 5786.30 and 6628.83mg/kg a hyper accumulator. The plant having the abilities to grow respectively. Many studies revealed that Eichhornia in very high concentration of metal and concentrating high crassipes accumulated higher concentrations of heavy heavy metals in their tissues are known as metals in the roots than that in the aerial parts. But in C, hyperaccumulators (Wahab et al. 2014). The higher BCF maximum accumulation of Cd was observed in leaf. More value of Eichhornia crassipes for Cu (BCF >1000) in C amount of metal accumulation was observed in leaf and indicates that TiO2 nanoparticles applied Eichhornia stem of C compared to A and B. C was the phyto- crassipes is considered as a good hyper accumulator. The remediation systems in which Eichhornia crassipes was BCFs of control (A) for Cd, Pb and Cu were 615.67, 516.14 directly exposed to titanium dioxide nanoparticles. But the and 698.53 respectively. BCF of B for all the metals were present study showed that in C, Cu accumulation is in the higher than control but less than 1000. Phytoremediation order of leaves>roots >stem, Cd accumulation is in the experiments using Salvinia molesta, a highest BCF values order of leaves> stem > roots and Pb accumulation is in was observed for Cd, Pb and Cu were 750.12, 777.90 the order of leaves >stem > roots. The results show that, and 896.29 respectively in (C). In experiment B of Salvinia phytoremediation systems enhanced by titanium dioxide molesta, BCFs of all the three metals were found higher nanoparticles showed more tendency to translocate metals than that of A. The results indicated that, plants exposed to its areal parts. to TiO2 nanoparticles were accumulated more amount of heavy metals in its upper portions compared to control Salvinia also exhibited the capacity to accumulate high plants. levels of heavy metals. Compared to all phytoremediation systems, a maximum concentration of 8928.74 mg/Kg of The translocation factor for Cd, Pb and Cu in phyto- Cd was accumulated in leaves of Salvinia molesta grown remediation systems using Eichhornia crassipes and Salvinia under condition C. Sune et al. 2007 reported that heavy molesta are shown in table 2 and 3 respectively. The value metal uptake in Salvinia occurs through a physical pro- TF > 1 indicated that there is a transport of metal from root to cess (fast), which involves adsorption, ionic exchange, leaf probably through an efficient metal transporter system chelation, while biological processes such as intracellular and the metals sequestration in the leaf vacuoles and uptake (transported through plasmalemma into cells) is apoplast. TF value more than 1 of plant species indicates slow and help in subsequent translocation of metals (Cd) their hyperaccumulation potential and is identified as from roots to leaves. The highest amount of lead and cop- hyperaccumulator plants (Marbaniang and Chaturvedi, 2014). per accumulated in C was 9192.63 and 9888.82mg/Kg For Eichhornia crassipes, maximum TF for cadmium was ECO-CHRONICLE 31

Figure 3. Accumulation of cadmium, lead and copper in observed in C (TF(s/r) = 1.22 and TF(l/r) = 1.74) compared Eichhornia crassipes to A and B, which indicates the translocation of high Cd content from roots to its aerial part. Similar trend was observed for Pb also and for Cu, maximum TF observed was TF(l/r) =1.08 in C. These results imply that Eichhornia crassipes exposed to nanoparticles accrued an ability to transfer higher metal concentrations from root to its areal part. The lowest translocation factor was observed in the A (control) for Cd and Pb. Similar results were found in phytoremediation systems using Salvinia molesta and the translocation factor observed in the C was TF(l/r) = 1.31, TF(l/r) = 1.32 and TF(l/r) = 1.16 for Cd, Pb and Cu

respectively. TiO2 nanoparticles applied plants (C) exhibited better potential to translocate Cd, Pb and Cu to Figure 4. Accumulation of cadmium, lead and copper in its aerial parts. Salvinia molesta Translocation is the movement of metal containing sap from the root to the shoot which was primarily controlled by two processes, root pressure and leaf transpiration. Some metals are accumulated in roots, probably due to some physiological barriers against metal transport to the aerial parts, while the others are easily transported in plants. Translocation of trace elements from roots to shoots could be a limiting factor for the bioconcentration of elements in shoots. It can be proposed that there has mechanism in roots that could detoxify heavy metals or transfer them to aerial parts (Gomati et al. 2014). Figure 5: Bioconcentration factors (BCF) of Pb, Cd and Cu in Eichhornia crassipes Physiological response of plants to the applied conditions Variation in the production of chlorophyll

In the life activity of green plants, chlorophyll plays the role of absorbing, transferring and transforming energy. The chlorophyll content of plant after experiment was determined using UV-Visible spectrophotometer. Variation in the production of chlorophyll of both the plants is depicted in figure 7. The result shows that, plants from B and C exhibited an increase in the production of chlorophyll compared to A (control) for both Eichhornia crassipes and Salvinia molesta. Figure 6: Bioconcentration factors (BCF) of Pb, Cd and Cu in Maximum chlorophyll production was observed in C for Salvinia molesta both the plants.

This may be due to the effects of nano-TiO2 on the content of light harvesting complex II (LHC II) on

thylakoid membranes of plants and nano-TiO2 has ability to increase LHC II content (Lei et al. 2007 and Hong et al. 2005). These have the ability to promote energy transfer and oxygen evolution in photosystem II (PS II) of plants (Mingyu, 2007). It has also been

reported that nano-anatase TiO2 promoted antioxidant stress by decreasing the accumulation of superoxide radicals, hydrogen peroxide, malonyldialdehyde content and enhance the activities of superoxide dismutase, 32 ECO-CHRONICLE

Table 2. Translocation factor of Eichhornia crassipes energy trapping that might improve the photo synthetic efficiency of plants. Metals TF A B C

Cd TF(s/r) 0.55 0.91 1.22 Variations in the relative growth of plants under different conditions TF(l/r) 0.44 1.57 1.74 Variations in the relative growth of Eichhornia crassipes Pb TF(s/r) 0.65 0.76 1.26 and Salvinia molesta grown under three different conditions are graphically represented in figure 8. The TF(l/r) 0.27 0.83 1.29 relative growth of control plants showed a significant decrease for both the plants. The plants exposed to TiO Cu TF(s/r) 0.81 0.50 0.74 2 nanoparticles (C) exhibited significant increase in relative TF(l/r) 0.43 0.56 1.08 growth. The plants in C showed high relative growth compared to plants from A and B. In the case of Salvinia molesta an increasing trend was observed in all the Table 3. Translocation factor of Salvinia molesta conditions but maximum increase in weight after treatment Metals TF A B C was observed in plant from C. Plant in C was the plant exposed to nano - TiO2. TiO2 nanoparticles has the ability Cd TF(l/r) 0.59 1.26 1.31 to improve light absorbance and promote the activity of rubisco activase thus accelerate the growth of plants Pb TF(l/r) 0.55 0.68 1.32 (Zheng et al. 2005 and Hong et al. 2005).

Cu TF(l/r) 0.41 0.67 1.16 CONCLUSION

A study was carried out to assess the enhancement of Figure 7: Chlorophyll content of plants after treatment phytoremediation capacity of heavy metals (Cd, Pb and Cu) by Eichhornia crassipes and Salvinia molesta in the presence of titanium dioxide nanoparticles. TiO2 nanoparticles exposed Eichhornia crassipes and Salvinia molesta showed 99.06% and 89.57% of phytoremediation efficiency respectively for cadmium removal within 3 days. Maximum phytoremediation efficiency for lead and copper

was also observed in TiO2 nanoparticles exposed plants.

It was observed that, in the nano - TiO 2 applied phytoremediation system, more efficient and faster removal of heavy metals was taking place. Results of the study on heavy metal accumulation indicates that titanium dioxide nanoparticles applied plants showed more Figure 8. Variations in the relative growth of Eichhornia tendency to translocate metals to its areal parts. Control crassipes and Salvinia molesta plant accumulated more metals in their root portion in

both the plants. Nano - TiO2 applied plants exhibited an increase in the production of chlorophyll compared to A

(control) and B. TiO2 nanoparticles exposed plants exhibited significant increase in relative growth compared to others. This may be due to the fact that, the plant

exposed to nano –TiO2 has the ability to improve light absorbance and promote the activity of rubisco activase thus accelerating the growth of plants. The determination of bioconcentration factor indicated that, the uptake potential of metals by plants was increased under nano -

TiO2 applied conditions. Plants exposed to TiO 2 nanoparticles achieved ability to transfer higher metal

concentrations from root to its areal part. TiO 2 catalase, ascorbate peroxidase, guaiacol peroxidase and nanoparticles applied plants (C) showed better thereby increase the evolution of oxygen rate in plants performance than TiO2 nanoparticles entrapped calcium chloroplasts (Lei et al. 2008). It helps to increase solar alginate beads applied plants (B). Taking into account ECO-CHRONICLE 33

the overall results, we can state that TiO2 nanoparticles supported titanium dioxide nanoparticles, Journal of applied Eichhornia crassipes and Salvinia molesta seems Environmental Engineering and Ecological Science, 2(2), to be promising candidate for the phytoremediation of pp: 1-9. heavy metals from water and exhibited an enhanced phytoremediation ability. Hong, F., Zhou, J., Liu, C., Yang, F., Wu, C., Zheng, L and Yang, P., 2005. Effect of nano –TiO on photochemical REFERENCES 2 reaction of chloroplasts of spinach, Biological Trace Ackerson, R.C and Herbert, R.R., 1981. Osmoregulation in Element Research, 105, pp:269-280. cotton in response to water stress. I. Alterations in photosynthesis, leaf conductance, Lei, Z., Mingyu, S., Xiao, W., Chao, L., Chunxiang, Q., translocation, and ultra-structure, Plant Physiology, 67, Liang, C., Hao, H., Xiaqing, L and Fashui H., 2008. pp:484-488. Antioxidant stress is promoted by nano-anatase in spinach chloroplasts under UV-B radiation, Biological Trace Ali, A.K.S., Matinizadeh, M., Shirvany, A., Madani, M.E., Element Research, 121, pp:69–79. Talebi, K.T., Monemian, S.M and Abdi, E., 2014. Evaluation of Pollution Intensity in Different Districts of Tehran Based Lei, Z., Zheng, L and Su, M., 2007. Effects of nano-anatase on Measuring Chlorophyll, Plumb and Cadmium Heavy on spectral characteristics and distribution of LHCII on Metal Contents in Trees, International Journal of the thylakoid membranes of spinach, Biological Trace Environmental Research, 8(4), pp:1105-1114. Element Research, 120, pp: 273-283.

Amin, M., 2012. Phytoremediation of heavy metals from Marbaniang, D and Chaturvedi, S. S., 2014. Assessment +6 municipal wastewater by Typhadomingensis, African of Cr Accumulation and Phytoremediation Potential of Journal of Microbiology Research, 6(3), pp: 643-647. Three Aquatic Macrophytes of Meghalaya, India, International Journal of Science and Research, 3(6), pp: Ashraf, M.A., Maah, M.J and Yusoff, I., 2011. Heavy metals 36-42. accumulation in plants growing in ex tin mining catchment, International Journal of Environmental Science and Morteza, E., Moaveni, P., Aliabadi, F.H and Kiyani, M., Technology, 8(2), pp: 401-416. 2013. Study of photosynthetic pigments changes of maize

(Zea mays L.) under nano TiO2 spraying at various growth Cheng, H., Ma, J., Zhao, Z and Qi, L., 1995. Hydrothermal stages, SpringerPlus, 2, pp: 247. preparation of uniform nanosize rutile and anatase particles, Chemistry of Materials, 7, pp:663-671. Nilantika, P., Samujjwal, C and Mahuya, S., 2014. Lead toxicity on non-specific immune mechanisms of freshwater Deng, H., Ye, Z.H and Wong, M.H., 2004. Accumulation fish Channa punctatus, Aquatic Toxicology, 152, pp:105–112. of lead, zinc, copper and cadmium by 12 wetland plant species thriving in metal-contaminated sites in China, Raskar, S and Laware, S.L., 2013. Effect of titanium dioxide Environmental Pollution, 132, pp:29-40. nano particles on seed germination and germination indices in onion, Plant sciences feed, 3 (9), pp: 103-107. Dhote, S and Dixit, S., 2009. Water quality improvement through macrophytes - a review, Environmental Monitoring Remya, N., Saino, H.V., Baiju, G.N., Maekawa, T., Yoshida, and Assessment, 152, pp: 149-153. Y and Sakthi, K. D., 2010. Nanoparticulate material delivery to plants, Plant Science, 179, pp:154-163. Gakwavu, R.J., Sekomo, B.C and Nhapi, I., 2012. Zinc and Chromium removal mechanisms from industrial Sune, N., Sanchez, G., Caffaratti, S and Maine, M.A., 2007. wastewater by Water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes, Cadmium and chromium removal kinetics from solution Applied Ecology and Environmental Science, 10(4), pp: by two aquatic macrophytes, Environmental Pollution, 145, 493-502. pp: 467-473.

Gomati, S., Adhikari, S and Mohanty P. 2014. Wahab, A.S.A., Ismail, S.N.S., Praveena, S.M and Awang, Phytoremediation of Copper and Cadmium from Water Using S., 2014. Heavy metals uptake of Water mimosa Water Hyacinth, Eichhornia Crassipes, International Journal (Neptuniaoleracea) and its safety for human consumption, of Agricultural Science and Technology, 2(1), pp: 1-7. Iranian Journal of Public Health, 43(3), pp:103-111.

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constructed wetlands coupled with micro-electric field for Zayed, A., Gowthaman, S and Terry, N., 1998. heavy metal-contaminating wastewater treatment, Phytoaccumulation of trace elements by wetland plants: Ecological Engineering, 37, pp: 2061- 2065. I. Duckweed, Journal of Environmental Quality, 27, pp: 715-721. Yang, F., Hong, F., You, W., Liu, C., Gao, F., Wu, C and

Yang, P., 2006. Influences of nano-anatase TiO2 on the Zheng, L., Hong, F., Lu, S and Liu, C., 2005. Effect of nitrogen metabolism of growing spinach, Biological Trace nano-TiO2 on strength of naturally aged seeds and growth Element Research, 110 (2), pp:179-190. of spinach, Biological Trace Element Research, 104, pp: 83-91.

*** ECO-CHRONICLE 35

ECO CHRONICLE ISSN: 0973-4155 Vol. 12, No. 2, June, 2017 PP: 35 - 38 VULNERABILITY OF COAST TO SALT WATER INTRUSION IN AND AROUND THE PROPOSED INTERNATIONAL SEA PORT, THIRUVANANTHAPURAM DISTRICT, SOUTH KERALA, INDIA.

Anoop S. and Rajesh Reghunath

Department of Geology, University of Kerala, Kariavattom campus, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India Corresponding author: [email protected]; [email protected]

ABSTRACT Saline water intrusion along coastal stretches is a serious issue in developing and developed countries. The present study is confined to the southern coastal region of Thiruvananthapuram District of Kerala state, for a distance of 15 km which covers the proposed Vizhinjham International Sea Port. A detailed studyhas been carried out to assess the vulnerability of the coast to salinewater intrusion and the GALDIT model has been used for this purpose. Twenty seven open wells were monitored and groundwater samples were collected during the pre-monsoon period. The GALDIT parameters such as groundwater occurrence, aquifer hydraulic conductivity, depth to groundwater level above mean sea level, distance from the shore, impact of existing status of sea water intrusion in the area and thickness of aquifer were derived from field work, primarydat as well as secondary data. The study reveals that the entire coast is under serious stress. The proposed port area is less vulnerable for salt water intrusion due to the presence of hard rock aquifers in the underground. But in due course, owing to the huge exploitation of groundwater resources in future, the port area may suffer from saltwater intrusion in future.

Keywords: Coastal aquifer, GALDIT method, salt water intrusion

INTRODUCTION

The coastal aquifers of Kerala state of India experience Tertiary periods and Precambrian crystallines comprising severe degradation of water quality due to various fractured and weathered charnockites and khondalites. anthropogenic activities. Kerala, the southern most state Both the sedimentaries and crystallines are lateritisedto a of India has unique hydrogeological characteristics with considerable extent in the top portions with some wide variation in the rainfall pattern. The coastal zones of exceptions. The groundwater occurs under unconfined Kerala in recent years witnessed serious ground water condition in the area. problems, both qualitatively and quantitatively. High population pressure, intense human activities, Materials and Methods inappropriate resource use and absence of proper management practices lead into this situation. In the The study has been carried out by monitoring 27 open present paper, it is intended to evaluate the coastal stretch wells in the coastal stretch ensuring an average spatial of southern portion of the Thiruvananthapuram district in separation of approximately 1 km. The wells were located order to assess its vulnerability to sea water intrusion by on the map by GPS survey. The elevation of the locations, using the GALDIT model. depth to water table (later reduced to mean sea level) and distance of the well from the shore were measured in the The present study area extends along the coastal region field. Water samples were collected from each well during of Trivandrum District of Kerala state, for a distance of 15 pre-monsoon period (May 2014) and later subjected to km, extending from Kovalam in the North to Poovar in the chemical analysis by following standard procedures South (Figure.1). The proposed Vizhinjham International (APHA, 1995; Trivedi and Goel, 1986). Sea Port falls entirely in this coastal stretch. Lithologically the area is comprised of sedimentaries composed mainly As per the GALDIT model (Chachadi and Lobo-Ferreira, of sand, silt and clay belonging to the Quaternary and 2001), the most importantfactors which control the intensity 36 ECO-CHRONICLE of sea water intrusion along the coastal regions are Groundwater occurrence Groundwater Occurrence, Aquifer hydraulic conductivity, The nature and extent of sea water intrusion is dependent Depth to Groundwater Level above mean sea level, on the basic nature of groundwater occurrence. In the present Distance from the shore, Impact of existing status of sea study area, the water table is found in unconfined conditions water intrusion in the area and Thickness of aquifer being and hence the rating given for the parameter is ‘7.5’. mapped.In 2005, they revised the model by some modifications in the weight and ranks given to the Aquifer hydraulic conductivity parameters. Based on the GALDIT index arrived from the The magnitude of seawater front movement towards land ranks and weights given to each parameter (Table 1)any is influenced by the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer. coastal stretch can be categorized in the increasing order Higher the conductivity, higher the inland flow of the sea of vulnerability such as low vulnerability, moderate water fronts. A geologic cross section was constructed based on direct field observations, bore hole data obtained vulnerability and high vulnerability. Each of the six from Central Ground Water Board, Thiruvananthapuram indicators has a pre-determined, fixed weight that shows and resistivity survey data from Kerala State Ground Water its relative susceptibility to sea water intrusion. The Department which depicted various geologic formations GALDIT index is then obtained by computing the individual underneath. It is noted from the cross section that most of scores and summing them. The details of the parameters the sampling wells are situated in sandy aquifers as well considered in the present study are described below and as in crystallines. The hydraulic conductivity values vary shown in the table. with respect to change in Location map of the study area lithology and the ratings were given accordingly. Hard rock aquifers in the study area has a hydraulic conductivity of 10m/day and that of sandy aquifer is found as 60m/day.

Ground water Level above mean sea level The level of groundwater with respect to mean sea level is an important factor in the evaluation of the extent of sea water intrusion because it determines the hydraulic pressure availability to push back the sea water front. The parameter required for the present study is obtained by Table 1. GALDIT scores and weights

Parameters Ground water Aquifer Height of the Distance Impact of Aquifer occurrence conductivity ground water from the existing thickness level shore status Weight 1 3 4 4 1 2 Rates 2.5 Bounded Very low < 5m Very low >1000 m <1 <5 aquifer > 2m 5 Leaky confined Low 5 -10 m Low 1.5 – 2m 750 – 1000 1 – 1.5 5 – 7.5 aquifer 7.5 Unconfined Medium Medium 500 – 750 1.5 – 2 7.5 – 10 aquifer 10 – 40 m 10 – 40 m 10 Confined High > 40 m High > 40 m <500 >2 >10 aquifer ECO-CHRONICLE 37 reducing the water level with respect to mean sea level. many parts of the present study area experiences saltwater The obtained height of water table above mean sea level intrusion now. Also the ratio greater than two indicates in the study area ranges from 0.9m to 53.6m. high vulnerability of the coast to salt water intrusion. It can be noted that most of the locations are characterised Distance from the Shore with a value of greater than two. The impact of sea water intrusion generally decreases away from the shore so the maximum rating of 10 can be Thickness of the aquifer assigned for a distance less than 500m from the coast. In Aquifer thickness is an important parameter which the present study, the wells are located upto a distance of decides the extent and magnitude of sea water 1400m from the shore line. intrusion in coastal areas. Larger the aquifer thickness, greater will be the sea water intrusion Impact of existing status of saline water intrusion (Chachadi and Lobo-Ferreira, 2005). The aquifer If the present study area is already under stress by saline thickness of the study area is derived from the direct water intrusion, then it might have already modified the field observations, the bore hole data collected from natural hydraulic balance between sea water and fresh Central Ground Water Board and resistivity survey groundwater. Chachadi and Lobo Ferreira (2001) data from Kerala State Ground Water Department. 2- - recommended the ratio of Cl/ (CO3 +HCO3 ) as an Most of the observation wells fall in the sedimentary effective indicator to study the impact of existing stress aquifers where the thickness is very high and its exact 2- - on groundwater. The Cl /(CO3 +HCO3 ) ratio of the water values are not available, obviously they got a rating samples in the study area ranges from 0.79 to 45.16. This of 10. But in hard rock areas, it lies below 10m and ratio will be greater than 1.5 in those areas where salt the rates given are also varying. The rates were given water intrusion has already occurred. An evaluation of the based on the calculated aquifer thickness and shown 2- - Cl /(CO3 +HCO3 ) ratio of the present study reveals that in the table 2.

Table 2. Galdit parameters and their rates

location number Groundwater occurrence (G) hydraulic a m s l ( L ) Distance (D) Cl/HCO3 (I) Thickness (T) GALDITindex classification conductivity (A) 1 Unconfined aquifer (7.5) 6 0 ( 1 0 ) 0 . 9 ( 1 0 ) 265 (10) 4.29(10) ( 1 0 ) 9 . 8 3 high vulnerability 2 Unconfined aquifer (7.5) 6 0 ( 1 0 ) 1 . 7 ( 5 ) 500(7.5) 1.90(7.5) ( 1 0 ) 7 . 6 7 high vulnerability 3 Unconfined aquifer (7.5) 6 0 ( 1 0 ) 28.15 (2.5) 1300(2.5) 3.32(10) ( 1 0 ) 5 . 8 3 moderate vulnerability 4 Unconfined aquifer (7.5) 6 0 ( 1 0 ) 3 . 1 ( 2 . 5 ) 270(10) 1.84(7.5) ( 1 0 ) 7 . 6 7 high vulnerability 5 Unconfined aquifer (7.5) 6 0 ( 1 0 ) 23.1 (2.5) 1300(2.5) 1.59(7.5) ( 1 0 ) 5 . 6 7 moderate vulnerability 6 Unconfined aquifer (7.5) 6 0 ( 1 0 ) 21.6 (2.5) 8 0 0 ( 5 ) 1.59(7.5) ( 1 0 ) 7 . 0 0 moderate vulnerability 7 Unconfined aquifer (7.5) 6 0 ( 1 0 ) 8 . 4 ( 2 . 5 ) 300(10) 0.79(2.5) ( 1 0 ) 7 . 3 3 moderate vulnerability 8 Unconfined aquifer (7.5) 6 0 ( 1 0 ) 5 . 5 ( 2 . 5 ) 300(10) 5.69(10) ( 1 0 ) 7 . 8 3 high vulnerability 9 Unconfined aquifer (7.5) 6 0 ( 1 0 ) 7.12 (2.5) 1000(2.5) 2.66(10) ( 1 0 ) 5 . 8 3 moderate vulnerability 1 0 Unconfined aquifer (7.5) 6 0 ( 1 0 ) 22.84 (2.5) 300(10) 6.20(10) ( 1 0 ) 7 . 8 3 high vulnerability 1 1 Unconfined aquifer (7.5) 6 0 ( 1 0 ) 4.85 (2.5) 1200(2.5) 21.25(10) ( 1 0 ) 5 . 8 3 moderate vulnerability 1 2 Unconfined aquifer (7.5) 6 0 ( 1 0 ) 22.9 (2.5) 500(7.5) 7.97(10) ( 1 0 ) 7 . 1 7 moderate vulnerability 1 3 Unconfined aquifer (7.5) 6 0 ( 1 0 ) 18.86 (2.5) 1000(2.5) 2.21(10) ( 1 0 ) 5 . 8 3 moderate vulnerability 1 4 Unconfined aquifer (7.5) 1 0 ( 5 ) 4.25 (2.5) 100(10) 1 . 3 9 ( 5 ) 6 ( 5 ) 5 . 8 3 moderate vulnerability 1 5 Unconfined aquifer (7.5) 1 0 ( 5 ) 14.88 (2.5) 300(10) 3.98(10) 6 ( 5 ) 6 . 1 7 moderate vulnerability 1 6 Unconfined aquifer (7.5) 6 0 ( 1 0 ) 26.8 (2.5) 1000(2.5) 7.97(10) ( 1 0 ) 5 . 8 3 moderate vulnerability 1 7 Unconfined aquifer (7.5) 1 0 ( 5 ) 13.2 (2.5) 350(10) 4.09(10) 4 ( 2 . 5 ) 5 . 8 3 moderate vulnerability 1 8 Unconfined aquifer (7.5) 1 0 ( 5 ) 16.2 (2.5) 300(10) 1.88(7.5) 2.5(2.5) 5 . 6 7 moderate vulnerability 1 9 Unconfined aquifer (7.5) 1 0 ( 5 ) 27.3 (2.5) 1000(2.5) 45.16(10) ( 1 0 ) 4 . 8 3 low vulnerability 2 0 Unconfined aquifer (7.5) 6 0 ( 1 0 ) 25.7 (2.5) 300(10) 12.84(10) ( 1 0 ) 7 . 8 3 high vulnerability 2 1 Unconfined aquifer (7.5) 1 0 ( 5 ) 39.35 (2.5) 1000(2.5) 11.95(10) 6 ( 5 ) 4 . 1 7 low vulnerability 2 2 Unconfined aquifer (7.5) 1 0 ( 5 ) 42.75 (2.5) 1400(2.5) 3.98(10) 5 ( 5 ) 4 . 1 7 low vulnerability 2 3 Unconfined aquifer (7.5) 6 0 ( 1 0 ) 32.1 (2.5) 350(10) 5.76(10) ( 1 0 ) 7 . 8 3 high vulnerability 2 4 Unconfined aquifer (7.5) 6 0 ( 1 0 ) 53.6 (2.5) 1000(2.5) 2.66(10) ( 1 0 ) 5 . 8 3 moderate vulnerability 2 5 Unconfined aquifer (7.5) 6 0 ( 1 0 ) 8 ( 2 . 5 ) 350(10) 0.93(2.5) ( 1 0 ) 7 . 3 3 moderate vulnerability 2 6 Unconfined aquifer (7.5) 6 0 ( 1 0 ) 28.2 (2.5) 750(7.5) 2.66(10) ( 1 0 ) 7 . 1 7 moderate vulnerability 2 7 Unconfined aquifer (7.5) 6 0 ( 1 0 ) 21.5 (2.5) 700(7.5) 3.54(10) ( 1 0 ) 7 . 1 7 moderate vulnerability (rates are given in simple brackets) Table 2. Galdit parameters and their rates

38 ECO-CHRONICLE

Figure 2. Vulnerability map of the coast 2 depicts the spatial variation of vulnerability of the coast to salt water intrusion. This study shows that the entire coast is under serious stress. The proposed port area falls in the category of moderate vulnerability to salt water intrusion owing to the presence of hard rock aquifers in the underground. But in future, due to the expected huge exploitation of groundwater resources, the port area may subject to saltwater intrusion.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The first author is grateful to the Kerala State Council for Science, Technology and Environment for the financial support. The facilities provided in the Department of Geology, University of Kerala through DST-FIST, UGC- SAP and KSCSTE-SARD is gratefully acknowledged. Authors are also thankful to Central Ground Water Board, Kerala region and Kerala State Ground Water Department for providing data.

REFERENCES

A.P.H.A. American Public Health Association. 1995. Standard methods of analysis of water and waste water, 14th edition, Washington, D.C.

Chachadi A.G. and Lobo-Ferreira, J.P.,2001, Sea water intrusion vulnerability mapping of aquifers isung GALDIT method. Proc. Workshop on modeling in hydrogeology, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Anna University, Chennai, pp.143-156, and in COASTIN A Coastal Policy Research Newsletter, Number 4, March Each of the six indicators has a pre-determined fixed 2001. New Delhi, TERI, pp. 7-9, (http://www.teriin.org/teri- weight that reflects its relative importance to seawater wr/coastin/newslett/coastin4.pdf). intrusion. The GALDIT Index is then obtained by computing the individual indicator scores and summing them as per Chachadi A.G. and Lobo-Ferreira, J.P.,2005, Assessing the following expression: aquifer vulnerability to sea-water intrusion using GALDIT 6 6 method: Part 2 – GALDIT Indicators Description, GALDIT-Index = Σ {(Wi) Ri}/ ΣWi Proceedings of this 4th Inter-CelticColloquim on Hydrol. i=1 i=1 Mangt. Water Resor., Portugal. Where Wi is the weight of the ith indicator and Ri is the th importance rating of the i indicator. Lobo Ferreira. and Chachadi, A. G.,2005. “Assessing aquifer vulnerability to saltwater intrusion using GALDIT SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS method: Part 1 –Application to the portuguese aquifer to Monte Gordo”, Proceedings of this 4 th Inter- In the present study area, seven locations with a GALDIT CelticColloquim on Hydrol. Mangt. Water Resor., score of more than 7.5 are grouped as high vulnerability Portugal.1-12. areas and three locations with GALDIT score less than 5 are grouped as low vulnerability area, where as, the Trivedy, R.K. and Goel, P.K.,1986. Chemical and Biological remaining seventeen locations having values in between Methods for water pollution studies, Environmental 5 & 7.5 are grouped as moderate vulnerability areas.Figure Publications, Karad, 248P. ECO-CHRONICLE 39

ECO CHRONICLE ISSN: 0973-4155 Vol. 12, No. 2, June, 2017 PP: 39 - 41

WATER QUALITY AND DRINKING WATER POTENTIAL OF VELLAYANI AND POOKODE LAKES OF KERALA, INDIA

Revathy Das1, A. Krishnakumar1 , Prijilal, K.G.2 and Dhanya T. Dharan3

1ESSO- National Centre for Earth Science Studies (NCESS), Ministry of Earth Sciences, Akkulam, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala 2Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India. 3Scientific Response to Environmental Developmental and Human Arenas (SREDHA), Palayam, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India. Corresponding author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Fresh water resources are the mirror’s of nation’s ecological wealth, playing vital roles in the hydrological, biological and biogeochemical aspects of the environment. But the fresh water resourcesare threatened by myriad of forces like unplanned development, overexploitation, pollution and various other environmental degradation issues. Maintaining purity of freshwater resources to the utmost level is of prime importance in meeting the new challenges of the modern society. Present work deals with the water quality assessment of Vellayani and Pookode Lakes, the two rain-fed fresh water ecosystems located in the different terrains of the state. Vellayani lake is situated in the outskirts of Thiruvananthapuram and are utilized for drinking needs of Kalliyoor-Venganoor-Vizhinjam-Kovalam Grama panchayats of Thiruvananthapuram District. Pookode Lake, a biodiversity hotspot in Western Ghats in Wayanad district is extensively used for tourism activities. Water samples were collected from different parts of the lakes and analysed for the physico-chemical parameters, such as Temperature, pH, Turbidity, Conductivity, Total Dissolved Solids, Total Suspended Solids, Dissolved Oxygen, Bio-chemical oxygen, Total alkalinity, and Total hardness, Calcium, Magnesium, Iron, Nitrates, Phosphates, Silicates and Iron. The observed average values of various physico-chemical parameters were compared with the standard of drinking water quality recommended by Bureau of Indian Standards. The results revealed that no significant variation is noted in various water quality parameters from the permissible ranges of BIS except slight deviation in pH and Turbidity values. There is an urgent need to initiate management measures for conservation of these pristine fresh water resources for the sustainable utilization. Keywords: Fresh water Lakes, Physico-chemical parameters, Water quality standards

INTRODUCTION Kerala state for their proper maintenance and Lakes act as vital and susceptible fresh water resources management or for their sustainable utilization. In this that have widely been utilized by mankind over the context ,this study assess the impact of physico-chemical centuries. Lakes are degraded by both natural and parameters on the lake waters of Vellayani and Pookode, anthropogenic activities, which deteriorate their quality, two rain fed fresh water lakes in Kerala ,South west India. and push them to the brink of extinction in the process of The present status of the lake is briefly discussed in order unplanned development, giving rise to the need for suitable to evolve strategies for increasing drinking water potential conservation strategies. The maintenance of healthy of the lakes through proper environmental management. aquatic ecosystem is dependent on the physico-chemical Fig. 1 shows the two fresh water lakes lies in the eastern properties and biological diversity (Venkatesharaju et al., highland (Pookode lake) and in the western low land area 2010). (Vellayani lake).

There is not much recent information regarding the Vellayani Lake, is located in the outskirts of drinking water status of the freshwater environment in Thiruvananthapuram City, lies between north latitude 8 40 ECO-CHRONICLE

Fig. 1. 024’ 90’’-80 26’ 30’’ and east longitude 0 0 Location Map of the study area 76 59’ 08"-76 59’ 47’.Presently, the (After Veena M.P., 2014) lake water is utilized for drinking needs of Kalliyoor - Venganoor - Vizhinjam - Kovalam Gramapanchayats of Thiruvananthapuram District under Rural Water Supply Scheme of Kerala Water Authority. Over the years, reports showed that the fresh water ecosystem is undergoing severe environmental degradation due to unscientific water extraction and discharge of pollutants from agricultural and urban sources. The artificial fish feeds used as a part of the integrated fish farming and the pesticide residues from the surrounding agricultural lands doing much havoc to the lake ecosystem. The lake is comparatively shallow with a depth varies from 2-6m.The water spread area of the Vellayani Lake is estimated to be about 5.5km2.The lake receives runoff from urban and agricultural sources. It is oriented almost parallel to the coastal line and the northern portion of this lake is changed into a reservoir and used mainly for irrigation purposes. Water shed areas of the Vellayani Lake is Table 1. utilized extensively for a variety of Comparative evaluation of the observed hydro-chemical values of the cultivation. present study against Bureau of Indian Standards Pookode lake is an elliptical shaped fresh water basin, situated at a high Sl. Parameter BIS Vellayani Pookode elevated inter montane region (~770 No. amsl.) in Wayanad district, Kerala. The lake basin covers an area of 0.085 sq. 1 pH 6.5-8.5 5.02 -5.89 6.34 -6.61 kmand the maximum water depth is 6.5 2 Turbidity(NTU) 10 5.25-13.3 4.02-10.36 m. This Lake is extensively used for tourism activities. 3 TDS(mg/l) 500 127.7-139.1 102.3-129.3

4 DO(mg/l) 6.5-8.5 6.03-8.5 4.03-6.99 Water samples of Vellayani and Pookode Lakeswere collected during 5 Nitrates(mg/l) 45 3-5 1.2-1.9 monsoon season in the month of June 6 Phosphates(mg/l) - 0. 96-1.66 0.087-0.66 2014. Well- cleaned plastic containers were taken for sample collection to test 7 Chlorides(mg/l) 200 10.05-14.52 9.05-10.90 physico- chemical parameters. Utmost 8 sulphates(mg/l) 200 0.201-0.524 0.025-0.36 care was taken not to contaminate the samples during collection and 9 Hardness as 200 20-60 20-40 preservation. The physico- chemical Caco3(mg/l) analysis of various parameters should 10 Calcium(mg/l) 75 6.47-8.05 4.01-6.0 be conducted by following the standard methods (APHA, 1998). The quality of 11 Magnesium(mg/l) 30 2.54-3.98 1.25-2.56 lake waters has been assessed by ECO-CHRONICLE 41 comparing each parameter with the standard desirable limit important for balancing the biogeochemical regime of the of that parameter in drinking water as prescribed by Bureau holding terrain. But indications show that human of Indian Standards (BIS). interventions and input of pollutants from agricultural and domestic sources are imparting much havoc to the The range of various physico-chemical parameters of the Vellayani Lake. Comparatively, the Pookode Lake is not water resources of Vellayani Lake and Pookode Lake, such so polluted as it is situated in the highland region . But as TDS,Sulphates,Chlorides,Calcium, Magnesium and signs show that overexploitation by means of tourism Hardness fall within the permissible limits prescribed by activities may harm the pookode Lake. The study highlights BIS. the need for effective conservation strategies to protect both these lake systems, for the present and future The water samples remained slightly acidic in Vellayani utilization needs as sources of drinking water. and Pookode Lakes which ranged from 5.02 to 5.89 and 6.34 to 6.61 respectively. The PH range was found to be REFERENCES above the desirable limit of drinking water standards prescribed by BIS.The high values may be due to attributed Agrawal, A. and Rajwar, G. Physicochemical and domestic wastes from surrounding areas and agricultural Microbiological Study of Tehri dam Reservoir, Garhwal, fields. pH value is very important for Plankton growth and India. Journal of American Science; 2010: 65 - 71. nutrient availability in such freshwater lakes (Chisty, 2002). APHA (1998). Standard methods for the examination of Turbidity, a measure of suspended particles in water water and waste water. American Public Health ranged from 5.25-13.3 NTU in Vellayani and 4.02-10.36 Association. NTU in Pookode Lake. The results supported by Dagaonkar and Saksena (1992) and Garg et al (2006) Chisty. N. (2002), Studies on Biodiversity of Freshwater showed that high turbidity observing during monsoon Zooplankton in Relation to Toxicity of selected Heavy season. During rainy season silt, clay and other suspended Metals. Ph. D. Thesis submitted to M.L Sukhadia particles contribute to the turbidity values. Univeristy, Udaipur.

Dissolved oxygen is an important aquatic parameter, Dagaonkar, A. and Saksena, D. N. (1992), Physico- whose presence is vital to aquatic fauna. It plays crucial chemical and Biological characterization of temple tank, role in life processes of animals. DO values ranged Kaila Sagar, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh. J. Hydrobiology. from6.03-8.05mg/l in Vellayani Lake and the values ranged 8 (1), pp 11 - 19. from4.03-6.99mg/l in Pookode Lake. Garg, R. K., Saksena, D. N. and Rao, R. J. (2006). The nutrient content of water is an indication of the degree Assessment of physico-chemical water quality of Harsi of sustainability of the system of primary production. At Reservoir, district Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh. Journal very high concentration of nutrients, eutrophication in water of Eco physiology and Occupational Health, 6, pp 33 - bodies may possible. Nitrate level ranges from 3-5 mg/l in 40. Vellayani Lake and the nitrates level in Pookode ranges from 1.2-1.9 mg/l. The phosphate level exhibits a range Krishnakumar, A., Sobha.V. and Padmalal, D. 2006. from 0.96-1.66 mg/l in Vellayani Lake and 0.087-0.66 mg/ Hydrogeochemical characterization and socio- l in Pookode Lake. The comparative evaluation of the environmental implications of Vellayani Freshwater present data against the previous values (Krishnakumar Lake, Southern Kerala, India. Eco-Chronicle.1 (1) pp. et al, 2006) indicate that the nutrient level is elevated in 35 - 46. the system. This may be due to the higher phyto- Veena, M. P., 2014. Middle to late Holocene palaeo planktonic production, decaying macrophytes and runoff environmental shifts based on sediment records from the from the agricultural catchments. Studiesshow that ifsimilar Pookode and Vellayani lakes Kerala South India. Anna conditions prevail in lake ecosystems like this, the University. oligotrophic condition will soon change to eutrophic condition (Agrawal And Rajwar, 2010). Venkatesharaju, K., Ravikumar, P., Somashekar, R. K. and CONCLUSION Prakash, K. L. 2010. Physico-chemical and bacteriological investigation on the river Cauvery of Kollegal stretch in The Vellayani and Pookode Lakes are the two important Karnataka. Kathmandu University Journal of Science, fresh water lakes in Kerala, as they have significantly Engineering and Technology, 50-59. 42 ECO-CHRONICLE ECO-CHRONICLE 43

ECO CHRONICLE ISSN: 0973-4155 Vol. 12, No. 2, June, 2017 PP: 43 - 49

INCIDENCEOF VEGETABLE CROP PESTS IN HOMEYARDS AND AGRICULTURAL FARM OF KUTTIPPURAM PANCHAYATH, MALAPPURAM, KERALA

T.R. Sobha

P. G. and Reseach Deptment of Zoology, FarookCollege, Kozhikode, kerala, India Corresponding author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Pest problem is one of the major constraints for achieving higher production in agriculture crops. India loses about 30% of its crops due to pests and diseases each year. Most vegetable crops are subjected to pest damage seeds, roots, leaves, stems and fruits are all susceptible damage range to plant vigor to plant depth and crop loss In the present study the incidence of different insect pests on some of the common vegatables crops cultivated in a homeyard and a local agricultural farm in Kuttippuram Panchayath of Malappuram district were studied.. The study duration was from October 2015 to May 2016. This study revealed 16 species of insect species belonging to 16 genera and 14 families and 4 orders from a total of seven frequently cultivated vegetable crops both in home yards as well as agricultural farm.

The maximum species diversity of insect pests recorded on the Order Coleoptera, Lepidoptera and Hemiptera constituting 5 species each. Only one Dipteran species was recorded in this study. Epilachna dodecastigma, Cheatoda cuscucurbitoa, Cylasformi carius, Bemisia tabaci Aphis medicagenis etc were reported as major pests in accordance with the severity of infestation. While other are recorded as moderate and minor pests . A comparative account on insect pests on two study area also revealed little variation in their distribution and abundance with reference to site characteristics and mode of cultivation and climatic factors. The population of insect pest increases with increase in temperature in both sites. The number of insects is relatively a high in maximum temperature of 42oC.

Key words: Home yard, Agricultural farm, vegetable crops, Epilachna dodecastigma, Cheatoda cuscucurbitoa, Cylasformi carius, Bemisia tabaci Aphis medicagenis

INTRODUCTION

Vegetables are the important components of daily diet. cycle. They damage and are every part of the plant and Vegetables are eaten in various ways as part of main meals ultimate cause high economic loss to the farm . Insect, and as snacks. The nutritional content of vegetables varies plant association begins with the evolution of insects. considerably though Human civilization and life is Almost half of the insect species are phytophagous and impossible to conceive without plant. Generally they contain thus depends on plant for the food requirement, others little protein or fat and varying proportions of vitamins such feed upon phytophagous insects and indirectly related with as Vitamin A,Vitamin K and Vitamin 36,provitamins, the plants as it is the plant that capture solar energy and minerals and carbohydrates. Vegetables contain a great use it to make organic molecules from inorganic ones. variety of other phytochemicals. Some of which have been Half of the insect species depends upon plants directly. claimed to have anti oxidant, anti bacterial, anti fungal, anti Plant tissues are major source of sugar protein fats salts viral and anti carcinogenic properties. Thus vegetables water and vitamin. Most plants tissues provides adequate crops provide a cheap source of proteins, vitamins and nourishment for insects although different insects do have other elements essential for human health and well being. different nutritional requirement insects feed on all the parts of the plants. They feed externally or internally as borers These vegetable crops attacked in every season by number or leaf minors. They produce galls and other distributions of fungal disease, bacteria, virus, insect, pests caused high sucking insects imbibe plant juice and may cause damage to the production .Insects and pests generally weakening and hollowing. Some insects that do not feed attacked because of their liking and to complete their life on plant tissues also use plant as shelter and some make 44 ECO-CHRONICLE still other use of plants. Most of plants are attacked by Plate1- Study area hundreds of the insect species similarly a single species of insect may attack more than one plant species on the basis of feeding habits insects may be monophagous, oligophagous and polyphagous. Bhatia and Verma (1994) Carried out the seasonal incidence of major insect pests associated with winter crops of cabbage in Himachal Pradesh and they also reported the incidence of insect pests of cabbage in summer season. The insect and mite pest status of subtropical horticulture crops in Himachal Pradesh was reported by Bhatia and Gupta (2003) Bhagath and Bhat (2011) conducted a study on survey on insect pests damaging vegetable crops in Kashmir valley in India and with some new records. Most vegetables crops are subjected to pest damage seeds, roots, leaves, stems, and fruits are all to susceptible damage range to plant vigour to plant depth and crop loss. The extensive studies on Lepidopterous insects associated with vegetables were conducted in different localities of Aravally ranges of Rajasthan by Gaurav Sharma (2011) and recorded 38 species of lepidopterous insects out of 152 species of lepidopterous insects recorded from India. Thousand types of insects can affect vegetables (Bhat Deen Mohammed et al., 2011).

Anjorin et al (2012) conducted a survey of incidence and severity of pests and diseases of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) and egg plant Solanum melongena. Ofori et al (2014) studied the insect diversity and abundance of twelve accessions of tomato, Solanum lycopersicon L. grow in a costal savannah agro-ecological zone. Rudra Pratapsingh and et al (2015), conducted a field study of pests of study. The two sites were visited twice in a week and each cauliflower in eastern plain zone areas .Different insect part of the vegetables namely leaves, stem fruits bunches pests of cauliflower were noticed, Tobacco caterpillar, etc were thoroughly inspected and different insect pests spodoptera litura; Diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella; were collected. Each specimen were collected by aerial cabbage caterpillar, Pieris brassicae. In the Present paper insect net and hand picking. The temperature and the an attempt was .made to reveal the incidence of some humidity of the two areas were noted with the help of a insect pests on common vegetable crops cultivated in the Thermo Hygrometer. The number of each pests, type of field as well as home yard vegetable gardens. damage caused by it, and plant part affected by the pest are also noted down. The collected insects were killed by MATERIALS AND METHODS using benzene and chloroform and it preserve by using 70% alcohol. The samples were brought to the laboratory A field survey was conducted in Kuttippuram panchayath for identification. The identification was done by using at Malappuram district in the state of Kerala in southern concerned literatures and with the help of experts from India . The study area of the present study included two Zoological Survey of India. selected sites, A Home yard and a local farm area which were designated as site 1, site 2 respectively (plate-1). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION From these sites temperature and Relative humidity were recorded. The fieldsurvey was undertaken on a period of 8 This study revealed 16 species of insect pests species months from October 2015 to May 2016. The selected belonging to 16 genera and 14 families and 4 orders from areas are known to vegetable growing areas and has the two study areas. The maximum species diversity of suitable environment for the production of vegetable like insect pests recorded on Order Coleoptera, Lepidoptera Amaranthus, Garden pea, Okra, Brinjal, Sweet potato, Bitter and Hemiptera constituting 5 species each. Only one guard and cassava which were selected for the present Dipteran species was recorded in this study. (Table 1, fig- ECO-CHRONICLE 45

Table.1. Taxonomic classification of insect pests 1). Out of 14 families, Cucurlionidae and Pyralidae were the dominant families each Sl. Scientific name Order Family represented by 2 genera. Aphidae, Plataspidae, Alydidae, Pentatomidae, No. Aleyrodidae, Brentidae, Chrysomelidae, 1 Aphis medicaginis Hemiptera Aphidae Coccinellidae, Gracillaridae, Noctuidae, 2 Copstoma cribraria Hemiptera Plataspidae Crumbidae and Tephritidae representing single genera each..Among the 16 species 3 Riptortus pedestris Hemiptera Alydidae reported the most predominant and frequent 4 Nezara viridula Hemiptera Pentatomidae ones were Aphis medicagenis and Cylas 5 Bemisia tabaci Hemiptera Aleyrodidae formicurius followed by Clavigrella scutellarisand and Epilachna dodecastigma. 6 Cylas formicurius Coleoptera Curculionidae Remaining species were less frequent and 7 Metriona circumdata Coleopteran Chrysomelidae their percentage of occurrence was low. 8 Lixusbr achyrhynus Coleopteran Curculionidae These pests cause so many damages to 9 Epilachna dodecastigma Coleopteran Coccinellidae vegetable plants and also affect crop 10 Gracillaria soyella Lepidoptera Gracillaridae production (Table-2). The lepidopterous 11 Euzopher aperticella Lepidoptera Pyralidae insects were reported to be mainly leaf rollers, leaf feeders, pod borers and In India many 12 Phthorimoebla sigona Lepidoptera Pyralidae research works provided valuable information 13 Eublemma olivacea Lepidoptera Noctuidae on lepidopterous pests of 14 Clavigrella horrens Coleoptera Brentidae vegetables.(Gupta,1990.,David,2001., Sharma et al., 2008 Sharma and 15 Hymenia fascialis lepidoptera Crumbidae Ramamoorthy.,2009 ). In the present study 16 Chaetodacus cucurbitae Diptera Tefritidae also lepidopterans are found to be as leaf

Table 2. Symptoms of damage caused by insect species collected from vegetables

Sl. Vegetable Insect species Symptoms of damage Pest status No. 1 Solanum melongena Euzophera perticella Leaf rolling Moderate Phthorimoeabla psigona Leaf eating Minor Epilachnadodeca stigma Scrapping of leaf by converting as net Major Eublemma olivaceae Leaf eaters Minor 2 Momordica charantina Cheatodacus cucurbitoa Fruit eaters Major Nezara viridula Laef sap sucking forming yellowing of Moderate leaf 3 Amaranthus acathochiton Lixusbra chyrhinus Stem boring causing holes Moderate Hymenia fascialis Leaf eating and Leaf rolling Minor 4 Abelmoschus esculuntes Bemisia tabaci Colonizing on leaf and by sucking Moderate causing yellowish brown spots 5 Ipomoea balatus Cylas formicarius Leaf eating causing holes on leaf Major Metriona cirumdata Stem boring causing yellow Mionr intermittent sheaths 6 Manihot esculenta Bemisia tabaci Colonizing on leaf and by sucking Major causing yellowish brown spots 7 Pisum sativum Gracillaria soyella Leaf eater causing yellowing on sides Moderate Clavigrella scutellaris Sp sucking causing browning Moderate Aphis medicagenis Colonizing on leaf causing white Major powdery spots Coptosoma cribraria Yellow coloration on leaves Minor Riptortus pedestris Leaf eaters moderate 46 ECO-CHRONICLE feeders, leaf rollers and pod borers. The larva folds the seed and stem borers, leaf scrappers etc. The adult is the leaves longitudinally and feeds within the leaf folds by destructive stage. As the insects feed on the plants’ scraping the green tissue. The damaged leaves turn brown, reproductive parts, they can cause significant yield losses. wither, and dry. Coleopterans are found to be sap suckers, Continuous feeding of beetles resulted insignificant higher Fig 1. defoliation on plant at the same time also similar leaf damage reported by Obeng-Ofori et al., (2003). According Species diversity of insect pests in the present study to Clementine L etal., (2009) these pests bore hole into the leaves and as a consequence reduce the photosynthetic Hemipteran species were leaf eaters causing browning of leaf, leaf weltering, cellulose scrapping etc. Both the adults and nymphs suck the plant sap and reduce the vigor of the plant. In severe infestations, the leaves turn yellow and drop off. In the case of Dipterans the uni foliate leaves show several feeding and oviposition punctures on the upper surface with corresponding light yellow spots, especially in the basal portion of the leaf. Similar crop damage caused by these pests also reported earlier (Hutchison.et al, 2011). Diptera species was found as fruit as borer. The young larvae attach themselves to the soft seeds inside the pods, and initially feed on the seed surface. Larvae of these insects feed on legumes as internal feeders and leaf miners with the widest distribution

Figure 2. Percentage of occurrence of different orders in site 1 and 2

Figure 3. Distribution and abundance of insect pest species in the two sites ECO-CHRONICLE 47

Table 3. Host ranges and relative abundance of insect pests occurred during the survey cucurbitae blapsigona decastigma cribraria soyella perticella olivacea scutellaris pedestris circumdata

Insect / Vegetables tabaci viridula formicus us brachyrhinus us ix Gracillariya Clavigrella Aphis medicagenis Coptosoma Riptortus Euzophera Phthorimoea Epilachnado Eublemma Cylus Metriona Chaetodacus Nezara L Hymenia fascialis Bemisia Solanum melongena - + - - - ++ + ++ ++ ------+ ++ Momordica charantina - + ------++ ++ - - - + Amaranthus acanthochiton - - - - + + ------+++ + -

Pisum sativum + ++ +++ ++ ++ ------+ + Abelmoschus esculentus ------++ - - - - - + - ++ + Ipomoea balatus ------++ ++ - - - - - + Manihot esculenta. ------++ + Figure 4. Monthly variation of insect pest population Figure 5. Monthly variation in temperature

and host range, and causes the maximum damage of cultivation and climatic factors. In site 1Hemiptera were (Talekar 1990.). In the present study based on the intensity found to be the dominant order with 5 families comprising and severity of symptoms seven species were found as 5 species of insects constituting the 48.76% of total insect moderate pests, five of them were major pests and four population, followed with Coleopteran constituting 27.43%, were minor. The symptoms of damage and their mode of Lepidoptera with 18.43% and Diptera with 3.91% (fig-2). infestation and pest status on different vegetable crops In site 2 also Hemiptera was the dominant order were tabulated and presented in Table 3. The distribution constituting the 45.66% of the total insect population and abundance of insect pests were also found to be followed by Coleoptera with 31.73%, Lepidoptera with related with the host range and host specificity. In the 16.90% and diptera with5.69% (fig-3). The species wise present study pisum sativum and Solanum melongena abundance in two study sites were also presented (figure showed high host range as it supports maximum number 4) which clearly indicated that vegetables growing on Site and diverse insects pests and least with Manihot 1 is more susceptible to pest attack compared to that of esculentawith a single sp of pest (Table 3). Site 2, the home yard vegetables. Insects are particularly sensitive to temperature because they are stenotherms A comparative account on insect pests on two study area (cold-blooded). In general, insec ts respond to higher also revealed little variation in their distribution and temperature with increased rates of development and with abundance with reference to site characteristics and mode less time between generations (Pravitha Reddy, 2013). 48 ECO-CHRONICLE

Plate 2 Photographs showing the major vegetable pests collected during the study

Plate 3. Photographs showing different development stages of Epilachna dodecastigma ECO-CHRONICLE 49

Like that in the present study also the population of insect Clementine, L., Dabire-Binso and Malick, N. (2009), pest increases with increase in temperature in both sites. “Preliminary studies on incidence of insect pests on Okra, The number of insects is relatively a high in maximum Abelmoschus esculentus L.Moech in central Burkina temperature of 42oC.) So there should be a increasing trend Faso”, African Journal of Agricultural Research. of pest population with increase of temperature. Normally 4(12):1488-1492. pest outbreak were reported with flourishing temperatures. Insect population showed a negative trend with that of David, B.V. (2001). Elemets of economical entomology. increasing humidity even though the monthly variation in Popular Book Depot. Chennai, 562pp. humidity is of less significance as there is much little variation in humidity is noted during the study period Gupta, S. L. (1990). Key for the identity of some major (figures 4 & 5). lepidopterous pests of vegetable in India.Bulletin of Entamology. 3(1): 69-84. CONCLUSION Gourav Sharma (2011) “Studies on lepidopterus insects This study revealed 16 species of insect species belonging associated with vegetables in Aravally ranges, Rajasthan, to 16 genera and 14 families and 4 orders. The maximum India”.Biological forum-An international Journal 3(1): 21-26. species diversity of insect pests recorded on OrderColeoptera, Lepidoptera and Hemiptera constituting Hutchison, W. D., Bolin ,P. C. and Hines, R. L. (2011), 5 species each. Only one Dipteran species was recorded “Dimondback moth”. Department of Entomology, University in this study. A comparative account on insect pests on of Minnesota. two study area also revealed little variation in their distribution and abundance with reference to site Obeng-Ofori, D. and Sackey, J. (2003), “Fieldevaluation characteristics and mode of cultivation and climatic factors. of non-synthetic insecticides for the management of insect The population of insect pest increases with increase in pests of Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L. Moench) in temperature in both sites and the humidity is less Ghana”. Ethiopian J. Sci, Vol. 26, pp. 145-150. significant. Ofori, E.S.K., S. Yeboah, J. Nunoo, E.K.Quartey, W. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Torgby-Tetteh, E.K. Gasu and E. A. Ewusie (2014), The authors are greatly acknowledged to the chief scientist “Preliminary studies of insect diversity and abundance of and entomologist, Dr. Sajeeve and Research fellows of twelve accessions of tomato, Solanum lycopersicon L . KFRI, Peechi for help in identification of insect species in grown in a costal savannah Agro-ecological zone. Journals this study. of Agricultural Science, Vol.6, No. 8.

REFERENCES Parvatha Reddy, P. (2013). Impact of climate change on Anjorin, S.T., Jolaoso, M.A .and Golu, M.T. (2012) A survey insect pests, pathogens and nematodes Pest Management of incidence and severity of Okra (Abelmoschus in Horticultural Ecosystems,Vol. 19, No. 2 pp 225 - 233. esculentus) and egg plant (Solanum melongena L.) in Abuja, Nigeria. American journal of Research Rudra Pratap Singh, Mukesh Kumar Misra,Umesh Communication. 1(11):333-349. Chandra and Narendrapratap (2015). A Field Study of Pest of Cauliflower in Plain Zone Areas.Plant Archives. Vol.15. Bhatia, R. and Gupta, D. (2003), “Insect and mite pest No.1, pp.561- 564. status of subtropical horticultural crops in Himachal Pradesh”,Journal of Insect Science,Vol.16,No.2,pp. 1-8. Sharma, G. and Ramamoorthy, V.V. (2009). A chek list of lepidoterous pests of vegetable in india.www.zsi.gov.in/ Bhatia, R. and Verma, A.K. (1994). Seasonal incidence of zoological survey of India /zsi-data check list/index.html major insect pests associated with winter crop of cabbage pp.1-14. in Himachal Pradesh. Annals of Agricultural Research. 15(2): 222-225. Sharna, G. and Ramamoorthy, V. V. (2008). Biodiversity of lepidopterous insects associated with vegetables in India - Bhagat, R. C., Bhat, D. M. and Qureshi, A. (2011), “A survey A study. Indian Journal of Entamology. 70(4):369-384. of insect pests damaging vegetable crops in Kashmir valley (India), with some new records”, Journal Of Entamological Talekar, N. S. (1990). Agronomyzid flies of food legumes Research,35(1):85-91. in the tropics, Wiley Eastern Limited, Delhi, India. p.297. 50 ECO-CHRONICLE ECO-CHRONICLE 51

Review Article

ECO CHRONICLE ISSN: 0973-4155 Vol. 12, No. 2, June, 2017 PP: 51 - 57

AN OVERVIEW OF THE INDIAN GRASSES AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE

Kabeer, K.A.A.1 and Sasikala, K.2 and Murugesan, M.

1 Botanical Survey of India, Southern Regional Centre, TNAU Campus, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu 2 Mahatma Gandhi Govt. Arts College, Mahe, U.T of Puducherry 3 Botanical Survey of India, Eastern Regional Circle, Shillong , Meghalaya Corresponding author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The family Poaceae is one of the largest families of flowering plants. It comprises of about 20% of vegetation and is the most important family to mankind agriculturally, economically and ecologically. The economic importance of grasses in India is presently discussed.

Key words: Grasses, economic importance, Poaceae, India

INTRODUCTION

Grasses belong to the family Poaceae form a natural and almost every other terrestrial habitat. Grass-dominated homogenous unique group of flowering plants with biomes are called grasslands. Grasslands include remarkable diversity (Kabeer & Nair, 2009). Undoubtedly, pampas, steppes, and prairies. Grasses provide food to Poaceae forms the most fascinating family and plays a many grazing mammals such as livestock, deer, and significant role in the lives of human beings and animals elephants as well as to many species of butterflies and (Mitra and Mukherjee, 2005). The value and culture of moths. Many types of animals eat grass as their main cereal grasses dates back to a period when man was source of food, and are called graminivores include cattle, emerging from wild beast stage (Gould, 1968; Ahmad et sheep, horses, rabbits and many invertebrates, such as al., 2010). The members of this group are present in all grasshoppers and the caterpillars of many brown conceivable habitats, suitable for the growth of plant butterflies. Grasses are also eaten by omnivorous or even communities, and in every climatic region (Mitra and occasionally by primarily carnivorous animals. Mukherjee, 2005). The family Poaceae or Gramineae is one of the largest and nearly ubiquitous families of The grasses are represented with ca. 780 genera and monocotyledonous flowering plants and also known as around 12,000 species in the world (Christenhusz, and grasses. It is fifth largest plant family of the world following Byng, 2016). Grasslands such as savannah and plain the Asteraceae, Orchidaceae, Fabaceae and Rubiaceae. where grasses are dominant are estimated to constitute Poaceae includes the cereal grasses, bamboos and the 40.5% of the land area of the Earth, excluding Greenland grasses of natural grassland and cultivated lawns (turf) and Antarctica. Grasses are also an important part of the and pasture land. Grasses have hollow stems except at vegetation in many other habitats, including wetlands, the nodes and narrow alternate leaves borne in two ranks. forests and tundra. The Poaceae are the most The lower part of each leaf encloses the stem, forming a economically important plant family, providing staple foods leaf-sheath. from domesticated cereal crops such as maize (corn), wheat, rice, barley, and millet as well as forage, essential Grasses are the dominant vegetation in many habitats, oils, medicinal importance, paper making, building including grassland, salt-marsh, reed swamp and steppes. materials (bamboo, thatch, straw) and fuel (ethanol) They also occur as a smaller part of the vegetation in (Reynolds, 2016). 52 ECO-CHRONICLE

Grasses used as food resources: have some degree of fodder value. However, it is known that grasses that are more leafy are preferred by cattle. Grasses are directly supply about 60% of the world’s food for human consumption In the form of cereal grains. The The following grasses are reported to be the fodder principal cereals include Wheat, Rice, Maize, Barley, Oats, grasses most favoured by cattle include Alloteropsis Sorghum and Rye. Oryza sativa (Rice) and Triticum cimicina, Andropogon ascinoides, A. lividus, A. pumilus, aestivum (Wheat) are the staple diet for hundreds of Arthraxon castratus, A. hispidus, A. lanceolatus, A. millions of people and grown largely in the tropics, sub- lancifolius, Arundinella pumila, Brachiaria distachya, B. tropics and temperate regions. Several grasses such as eruciformis, B. semiverticillata, Cenchrus glaucus, Pennisetum typhoides, Setaria italica, Sorghum spp., Zea Centotheca lappacea, Chloris barabata, C. virgata, mays, Panicum miliaceum are usually grouped together Chrysopogon orientalis, C. polyphyllus, Coix aquatica, and termed “Millets” are grown in larger areas. The hill Cymboppogon gidraba, C. polyneuros, Cynodon barberi, tribes of North-East India and South India cultivate Coix- C. dactylonm, Dicanthium caricosum, Digitaria longiflora, lacryma-jobi and prepare a beer from the grains or eat D. wallichiana, Echinochloa colonum, Enteropogon them as a kind of soft food. Hygroryza aristata also utilized monostachyos, Eragrostis ciliaris, E. coarctata, in a similar fashion. Secale cereale (Rye) and Hordeum E.gangetica, E. japonica, E. nigra, E, nutans, E. riparia, vulgare (Barley) are cultivated at the higher altitudes and E. tef, E. tenuifolia, E. tremula, E. unioloides, E. viscosa, in parts of Himalayas become the staple cereal of the Eremopogon foveolatus, Eriochloa procera, Eulalia inhabitants. Eleusine coracana (Ragi, Finger millet) also trispicata, Hemarthria compressa, Hygroryza aristata, one of the very common and more nutritious food grains Imperata cylindrica, Isachne globosa, Ischaemum indicum, in southern, western and northern India. The inhabitants I. pilosum, I. rangacharianum, Iseilema hackelii, I. of the area make this into cakes, soft foods and sweet prostratum, Leptochloa obtusiflora, Lophatherum gracile, meats. A beer is prepared from this grain by the hill tribes Melanocenchris monoica, Microstegium ciliatum, M. of the region. Avena sativa, Panicum sumatrense, nudum, Ophiuros exaltatus, Oplismenus compositus, O. Paspalidium flavidum, and Paspalum longifolium also have undulatifolius, Oryza meyeriana, panicum curviflorum, P. some value as food materials (Kabeer & Nair, 2009). psilopodium, paspalidium geminatum, P. punctatum, Paspalum distichum, P. vaginatum, Pennisetum galucum, Apart from these, the grasses like Digitaria cruciata var. P. polytachyon, Poa nemoralis, Polypogon fugax, esculenta is rarely cultivated in the Khasi hills of North- Pseudechinolaena polystachya, Rottboellia East India for its grain and also as fodder. Echinochloa cochinchinensis, Sacciolepis indica, S. myosuroides, frumentacea is also cultivated in this region for preparing Schizachyrium brevifolium, Setaria intermedia, Sporobolus very potent beer. Paspalum scrobiculatum is cultivated in maderaspatanus, S. piliferus, S. spicatus, Tetrapogon South India for food. Panicum miliare also one of the tenellus, Themeda tremula and Thysanolaena latifolia. common cereal cultivated in South India. Some grasses such as Arundinella setosa var. setosa, Leptochloa The following are examples of grasses that can also be chinensis, Eragrostis tef, E. tremula, Brachiaria deflexa, used as fodder include Acrachne henrardiana, A. Cenchrus biflorus, C. prieurii, Echinochloa crus-galli, E. racemosa, Aleuropus lagopoides, Agrostis micrantha, A. stagnina, E. colonum, Dactylloctenium aegyptium, stolonifera, Apluda mutica, Apocopis mangalorensis, Hygroryza aristata, Ischaemum rugosum, Oryza rufipogon, Bothriochloa pertusa, Brachiaria ramosa, B. reptans, B. Sccciolepis interrupta, Setaria pallide-fusca and S. glauca setigera, Cenchrus pennisetiformis, C. setigerus, also rarely cultivated in different parts of the world for food Chionachne koenigii, Chloris wightiana, Chrysopogon in times of scarcity (Bor, 1960). fulvus, Coix lacryma-jobi, Dactyloctenium aegyptium, Dichanthium annulatum, Digitaria setigera, Echinochloa Saccharum officinarum (Sugarcane) is commonly crusgalli, E. frumentacea, E. picta, Eleusine indica, cultivated on large scale in different parts of India for its Enneapogon schimperanus, Eragrostiella bifaria, sugar content. It is one of the principal foods in India. Eragrostis amabilis, E. atrovirens, E. cilianensis, E. pilosa, Glyceria tonglensis, Hackelochloa granularis, Grasses used as fodder: Heteropogon contortus, Ichnanthus vicinus, Isachne miliacea, Ischaemum rugosum, I. timorense, Iseilema Grasses not only provide food for humanity, but also anthephoroides, Leersia hexandra, Leptochloa chinensis, provide nourishment in the form of cereal grains or forage L. neesii, Lolium temulentum, Manisuris myuros, for livestock and other herbivorous animals. One-third of Mnesithea laevis, Oryza rufipogon, Panicum brevifolium, Indian grasses are considered to have fodder value. Most P. miliaceum, P. paludosum, P. repens, P. sumatrense, of the grasses belong to the tribes Andropogoneae (30%), Paspalidium flavidum, Paspalum conjucatum, P. Paniceae (15%), and Eragrosteae (9%). Almost all grasses scrobiculatum, Pennisetum pedicellatum, Perotis indica, ECO-CHRONICLE 53

Phalaris minor, Poa annua, Sacciolepis curvata, S. others produce aromatic oils accumulate in tissues and interrupta, Schizachyrium exile, Sehima nervosum, S. are obtained by steam distillation. The oils are made up sulcatum, Setaria homonyma, S. italica, Sorghum spp., of a number of chemical compounds most of which are Sporobolus coromandelianus, S. humilis subsp. minor, S. pleasantly scented and for this reasons are valued in indicus var. flaccidus, S. indicus var. major, S. wallichii, perfumery trade. The oils of some species have a repute Themeda cymbaria, T. quadrivalvis, Tragus roxburghii, in native medicine. The most important genus in the area Tripogon bromoides and Urochloa panicoides. as a source of aromatic oils is genus Cymbopogon.

Some grasses are preferred by cattle when they are Lemon grass Oil young, these grasses include Aristida adscensionis, A. funiculata, A. hystrix, A. mutabilis, Arundo donax (young Cymbopogon flexuosus and Cymbopogon citratus are shoots), Bothriochloa bladhii, Chloris inflata, cultivated in hilly tracts for the extraction of lemon grass Cymbopogon caesius, Desmostachya bipinnata, Digitaria oil. Lemongrass was traditionally used in Indian medicine stricta, Dinebra retroflexa, Leptochloa panicea, for the treatment of fevers and infectious diseases. It has Lophopogon tridentatus, Melanocenchris jaquemontii, powerful antiseptic and bactericidal properties. The Setaria verticillata, Themeda triandra and Trachys essential oil is extracted by steam distillation from the muricata. Rough and rigid grasses like Arundinella chopped, fresh grass. The essential oil is used for nepalensis and Saccharum spontaneum are readily eaten headaches, muscle pain, indigestion, acne and fevers. In by cattle at the times of scarcity. addition, lemongrass is used as an insecticide. These aromatic essential oils also find various uses especially Apart from these, large number of introduced fodder in perfumery. Traditionally, tea made from having been grasses are known to be available. As Bor (1960) pointed widely utilized as antiseptic, antifever, antidyspeptic, out, as there are a large number of indigenous grasses carminative and anti-inflammatory effects. and also used which are highly nutritious and palatable there is not much as febrifuge, analgesic, spasmolytic, antipyretic, diuretic, of a need to introduce a large number of exotic grasses. tranquilizer and stomachic agent (Sawyerr, 1982, Viana Examples of introduced fodder grasses include et al., 2000, Negrelle and Gomes, 2007; Adejuwon and Andropogon gayanus, A. hallii, Anthoxanthum odoratum, Esther, 2007; Tatiana et al., 2011). Arrhenatherum elatius, Avena byzantina, A. fatua, Axonopus affinis, A, compressus, Brachaiaria brizantha, Citronella oil B, lata, Bromus catharticus, Bouteloua areistoides, B. curtipendula, B. gracilis, Bromus unioloides, Chloris Citronella Essential Oil is extracted from Cymbopogon gayana, Cynodon plectostachyus, Cynosurus cristatus, nardus and C. winterianus The greater quantity of C. echinatus, Dactylus glomerata, danthonia Citronella oil produced in Ceylon id derived from semiannularis, Digitaria didactyla, D. pentzii, D. Cymbopogon nardus and a smaller quantity is obtained violescense, Echinochloa pyramidalis, Ehrharta from C. winterianus (Bor 1960). The oil is used in Chinese abyssinica, E. calycina, E. capensis, E. erecta, E. medicine for the treatment of rheumatism. Other traditional longiflora, Eragrostis curvula, E. lehmanniana, E. plana, medicine uses for citronella include use in the treatment E. robusta, E. tef, Helictotrichon pratense, Hyparrhenia of digestive problems, fever, intestinal problems and rufa, Lolium multiflorum, L. trmulentum, Melinis menstrual difficulties. Citronella essential oil is also minutiflora, M. repens, Panicum antidotale, P. coloratum, extracted by steam distillation of the fresh grass. It is P. laevifolium, P. maximum, P. plenum, P. stapifianum, commonly used as an insect repellent, although it is also Paspalum dilatatum, P. plicatulum, P. urvillei, Pennisetum used in aromatherapy for colds, flu, headaches, and oily clandestinum, P. hohenackerii, P. mezianum, P. skin. In traditional medicine, the oil has been used as an purpureum, P. ramosum, P. setosum,Phalaris aquatica, aromatic tea, vermifuge, diuretic, and antispasmodic. P. arundinacea, Setaria megaphylla, S. paniculifera, S. Citronella oil is commonly known for its natural insect sphaceleta, Sorghum halepense, Trichloris crinita, T. repellent properties, although it has many uses in plurifera, Tripsacum dactyloides, T. laxum and Zea mays. aromatherapy. It can be used as massage oil for aching joints and muscles. The oil can effectively be used in a Essential oils: nebulizing or humidifying diffuser for its insect repellent properties. Traditional use includes treatment of fever, Aromatic grasses have traditionally been used in Indian intestinal parasites, digestive and menstrual problems. and Chinese medicine because of their therapeutic When mental illness has to be treated, Citronella can be properties and are also used in aromatherapy as an clarifying and balancing. Combining it with Lemon oil can essential oil. A number of species of grass belonging to bring even more of a brightening effect to the mind (Wany the genera Cymbopogon, Vetiveria, Bothriochloa and few et al., 2013). 54 ECO-CHRONICLE

Palmarosa oil The species like Narenga porphyrocoma, Arundo donax, Phragmites karka, Themeda arundinacea, Themeda Another important oil from grasses is Palmarosa oil which villosa, Sclerostachya fusca, Bothriochloa intermedia, is extracted from Cymbopogon martinii var. martinii . The Cymbopogon nardus, Erianthus ravennae are rarely used Palmarosa oil is also traditionally used in Indian medicine for making paper. Grasses such as Imperata cylindrica for the treatment of infectious diseases and fevers, in and Desmostachya bipinnata also used in a mixture with addition to the treatment of bacterial infections of the pulp from other grasses. Bamboos and Eulaliopsis binata intestine and as an aid to digestive problems. It also has yield pulps with a suitable length of fiber are used largely extremely powerful antiseptic and bactericidal properties. in paper industry. All the species mentioned above can be Palmarosa was formerly known as “Indian/Turkish used in admixture with bamboo or Eulaliopsis pulp to geranium oil” which gives rise to the confusion of some of produce a satisfactory paper. its alternative names today. The essential oil is extracted by steam distillation of the fresh grass. It is used in Lawn grasses aromatherapy for problems such as acne, dermatitis, skin care, stress, and intestinal infections. In plains and areas with low-level hills, Cynodon dactylon and Zoysia matrella are commonly used for lawn making. Vetiver oil Cynodon barberi and Panicum repens are some of the other lawn grasses used. In drier areas of northern India, Vetiver is well known for its extensive fibrous root system. Dicanthium annulatum, Bothriochloa pertusa and others The larger its root volume, the better is the capacity to are used for making lawn. In high hills and heavy rainfall conserve soil and soil moisture. Besides, larger root areas, Axonopus compressus, A. affinis, Oplismenus volume will also ensure higher root yield that has multiple burmanii, Pennisetum clandestinum etc. are the usual lawn economic value including that related to aroma and grasses. Other grasses like, Agrostis stolonifera, Digitaria essential oil. Vetiver’s essential oil also plays a big role in longiflora, Chrysopogon aciculatus, Paspalum traditional medicines as well as in pest control. Vetiver oil conjugatum, Paspalum vaginatum, Poa nemoralis, Poa used in perfumery is extracted from the aromatic roots of trivialis, Stenostaphrum secundatum, and S. dimidiatum Vetiveria zizanioides and it is also used as a fixative in are also used with regular pruning to control inflorescence perfumery and in aromatherapy. Vetiver oil in recent years formation. A mutant variety of Imperata cylindrica with have been used to produce perfumes, creams and soaps. smaller purplish red leaves is at times used for making lawns in some places. Examples of other oil yielding grasses are Cymbopogon caesius (yields kachi grass oil), C. jwarancusa subsp. Some other introduced grasses which are used for making olivieri, C. schoenanthus, C. clandestinus, C. polyneuros, lawn include Agrostis capillaris, A. tenuis, A. vinealis, C. virgatus, C. nervatus, C. pendulus, C. coloratus, C. Dactylis glomerata, Dectylactenium australe, Digitaria travancorensis, Bothriochloa intermedia, B. intermedia var. didactyla var. decalvata (Australian Blue Coach Grass), punctata, B. kuntzeana, B. odorata, B. woodrowii, B. Festuca rubra, F. arundinacea, Lolium perenne, Phleum compressa, Capillipedium huegelii var. foetidum, bertolonii, Zoysia japonica (Korean grasses) and Z. Anthoxanthum odoratum, Indochloa oligantha, Melinus tenuifolia. minutiflora, Polytrias amaura etc., but oils of these species are of very little commercial value. Ornamental grasses

Paper industry A number species of Poaceae are cultivated in gardens for their beautiful coloured inflorescence, their variegated The enormous areas in India covered with coarse grasses. leaves, their odd-looking flower heads or for their robust A considerable number of grasses have suitable for paper state combined with grace of stem and beauty of making. The following are the important grasses used in Inflorescence. The pink feathery panicles of paper industry. Aristida setacea is used in making screens Rhynchelytrum repens make it a most attractive. and frames for paper manufacture, citronella bagasse from Arundinella pumila (plumose inflorescence), Arundo donax Cymbopogon nardus is used for making paper pulp. var. versicolor (striped leaves), Arundo conspicua, Briza Heteropogon contortus, Saccharum arundinaceum, maxima (large golden yellow colored nodding spikelets), Saccharum spontaneum etc. are also used in paper Cortaderia selloana (dense and plumose golden yellowish industry. Bagasse and leaves of Saccharum officinarum inflorescence), Melinis repens (purplish red to whitish are also useful in making paper pulp. Recently, Reed colored dense inflorescence), Miscanthus nepalensis canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea) has been identified (plumose inflorescence), Pennisetum villosum (cat tail like as a potential for the manufacture of fine quality paper. soft inflorescence), Pogonatherum paniceum (mini ECO-CHRONICLE 55 bamboo like leaves), Setaria palmifolia (palmate leaves aphrodisiac. The grains of Setaria intalica are said to be with nodding inflorescence) are some of the important diuretic and astringent and also used externally for grasses that are highly useful in ornamental gardens. treating rheumatism. The stem and roots of Saccharum Similarly Arundo donax is grown in gardens as a fence. officinarum used as diuretic, cooling and aphrodisiac. The flour prepared from Hordium vulgare is used with water Some of other ornamental grasses include Lagurus as a common summer drink. It is used to cool the body ovatus (dense woolly panicles), Lamarckia aurea (golden and persons suffering from jaundice. It is also overlapping spikelets), Aira caryophyllea (dainty recommended for intestinal trouble, anaemia, erysipelas panicles), Lygeum spartum (oddity inflorescence), and leprosy. Phragmites karka is said to be useful in Phalaris paradoxa var. praemorsa (clun like biliousness, urinary trouble, vaginal and uterine inflorescence), Phalaris arundinacea var. picta (plume complaints and disease of the heart. The smoke of like inflorescence), Holcus mollis var. variegatus burning Panicum antidotale is used for fumigating wounds (Variegated leaf) are cultivated in the gardens. Few and as a disinfectant in smallpox. Hackelochloa species such as Cortaderia selloana, Saccharum granularis is given orally with sweet oil for treating procerum, S. sikkimense, S. rufipilum, S. longisetosum enlarged spleen and liver. Bothriochloa odorata is said are cultivated in clumps. to be carminative and useful in bowel complaints in children (Bor, 1960; Kabeer & Nair, 2009). Medicinal grasses Root decoction of Cynodon dactylon is given to cattle for Roots of Alloteropsis cimicina are used in toothache. A respiratory diseases in different localities, while in Kanya lotion prepared from Arundinella nepalensis is used for Kumari district of Southern India, leaves of C. dactylon healing wounds. A decoction of Cynodon dactylon is used with coconut oil are used to cure skin diseases (Kingston, as diuretic, rhizome parts of it are used in urino-genital et al., 2009) and in Rajasthan its aqueous extract with troubles and leaf juice is supposed to cure ulcers. sugar is given to persons suffering from nostril Dactyloctenium aegyptium has some reported medicinal haemorrhage. Its root decoction is also given to cattle value. Echinochloa crusgalli is used in spleen diseases suffering from respiratory diseases. Its roots are kept in and for checking haemorrhage. Roots of Heteropogon stores to keep away insects from wheat grains (Katewa, contortus are used as a stimulant and diuretic and et al., 2001). commonly used for treating various poisonous bites. Ashes of Pogonatherum crinitum are used in skin Roots of Vetiveria zizanioides are aromatic and are used diseases. The rhizome of Agropyron repens used as as a remedy for various health problems. It is used for demulcent, diuretic and used internally for the treatment its antiseptic properties to treat acne and sores. In of catarrhal diseases of the genito-urinary tract in the traditional medicine, it has the following therapeutic form liquid extract or decoction. the latter is suitable for actions: diaphoretic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, bladder sedatives and antiseptics. Cymbopogon depurative, rubefacient, sedative, stimulant (circulatory, schoenanthus is used in an infusion as a stomachic and production of red corpuscles), tonic and vermifuge the essential oil is useful in treating rheumatism. A (Lawless, 1995). Various tribes use the different parts of decoction of this plant is given as febrifuge and besides vetiver for many o f their ailments such as a mouth ulcer, its value as a diuretic and it is also promotes the boils, epilepsy, burns, snake bite, scorpion stings, dissolution of stones in the bladder. It is also reported rheumatism, fever, headache, etc. The Santhal tribe of for treating variety of diseases varying from gout, fever, Bihar and West Bengal use the paste of fresh roots for cholera to coughs, leprosy, indigestion and burns, snakebite and scorpion stings; decoction of the haemorrhages . Cymbopogon jwarancusa is used as roots has been used as tonic for weakness. The Lodhas febrifuge and stimulant. It is also used for treating gout of West Bengal region use the root paste for headache, and rheumatism. The whole plant of Cymbopogon rheumatism and sprain; the stem decoction is used for jwarancusa including roots is burnt and its infusions are urinary tract infection. The Tribals of Mandla and Bastaro given to the patient suffering from chicken pox. It is also of Madhya Pradesh use the leaf juice as anthelmintic. It mixed with mustard seeds to make the mustard oil is also used for boils, burns, epilepsy, fever, scorpion aromatic. Desmostachya bipinnata is used in sacred sting, snakebite and mouth sore. Root extract is used Hindu ceremonies and also an ingredient of medicines for headache and toothache. The tribals of Varanasi used in dysentery and menorrhagia. The root paste of inhale the root vapor for malarial fever. The root ash is Desmostachya bipinnata along with milk is given orally given to patients for acidity by the Oraon tribe. Likewise, against rheumatism. A decoction of the root of there are many different applications of the plant for Thysanolaena maxima is used as a mouthwash during different ailments among different ethnic tribes in other fever. Triticum aestivum is used as laxative, tonic and parts of India (Jain 1991; Singh and Maheshwari 1983). 56 ECO-CHRONICLE

Miscellaneous uses koenigii and Coix gigantea are used for making rosaries, Brooms: Aristida setacea and Thysanolaena latifolia bead curtains, ornamental trays, baskets and boxes. inflorescences are highly valuable for making brooms on Beads of Coix lacryma-jobi are used as ornaments. Dried a commercial basis. Arundinella setosa and Eragrostis inflorescences of Eragrostiella bifaria are colored and gangetica are also used for the same purpose. used in making bouquets. Dry inflorescences of Desmostachya bipinnata also commonly used as brooms Halopyrum mucronatum and Spinifex littoreus (female in some areas. inflorescence) are used in interior decorations. Roots of Vetiveria zizanioides are woven into fragrant mats, rugs Building materials: Arundo donax is used for light and fans. Leaves of Phragmites vallatoria are used for constructions. Bamboos, which are woody grasses, are mat making. put to innumerable uses in the tropics; the most important being in building construction. Large stems are used for Soil binders: Following grass species are good soil house frames and scaffolding while smaller stems are split binders, as they are either rhizomatous, stoloniferous or and interwoven for walls and floors etc. Containers, both and have remarkable root systems. On the sandy implements and baskets are among other articles made shores and saltpans species like, Aeluropus lagopoides, from bamboo and the shoots and grains of some bamboos Halopyrum mucronatum, Spinifex littoreus, Paspalum are eaten. The dried leaves and stems of many grasses vaginatum, Sporobolus virginicus, Stenotaphrum are used as thatch for house roofs. dimidiatum and Zoysia matrella help to stabilize moving sand. The common soil binders useful in plains, cultivated Drought resistant grasses: Andropogon hallii is often lands and riverbeds are: Cenchrus biflorus, Cynodon cultivated in drought prone areas. Chloris inflata withstands dactylon, Cynodon plectostachyus, Desmostachya drought and thrives well in alkaline soil. Paspalum bipinnata, Eleusine indica, Iseilema hackelii, Panicum vaginatum is salt tolerant and is grown in saline areas. antidotale, Panicum repens, Paspalum distichum, Pennisetum clandestinum is grown in high hills because Saccharum spontaneum, Sporobolus humilis subsp. of its resistance to drought as well as high rainfall. minor, Sporobolus maderaspatanus, Trachys muricata, Echinochloa crusgalli is useful for reclamation of saline Tragus roxburghii and Vetiveria zizanioides. In hilly tracks and alkaline soils. Andropogon hallii, Arthraxon hispidus, Eleusine indica, Eragrostis curvula, Imperata cylindrica, Melinis Flavouring curries: Leaf buds of Cymbopogon citratus minutiflora, Pennisetum clandestinum, Pennisetum are used for flavouring curries and leaves as a substitute hohenackeri, Pennisetum orientale, Tripogon bromoides for tea. and Tripsacum laxum can be successfully used to fight erosion and to stabilize the soils. Fuel grasses: Dried Spinifex littoreus is used as fuel by fishermen. Dried cobs of Zea mays are also used as fuel. Thatching: Leaves of Andropogon polyptychus, Aristida mutabilis, Arundo donax, Cymbopogon caesius, Garnotia Green manure: Eragrostis unioloides and Isachne exaristata, Imperata cylindrica, Phragmites vallatoria, globosa are reported to be used as green manure. Saccharum spontaneum etc. are used as thatching materials. Arundinella nepalensis, Desmostachya Hindu rituals: Cynodon dactylon culm part is used in bipinnata, Pseudanthistiria heteroclita, Themeda cymbaria religious ceremonies. Desmostachya bipinnata and etc. are also used for this purpose. Imperata cylindrica leaves are also used for certain rituals. Sugar production: About half the world’s sugar is produced from Sugarcane, a tropical lowland grass. Industry: Aristida setacea and Chrysopogon aciculatus Important by-products of Sugarcane are molasses, rum are used in brush industry. Saccharum arundinaceum and biogases. The latter is used as fuel and in the culms are used for making screens and handles of manufacture of fibre-board and paper. In some countries brushes. like Brazil, alcohol produced from cane sugar is mixed with petrol as a fuel for motor vehicles. Power alcohol Insect and rodent repellants: Melinis minutiflora with its produced from grain or cane is a possible renewable peculiar odour, is used as an insect and snake repellant. energy source. Inflorescences of Setaria verticillata are used to cover granaries as a rat repellant. Alcohol production: Alcoholic beverages such as beer are made from a fermented cereal grain such as barley. Ornaments, rosary etc.: Culm stalks of Apluda mutica Whisky, gin and vodka are produced by distillation of are used in making hats. Stony fruits of Chionachne fermented grain. ECO-CHRONICLE 57

Other Products: Jain, S.K. 1991. Dictionary of Indian Folk Medicine and The hollow stem Arundo donax and Phragmites karka Ethnobotany. Deep Publ., New Delhi. are used for making pens, musical instrument and also used to make baskets and its stem along with leaves is Kabeer, K.A.A. and Nair, V.J. 2009. Flora of Tamil Nadu - used in roof thatching. The long, narrow and stiff leaves Grasses. St. Joseph’s Presss, Thiruvananthapuram. of Eulaliopsis binnata are used for making ropes. It is also used for making Chabies that are used for keeping food Katewa, S.S. 2001. in B.D. Guria and A. Jain, and brooms locally called which is sold in the market. The Ethnomedicinal and obnoxious grasses of Rajasthan, leaves and stem of Saccharum bengalense are used for India. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 76(3): 293-297. thatching huts for animals, and for making baskets. Its stem is also used for making pens. Lawless, J. 1995. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Essential Oils: The Complete Guide to the Use of Oils in ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Aromatic and Herbalism. Element Books, Shaftesbury, Dorset, UK. The authors are thankful to the Director, Botanical Survey of India, Kolkatta for facilities, Dr. Murugan, Scientist, D, Mitra, S. and Mukherjee, S.K. 2005. Ethnobotanical Botanical Survey of India, Southern Regional Centre, usages of grasses by the tribal of West Dinajpur district, Coimbatore, for encouragement. Dr. K. Sasikala is thankful West Bengal. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge 4(4): to the Principal and Head of the Department of Botany, 396-402. Mahatma Gandhi Government Arts College, Mahe, U.T. of Puducherry for encouragement. Negrelle, R.R.B. and Gomes, E.C. 2007. Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf: chemical composition and biological LITERATURE CITED activities. Revista Brasileira de Plantas Medicinais 9: 80- 92. Adejuwon, A.A. and Esther, O.A. 2007. Hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effects of fresh leaf aqueous extract of Reynolds, S.G. 2016. Grassland of the world. www.fao.org. Cymbopogon citratus Stapf in rats. Journal of Retrieved 2016-10-04. Ethnopharmacology 112: 440–444. Sawyerr, E. 1982. Traditional medicine in Sierra Leone - a Ahmad, F., Khan, M.A., Ahmad, M., Zafar, M., Mahmood, critical appraisal. Nigerian Journal of Pharmacy 13: 28-33. T., Jabeen, A. and Marwat, S.K. 2010. Ethnomedicinal uses of grasses in Salt Range Region of Northern Pakistan. Singh, K.K.; and Maheshwari, J.K. 1983. Traditional Journal of Medicinal Plants Research 4(5): pp. 362-369. phytotherapy amongst the tribals of Varanasri district, U.P. Journal of Economic and Taxonomic Botany 4: 829- Ahmad, F., Khan, M.A., Ahmad, M., Zafar, M., Nazir, A. 38. and Marwat, S.K. 2009. Taxonomic studies of grasses and their indigenous uses in Salt Range area of Pakistan. Tatiana, F.B. and José, M.S. 2011. Lemongrass and citral African Journal of Biotechnology 8(2): 231-249. effect on cytokines production by murine macrophages. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 137: 909– 913. Bor, N.L. 1960. The Grasses of Burma, Ceylon, India and Pakistan(excluding Bambuseae). Pergamon Press, Viana, G.S.B., Vale, T.G., Pinho, R.S.N. and Matos, F.J.A. London, Oxford, New York, Paris. 2000. Antinociceptive effect of the essential oil from Cymbopogon citratus in mice. Journal of Christenhusz, M.J.M. and Byng, J.W. 2016. The number Ethnopharmacology 70: 323–327. of known plants species in the world and its annual increase. Phytotaxa 261(3): 201–217. doi:10.11646/ Wany, A., Jha S., Nigam V.K. and D.M. Pandey 2013. phytotaxa. 261.3.1. Chemical Analysis and Therapeutic uses of Citronella oil from Cymbopogon winterianus: A short review. Gould, F.W. 1968. Grass Systematics. McGraw-Hill Book International Journal of Advanced Research 1(6): 504- Company, New York. 521.