“Speaking a Mutual Language” The Negro People’s Theatre in Chicago Melissa Barton

On 5 November 1938, just under a week before Chicago’s Negro People’s Theatre was to open its first production, the theatre’s executive director, Fanny McConnell, wrote two letters. In one she petitioned Claude Lightfoot, the chairman of the Young Communist League of Illinois, to organize a “theatre party” to attend the upcoming show, Langston Hughes’s Don’t You Want to Be Free? “We would be very pleased to have you attend — particularly en masse,” she wrote. “We feel that the play we are doing speaks a mutual language” (Ellison Papers, Box 6). The other let- ter was to Reverend Harold M. Kingsley of the South Side’s Congregationalist Church of the Good Shepherd, whose congregation comprised mainly middle-class and professional South Siders (Drake and Cayton 1945:537, 670; Best 2005:78–79). McConnell thanked Kingsley for the use of Good Shepherd’s basement as a rehearsal space for the show (Ellison Papers, Box 6).1 The two letters illustrate how McConnell positioned Chicago’s Negro People’s Theatre (NPT) between competing interests among its membership and its audience: On the one hand, her request that the Young Communist League attend “en masse” suggests that she hoped the group would — understanding the “mutual language” of the play — participate in its ending, when the audience stands up and joins in a rent-strike-cum-dance-party; on the other hand, McConnell relied equally on the participation and patronage of the South Side’s more center- left, liberal leadership, benefitting from the aid of not only Good Shepherd, but also the Chicago Defender and the Chicago Urban League. Don’t You Want to Be Free? became the toast of the South Side, suggesting, perhaps, that McConnell succeeded in managing these competing interests. At the same time, it seems that the play itself, in spite of its proletarian ideology, managed to avoid striking the same discord as did such commitments offstage. Audience members responded overwhelmingly positively to the play, even volunteering to overlook aspects that offended their sensibilities. As Corinne Lennon wrote so enthusiastically to McConnell on 21 November 1938 after seeing the pro-

1. It is likely that several members of the Negro People’s Theatre were also congregants of Good Shepherd, and the church was viewed as at the center-left of Black Chicago politics. Kingsley strongly advocated a “social and eco- nomic ministry” to address poverty in the neighborhood surrounding Good Shepherd (Negro History Bulletin 1939:12), while also emphasizing a self-help ethos (Best 2005:89). The church organized the Good Shepherd Community Center in 1936, hosting a variety of community outreach programs, many sponsored by the WPA, as well as various theatre groups over the years, including the Center Aisle Players and the Negro People’s Theatre (Best 2005:79–80; Chung 2008). In 1941 Good Shepherd Community Center would come under the direc- torship of Horace Cayton, who changed its name to Parkway Community House. Parkway Community House also played host to a theatre — the Skyloft Players, which premiered Langston Hughes’s play The Sun Do Move in 1942.

TDR: The Drama Review 54:3 (T207) Fall 2010. ©2010 54 New York University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology

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its “Leftism,” but “Leftism,” its in spite of . radicalism realism was We ‘Leftist’ But I ‘Leftist’ liked the too per Student Essay Contest Winner

Melissa Barton is a PhD candidate in the Department of English at the University of Chicago. Her research considers the theatrical aesthetics and multiply inflected political Theatres commitments and of their the successors. Negro She People’s received the Blair Fellowship at the University of Chicago Dissertation and Year a Billops-Hatch Research Fellowship As at a Emory staff University. member of the Mapping the Stacks archive project, directed she by created Jacqueline archival Goldsby, finding aids and collection guides at several Chicago institutions, including the G. Vivian Harsh Research Collection at the Chicago Public Library and the South Side Community Art Center. The Department of English at the University of Chicago has played an important role in the transformation of literary studies over the and past the half intellectual century, horizons of current work continue that effort, creating a rigorous and exciting intellectual contributions environment to for disciplinary students. The department’s and interdisciplinary innovation are strongly grounded in historical scholarship and in theoretical In and addition conceptual to inquiry. departmental strengths, graduate students are long also tradition encouraged of by interdisciplinary the university’s research and teaching. A new interdisciplinary workshop on Theatre and Performance Studies draws together students and faculty from departments across the university to discuss work in progress, performances in Chicago, and emerging trends in theatre scholarship. The membership as of the NPT had debated over the selection play, of Hughes’s Some of us had a terrific time persuading about half of our membership that the play was There was the usual not confused communistic. attitude that did put the play on and it seemed to be the very vehicle to release the pent-up resentment of the still but public “Red crops over Scare” up, the The many injustices it was enduring. are constantly trying to explain that We since the time of the among relatively few now. Greek theatre it has been the function of the stage to point out what was wrong with the world and that in periods when the stage ceased to do this it fell (Ellison to rock-bottom. Box 6; Papers, emphasis added) formance of the group so much! Every character was quite real So and much sincere. so that in rare moments I almost forgot that I was in the theatre! Or forgot that there was no scen- Lennon Box found (Ellison 6). the Papers, play but ery” itself she distasteful, proceeds to offer it the highest compliment that could be paid to any production by a certain type of theatregoer: she forgot she was in Lennon the may theatre. have enjoyed the play duction, “I “I do not wish to duction, comment on the play because it was members of the Young Communist League found the play perfectly amenable to their members Young ideolog- of the Theatre “The writing Negro ical the on People’s agenda, following 11 month, January 1939, has a definite and significant role to play inthe life of the Negro people and in the struggle for unity of all More progressive plays Thruforces. with yoursocial acting significance are needed. you can play a leading roll [sic] in the movement for the liberation of the ( Negro people” Jack some members Thus, Box Ellison Kling 6). Papers, and Theatre, John Gray to Negro People’s and others wanted the group of the NPT audience “forget,” went to the in theatre a to, word, “the to social stage problems “of of and educational the be value (Ishmael Negro” to workers” both groups though, Unexpectedly, Box Flory 20 Ellison 6). to May Papers, McConnell, 1938, got what they wanted while watching the same play. McConnell would recall a short time later in her letter to Howard Cordery on 9 June 1939: As McConnell’s description indicates, the description company As indicates, was McConnell’s divided about equally among peo- ple who and favored radical those the however, tinge, who play’s McConnell feared herself, it. “realism” she argued Indeed, that clearly the did play’s not believe the play “radical.” to be Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00004 by guest on 30 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00004 by guest on 30September 2021 56 Melissa Barton PublicResearchChicago Library)Collection, Harsh Papers, G. McBride Vivian of William (Courtesy 1938. November Center,Chicago, AbrahamLincoln McConnell. Fanny of FigurePoster1. Chicago’s for Negro People’s Theatre production Don’t Youby directed WantHughes, Free?BeLangston to by serve. While McConnell petitioned members of the serve.of Youngmembers petitioned McConnell While sought and League Communist NPTsthe communities the and patronage on purchase equal an ­masters,to with wished both

try another.one of versions coun- People’sBackstage,the Negro across the up popping Theatres 2.

2 Theatre (1940–1949). Theatre American Negro the and (1940); Company Playwrights Negro short-lived the (1938–1941); Theatre Suitcase Negro Southern Youth the Hughes’sby Langston organized NewCongress; Orleans, and Richmond in Harlem RoseMcClendon’sinclude groups these Negro People’s in Theatre New “People’s (1935–1936); York Theatres” McConnell’sto Inaddition literature. their in such as themselvesreferred to or theatre, name this used either that 1950 and 1930 between “Negrogroups People’s theatre phrase of the host use I whole a to refer Theatres”to here We can think of these successive dilemmas, in theatrical terms, as backstage and onstage Weand terms,dilemmas,backstage theatrical successive as in these of think can

— more acutely than the larger people’smovement larger theatre the than acutely more logue, mono- in delivered Hughes’spoems ing lyric newspaper-styleliving calism. While ­resentment” world”the and with pent-up “release wrong [is] what to out mission “point its the Negro People’sNegro the Theatre. attemptedtostraddle inher management of ciselythose fissures that Fanny McConnell pre- is produced,it they and coalitions the in aesthetictension opened newsocial fissures thesame time, however, this resolution ofan calandbourgeois aesthetic demands alike. At radi- both satisfied characters black of trayal realistic,por and Viewedthe radical both as realism.and agitprop between faced ment move- the tension the resolving to central was notice.Infact, thestaging ofthe black person intheascension ofrealism hasreceived less race of 1985:84–123),role (Levine the realism formeventually yielded tothe dominance of about theatre’sdebates left-wing early the atremovement. Whileothers have noted that the people’sof American evolution the- the in canbeanswered byexamining therole ofrace competinginterests? Both ofthese questions McConnellfind herself negotiating these theendof the 1930s? Andhowand why did theatricalform forsuch disparate groups by opposites.were two the radicalism. and realism conflated them,To the have never “revolutionary”would theatre of decade,proponents same most that earlier as viewed “radical.”be would so doing For, world,”the with wrong [is] what out that and that insistence McConnell’sis here highlight to especially Howdid “realism”become satisfactorya is hardly realistic theatre, realistic hardly is

— — Don’t You WantFree?Be to ,a could indeed could realism“point were the servant of two of servant the were was being was ensemble piece featur piece ­ensemble for radi- mistakenfor what I want I what - - Negro People’s Theatre 57 - - - ­decision (1934), (1934), Stevedore that representation are Defender. Chicago of early-20th-century in a political Vertretung — new social contingencies, new social contingencies, substitution of one represen- — earlier in 1938. White Fog Big from the elusive imme- transmutation literally — that is, the that is, the — — of theatre. As Richard refer Barr function argues, of theatre. both aesthetic and social — were subjects of made persistent all debate, too evi- — complicates Stevedore the racial landscape behind the performers and producers, technicians, audience members, audience members, performers technicians, and producers, In the instance of the Negro People’s Theatres, theatres In the offered Theatres, instance of the Negro People’s — 3 representative of us’”After it ran (in for Fraden two 1994:123). not premiered at Theatre the Great Chicago Northern White Loop’s Fog Big Darstellung in an artistic or philosophical context. She glosses or the first term“speaking as for,” a or whether to do so at all — involved in the This creation larger of conception meaning of through performance.

—

While the backstage problem is essentially political and the onstage one essentially aesthetic, Gayatri attributesSpivak the conflation of these in two cultural understandings“representation” studies ofto what amounts to an error in translation, for Marx uses two Germandifferent words: context, and she also compares theInterestingly, latter form and or to the “portrait.” a second as a “re-presentation” “proxy,” (1988:271–313). “staging” A review of some of the central debates ­represent black workers onstage in

3. tative for many constituents; and the other aesthetic diate to the mediated image. ring to the writings of Richard Schechner, theatre ring and to performance the are writings the of medium Richard wherein Schechner, art and sociality intersect Barr to (Barr uses “performance 1998:19). the community” term describe all those individuals often coyly conflated in cultural studies: one political months to large audiences in the Loop, the FTP, citing concerns that the play was not attracting months to large audiences the in FTP, the Loop, a decided black to audience, move the play to DuSable High School on the where South it Side, closed after four performances. the two problems converge at the point of the donors theatre and its participants suggests that theatre combines two glosses on their performance communities an opportunity to stage both to articulate new situations for the community and to test McConnell those and situations. her contemporaries were keenly aware of these possibilities as for the theatre, function of drama had been the subject of much commentary throughout the early decades of the 20th century. theatre practitioners unearths the central role While of the race black in per these discussions. son was used as a figure to resolve the aesthetic debates the of recog- the theatre, early people’s nition of black distinctiveness would later prove a formidable obstacle in resolving the people’s Figuring sociopolitical prominently contradictions. in theatre’s this debate was the League of a later Theatre 1935–1942), the League 1931–1935), New (NTL, Theatres (LOWT, Workers organization that saw itself as the leader of the York–based theatre national move- people’s New key aesthetic wranglings regarding agitprop the theatre LOWT’s and realistic Tracking ment. theatre reveals that it is no production coincidence Theatre of that Union’s the play featuring “revolutionary” a cast a of both white and was black viewed actors, as the pinna- cle Theatre triumph of But in Union’s realism’s theatre the the movement. people’s to

Eagerly anticipated (FTP) by Theatre leadership the Project’s as Federal a breakthrough for “Negro Units,” their But an April. earlier staged in reading at the YWCA South had Side been met with protests who did not want the play to be American per community, African from sections of Chicago’s She therefore felt herself equally accountable both to an established cadre of left-wing - activ meanwhile, ists on Onstage, the South Side and to the more South centrist Side’s community. not only the style of theatrical presentation but also the question of how African to portray Americans play dent by Ward’s the controversial Theodore reception of Newly hired formed. Negro unit director under Shirley pressure Graham, from middle-class Americans on African the feared South that Side, the play would be received as representa- tive when it particularly was because not, director Kay Ewing had said as much at an open dress As Graham wrote to regional rehearsal. director “People Harry have Minturn of the incident, ‘This play is said to me, advice from the leftist Chicago she Repertory also Group, relied on financial support from the Urban League and as Good well Shepherd, as free publicity from the Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00004 by guest on 30 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00004 by guest on 30September 2021

58 Melissa Barton ments that McConnell was able to transform the South Side into a community.”into “performance Side South the transform to able was McConnell that ments Race and the Real the and Race liberals and bourgeoisie,leftists the to People’sMcConnell’scommitments unraveling competing and Theatre and,eventually, groups.theatre Finally,black Negro the and McConnell Fanny to returning black attract to New League the Theatre of attempts the by scenes,demonstrated as transition. this in race of role the noted have 1930s,few the but of course the over theatre realistic to agitprop from shift thetic movement’sthe aes- traced have stage leftist the 1935.of and Scholars 1933 between League people’sother theatres.and McConnell Fanny by inherited be would legacy other.sphere,the counterpublic on a of organization the for tool a hand,as one This and the uplift,paternalistic on for instrument an theatre’sas community function: of views two between Workers’oscillation of longer League a the of and New part League the as Theatre Theatres 1930s.both early view Instead,the should of workers’we movement the theatre of potential cal radi- the of Yet,watering-down or failure a as simply viewed be not should compromise this 1992:145–48).Kruger 1985:102; (Levine stance proletarian strict initially its moderate and atres the- bourgeois incorporate to mid-1930s the in deciding in League’scompromise conscious of league a called be longer no could it that its felt adopted leadership 1935,“new”NTL its in when name of League Workersthe as “legitimate”1931 theatre.in commercial Founded Theatres,the the to grassroots,alternative a people’scommunity-driven as the theatre saw League Theatre communities”their (New in people’s culture supported dramatic Theatre broadly a of center the becoming of possibility the have theatre legitimate no or little is there organ the in editorial 1935 a 2004). Chansky 1999; (Larabee significance or As civic theatre special “dramatics”nity a held decades,commu- two that view,previous the of movement theatre little the during widespread local of “people’s”manifestations organic the as of understood revival been culture,a ingly in increas- 1930s the scale.throughout national had a theatres on local theatres These community local organize literature,to instructional sought and services licensing and lending script vided culture.theatre national New Depression-era of New York,League The Theatre pro- which People’sNegro phrase The the in “people’sadopted trend Theatres growing theatre”a from PoliticsThe and Aesthetics Newthe of League Theatre stage brief performances alongside breadlines, in union halls, or anywhere else they were likely were they else halls,breadlines,anywhere union alongside or in performances brief stage scenery,complicated build or space mance mobile troupes”formed “shock instead to workers clock.the off perfor were rent they to Withoutwhen capital topics the current on sketches play.the in ing New in Yorkgroups workers’ Many strategy,this adopted satiric short staging join- resist to unable be would workers,workers of those path the in themselves planted ally liter troupes agitprop mobile if affect: of contagion coercive a by members new attract would name,Soviet “agitprop,”propaganda.”for and short “agitation argued,technique,was This it its by to referred widely then by workers’was European that troupes.form the for argued They and Proletbuhne Artef,the a Yiddish-languageworkers’after themselves theatre,modeled had 1930s,early New and 1920s ary”Yorklate the credential.in Beginning as workers’such theatres a as “revolution- quarters some in viewed be to continued plays in actors black of ticipation of real,”sign “the a as deployed increasingly theatres,par was League the race of as mode even 4. Theatrical aesthetics proved central to the LOWT’sthe to New central the proved Theatre into aesthetics transformation Theatrical which was modeled on the Living Newspapers (Levine 1985:84–85; Kruger 1992:227 n.56). 1992:227 Kruger 1985:84–85; NewspapersLiving (Levine the on modeled was which Federalthe in Theatre evident Living and especially Project Newspapers Hughes’s play were and 1930s, later the throughout productions in remained participation, audience and chants as such niques, tech- agitprop of remnants out, points Kruger as and, cut, clear means no by was trend this notes, Levine As workers’ theatres. Ira Levine and Loren Kruger have noted the New the Theatre noted have Kruger workers’Loren only and theatres.Levine Ira New where places attested,Theatrein located theatres new “those 4 As realism began to supersede agitprop as the dominant the as agitprop supersede to began realism As — shows that it is only by yoking these disparate commit- disparate these yoking by only is it that shows — 1935b:24). New The Don’t You WantFree?Be to to the proletariat and proletariat the to ­members - - -

Negro People’s Theatre 59

6 - - ­others employing theatre peo- Theatre usually Workers — opened in November of that year. In their opened in November of that year. Peace on Earth Peace Theatre imagined that their message could be brought liter Workers

5

culture.

I would modify Levine’s argumentI Terada,slightlywouldBrian Massumi, modify and and Levine’s suggest that the differenceRei have designated between “affect” and “emotion” would prove useful would in prove distinguishing between the mechan- “emotion” and have designated between “affect” these scholars interchangeably, have icsand of“affect” Whereas agitprop many and use of “emotion” empathy. attempted to asdistinguish a precognitive,“affect” as physiological the “emotion” stance and taken by the body, “affect”definition as ofa body contextualizedsubjective interpretation in Chicago’s lent to that stance. FeelTank with instantaneous, aincomprehensible “scene,” results, senseresonates withof spontaneousthe workers theatre’s Jernigan Group 2009). 2006;Chicago Publics 2009; Affective participation (FeelTank Front official policyPopularThe Seventh CommunistInternationalat its August Congress made 1935.in the As manifestation in the States shouldUnited not Michael Front’s bethe Denning viewedPopular argues, however, only or even primarily in terms of the activities of the Communist (1996:5,Party 479 n.41). Indeed, as Denning notes and the history of the new theatre illustrates, many of the artists working under the guise of the Popular but nonetheless identified themselves not were as socialistsaffiliated Party, withor left- Front the Communist politics Denning may deemphasize the ists. overly role Front At of the liberals same in time, Popular however, and The formal debate was heavily influencedby spatial considerations: workers theatre lead- theatre a completely By workers’ composed 1933, of theatre professionals was formed: the While many writers for

5. 6. drive to attract “professionals,” the workers’ theatres the began workers’ to of argue “united for front” a drive “professionals,” to attract and amateur bourgeois a worker-actors theatre least professionals, a year “Popular before the the 1930s social movement that united the middle Front,” and working classes under a common would be announced as the officialanti-Fascist policybanner, of the Communist International. ers began to demand a “stationary” complement to “mobile” agitprop as “mobile” early when ers complement as began to 1932, to “stationary” demand a was officially organizedthe atLOWT its First In National a Conference. panel devoted to participants worried Agitprop Theatre, that attracting and agitprop in Stationary was fact, not, must be careful to see that “We oursufficient agitprop participation: plays have good entertain- The panelists also held argued “stationary that theatre” Theatre 1932:5). a (Workers ment value” “possibilities for more thorough and more impressive treatment of the most important sub- Whereas earlier workers groups had felt that mobile troupes jects.” needed to bring the the- theatre imagined atre “stationary” an straight audience to a that the would audience, come to if the only theatre, plays were Stationarysufficiently theatres entertaining. soon began to mea- sure their success in terms of attendance; in they this increasingly respect, began to resemble also commercial emphasizing theatres, the need for professionalism ple with training commercial actors experience, with the then novel and Stanislavsky technique, selling tickets through a formal box office. whose Theatre production Union,

took this form, took presenting this a form, brief sketch and ending with a usually mass a chorus, simple chant which the audience was imagined as spontaneously joining. “Internationale,” or the others par were skeptical effectiveness, of agitprop’s “to the as streets,” one article urged, ally, advocates of realism were viewed ticularly for exploring complex Initially, issues (Mareg 1931:7). as retaining old capitalist forms where new forms but with were by commercial needed, 1933, theatre unemployment at trained 75 theatre percent, professionals skeptical power of agitprop’s would increasingly proponents Ira outnumber (Levine Levine agitprop’s 1985:81). has noted that theatre many critics workers’ began to view realism as a superior form for addressing agit- the workers theatre developed the view very that goal prop’s of Eventually, audience activation. lay not through propaganda, “audience involvement,” the surest way that to is agitation, to say, through empathy (Levine 1985:103–04). rather, as Levine even but, Indeed, points agit- out, most vocal prop’s advocates believed that power the lay form’s in its manipulation of identifica- rather through than emotion, in its use “worker-spectators” and “worker-actors” tion between of persuasive rhetoric. to find groups of Plays workers published gathered. in early issues of Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00004 by guest on 30 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00004 by guest on 30September 2021

60 Melissa Barton that participation”theatre,mass bourgeois (1934:29).this the in Given it like anything been never [...] has here There theatre revolutionary a build to attempted yet has that group ablest the is audiences,organized and prices low of technique,policy on professionalism,its insistence its for review 1934:13–14).his In theatre”revolutionary (Shapiro the for victory it tremendous proclaimed “a immediately 1934,May mob.in lynch opened still-roving play the the back When turn workers black the help Sam’sto at funeral arrive members union killed.white when concludes play The and shot is mob.Sam lynch stevedore again,a fellow escapes by his Lonnie covered Though workers,Florrie.dis- black escapes,on is fellow Lonnie attack his and, alleged with the hiding for up picked him Equality!”has Organizing! and [...] Reds with of around Lonnie “hanging pay.docked about superintendent the stevedore,to black complains accuses superintendent The happened,exclaims,what Florrie know to demand was “It her.beat to begins Bill cries,affair; her neighbors,their by and of drawn husband her When Reynolds,woman,”a Southern “young lover,her and Bill’sinform wife to Bill. threatens Florrie Organization” (Marvin and New Theatre League 1936). New Organization”League and Theatre (Marvin entitled pamphlet “Audiencea publish afterward,would New long League the not Theatre attendance.theatre Indeed,promoting to organizing direct theatre’sfrom new goals the in shift the signals participation,change union this increase to workers’was the theatres of plan nal origi- Gold’stransformation: the read a Whereas of indication participation”as “mass here for Binnie’swrote room.in Shapiro lunch scenes Jack the in workers black the of acterization play had been seen by 300,000 people (Oak 1934:12).(Oak people 300,000 by seen been had play the that claimed the Union fall Theatre the $1.50,by and and cents 30 between Ticketsfor sold by hailed play,new 1934,a of opened the spring Union the Theatre In resentation of black life, was deemed an artistic achievement.artistic an life,for deemed black reviewer was of A resentation beamed” here that deploys stereotypes Atkinson The praise,for writing, actors black the transformation.out this singled Brooks with also Atkinson cast the in actors black (Literarythe crediting in 1934:38).Digestalone not was reviewer This doings”grisly the of spectator Orleans,appalled New an of docks the on standing time,are you door,the outside Manhattan,just Street,get subways Fourteenth a the at periods and,long for cast.for the you believe,in make you Negroes they make the They of that with compare to ing natural, act- find direct not still and end on nights for Broadway of show-shops the comb could find to relieved beings,”of human presentation “thoroughly the with pleased equally were critics Bourgeois beings”as tools.”than human characters planned rather “thoroughly the “coolly reveals ished 1931:4).(Bell Now,propaganda seminating propaganda-free the admon- “atmosphere” Bell that dis- used be instead could that time additional wasted verisimilitude “atmosphere”for added in earlier years three just advanced argument an fight” of and reversal (1934:14).play complete and a Shapiro’slaugh constitutes and praise beings.human cringe thoroughly and as weep but They idea an of conveying the for tools If reviewers universally lauded the play,char the round lauded its universally for reviewers praise If highest their saved they Set in New Orleans’scommunities,New wharf in Set the nature out of it.of (1934:33) out nature the discipline to not enough wise been has director raciness,the and and bite and tang with empress lunchroom the as Harvey Georgette of callousness broad-beamed Blacksnake,the as or Ingram Rex of [Lonnie] brawniness as black Thompson,the or Carter Jack of exhilarating.manliness wholly the are is that it earthiness Whether an and [sic] robustiousness a scenes their give Negroes the But [...] good are actors white The New Theatre ,in characters “The Stevedore

— New Theatre indicate how the racialization of these characters, perceived as an authentic rep- authentic an characters,as these perceived of racialization the how indicate does not involve what we might typically call participation,”typically “audience might we what involve not does should we Stevedore’ contributors as a triumph for the revolutionary the for triumph a as contributors didacticism tempered by the play’sthe wrote,realism.by reviewer tempered One didacticism s “You , Michael Gold wrote,Masses,Gold New Michael “The Union,its Theatre with Stevedore — opens with an argument between Florrie between argument an with Stevedoreopens [...] move about the stage not as coolly planned coolly as not stage the about move [...] Workers that held Bell TheatreSidney ,which in “earthiness,” “manliness,” “brawniness,” “broad- — a nigger!”a Meanwhile, Lonnie, a Stevedoreimmediately ,was which and stationary theatre.stationary The New The Yorker — it is acting is it New Theatre - - Negro People’s Theatre 61

8 in mod- — and Bill and Stevedore — that is, racial “masking” — Binnie’s “broad-beamed” banter, banter, “broad-beamed” Binnie’s 7 wrote, “Unfortunately, the whites in the “Unfortunately, wrote, Opportunity the evil boss, the the evil saintly boss, union organizer — capitalized on a sign common to modern aesthetics: racialized bodies Stevedore Stevedore the elements of “atmosphere” Bell lamented. Meanwhile, the white Meanwhile, characters Bell tend lamented. the “atmosphere” elements of s lunch room near the dock. A counter, with stools, runs obliquely across the back. There is a There runs back. obliquely across the with stools, A counter, near the dock. room s lunch

— Sam Oxley, a large, solid Negro of 50, stands in the doorway looking out. Binnie, an energetic an energetic Binnie, looking out. stands in the doorway of 50, solid Negro a large, Sam Oxley,

Theatre UnionTheatre actors, like those of its contemporaryGroup Theatre,acting were given training Stanislavsky’s in technique. (1994) Michael North has noted the centrality of linguistic imitation ern Anglo-American aesthetics. This linguistic imitation is theNorth link, argues, between an Anglo-American modernism and the African American modernism “transatlantic” of the Whereas white Harlem writ- Renaissance. ers had the privilege of linguistic choice,in ofdialect, “slumming” black writersJean likeLawrence Paul Dunbar, and Countee Cullen felt compelled to distinguish Toomer, themselves by other means of technical innovation. In spite of its highly appreciated the ethnographic play realism, actively discourages its audi- front and rear door, and a window; to one side is a radio. door, front and rear while peels potatoes, and bent, grey-haired Uncle Cato, cleans behind the counter. 35, of woman Negro mournful blues. comes a low, the radio From stands listlessly at the counter. Ruby, girl, Negro a young : I thought you wiping dat counter. BINNIE looking up at Ruby wiping it. I’m RUBY: (Peters and Sklar 1934:123) see you. let’s Well, BINNIE: We can see how these reviewers may We have reached their conclusions by looking at the play The play opens with two scenes designed to set false downfall: up rape Florrie’s Lonnie’s Binnie’

7. 8. Indeed, the reception authentic Indeed, of is the “naturally” of actors a as piece with this trend. chides his ence from As the thinking Lem white in Morris, union black organizer, and white. fellow Al: white stevedore

Whereas the preceding two scenes have only offered the “a vaguest fence” hint of a setting, a counter, lunch room Binnie’s comes complete a with window, doors, desk,” “a sergeant’s or Eachcharacter “stage 2). is busi- (see given “fourth fig. wall” a consequently, and, a radio, stools, another hallmark of verisimilitude. realistic theatre’s ness,” equated the realism of the play with the appearance ability. of black “natural” actors with Whereas many of scenes the serve play’s only itself. to advance its the complicated scenes plot, involving the and black ordinary workers activities, are fleshed out with inconsequential banter, singing to be flat melodramatic stereotypes As the whose argument Florrie, sparks the engine of quickly the disappear plot, from the play. American journal reviewer African for the cast bring little in or either no ‘atmosphere’ speech authentic or Southern characterization” 1934:149). (Lyman followed by charge, a But police the lineup. third scene finds and us lunch the in room, Binnie’s plot suddenly slows to a grinding halt: succinctly summed up the “It general looks response: as if the way to make a propaganda play if palatable the is, plot to will engage permit, Negro actors to participate Somehow in they it. every review exception, of Without make it seem (Benchley more 1934:30). real” and voices, accompanied and by voices, such details as dialect were and perceived music, as more realistic. featured throughout the play, has relatively little serving weight only in plot, to the featured draw play’s throughout the play, In addition attention listlessness. to to clear the Ruby’s attempts authors’ to embellish the scene, the radio use always Binnie’s of plays dialect here. and music “atmosphere” provide additional blues and or scenes jazz, on the wharf and funeral at provide Sam’s the occasion for work songs It and is spirituals. no coincidence also that mark these “atmosphere” the elements charac- of ters as black. Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00004 by guest on 30 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00004 by guest on 30September 2021

62 Melissa Barton and white workers, those who saw the play universally received those workers as distinct.as workers those received universally play the saw workers,who white those and revolutionary.inherently as onstage people black of presence unite”the viewed white like and slogans play’s“black to the accustomed climax.as audiences serve Radical to is mob.lynch time,the same however,the At very this is it off fight workers white and black of jumble scene, a final when its by evinced physically notion play,the do”for you and (73).as Lem For category the identification,“worker” racial a trumps another,of favor same the walloper,just “I’mdock wharves a these on truck a pull Sam,I and “Youman,white Mr.a in Morris,”identification of category one discrediting by responds Lem Lonnie,trust”tells can (71).Sam you plainly, man Lem ain’twhite tells “Dar no Sam When though even Morris whites,Lem of vindicating mistrust black of critical equally is play The Foundations) Culture,ResearchBlack for in CenterNew Schomburg YorkPublic Library, Astor, and Lenox Tilden Division, Prints and Photographs the of byNewTheatre, (Photo Courtesy 1934. Studio. Vandamm York, Repertory Civic The Blankfort. Michael by directed Union, Theatre the by Sklar, George produced and Peters Ingram,GeorgetteBinnie),Leigh Harvey(as Whipper,Jack Carter, Thomas. Edna and Ray Actorsinclude detail. Yates,Al Watts,AlonzoRexLewis, Fenderson,CarringtonBolden, Harry G.I. stevedores in Binnie’sFigureThe gather 2. decorative of plenty with featured set a which realistic room, lunch Even while the victory the while Even 1934:62) Sklar too.and neck (Peters the in it get you’reto sure going damned pretty be neck,can the you in it get they time every And do.they as same Company do.YouStevedore they as same the just cut wages your get change,[...] we’da somewhere maybe for Youget Company Oceanic the for work Stevedore Oceanic the fight trash.out,and you’dwhite you’dthat together If if cut get LEM: That’sit! That’sstuff! the You low you call niggers,they dirty and them call scored for revolutionary theatre was its coalition of black black of coalition its was theatre revolutionary for Stevedorescored of black and white that white and black of intermingling StevedorePaulby Negro People’s Theatre 63 New “I’m a “I’m are are references — Waiting for Waiting By 1936, this By 1936, New Masses, 12 ’s suc- ’s Stevedore

With its “New” “New” its With 9 11 New Theatre Theatre New 1935a:3). in 1933. in 1938 (during an Stevedore actual dock- New Theatre Theatre New Lefty successfully married agitprop and realistic tech- ’s authenticity. ’s Stevedore Playing to an audience of 4,000 in Harlem on

10 ’s reception further Lefty’s demonstrated the - imbrica to Theatre Workers , the LOWT announced that it the would for LOWT offi- Lefty, Waiting its deployment of ethnographic realism cuts against that dis- —

1934a:20). Herbert Kline 1934a:20). noted with of pleasure the that, 280 plays Lefty as the climax in his narrative of the ascent of realism in the new theatre, but I argue that review lamented that the play had “drastically not rewritten been [...] to meet was the firstrealistic Stevedore play to gainrecognition widespread and tremendous ticket sales and, as dis-

In the same issue that reprinted workers’ strike),workers’ white unit Negro directors Florence and Burton authenticity, wouldJames emphasize the play’s even though they were attracted to the message.play wouldFlorence forJames recall its the“progressive” attempt to find authentic work songs“After for a the long production: search, a man swinging a pick was finally found who know [sic] some such songs. They had never beenby heard theRepertory group before, and theywere writ- ten down for perhaps the first time. The ditchdigger-songster was transferred to the FTP” (in Redd 1995:82). As if to alsoemphasizeFlorence James notedhis thatauthenticity, the had “ditchdigger-songster” worked as an actual stevedore on the docks in Louisiana. Levine Ira cites deserves though, this as credit. Stevedore Even Levine argues, niques, cussed its above, final scene was indebted to agitprop. The magazine had changed its name from And it was these celebrations that would have the more lasting impactaesthetics. When on thethe new theatre’s Project electedunit to of Theatre produce Seattle Negro the Federal The use of the phrase “people’s theatre” in theatre” the literatureThe ofuseNew the of“people’s Theatre the League phrase and its affiliates follows in theatre” address in April 1935. In fact, some of the earliest uses of “people’s Burke’s to Negro People’s JulyTheatres in 1935 the special issue devotedNegro to theatre. the People’s to Negro

New Masses 9. the specific problem of production there by was anda Instead, for a Theatre. Negro Peoples in the ‘Jewish’ passages on for racial of ‘Negro’ for the mechanical example, word substitution, no of degree course, of And, acting excellence discrimination could in overcome the hospitals. such obstacles” (Chumley 1935:27). In the opinion of thiseven reviewer, the presence of black actors onstage could not convey Odets’s characters as black, if the parts were not rewritten to reflect their race. its opening night at this Rockland Palace, tion of calls for realism with race: even though Theatrethe Negroselected People’s the play because black taxi drivers had actually participated in the strike on which Odets based the play, a cess would solidify callsthe LOWT’s for Whenrealism. playwright George Sklar enumerated responsible “burst“definitefor of developments” the vitalitythe in workers theatres- through Theatre Union the was first “successful on for demonstration his its [...] list, out the country,” attract large audiences that and a maintain workers itself theatre could function professionally, Announcing a new playwriting contest (1934:8). co-sponsored by financially” offering Theatre literally $50 devalued forms, for agitprop the in “stationary” best favor of but only $25 “best for the and $50 for “short the revolutionary best play,” “revolutionary play,” revolutionary political sketch pic- suitable for clubs, performance at workers’ street meetings, Theatre (New etc.” nics, “the trend [is] Most toward of realism. the submitted, playwrights have dropped the primitive as style most that, everyone ‘agit-prop’ in the workers has theatres limited knows, their devel- First opment prize for (1935:23). was several awarded years” to Clifford Odets’s whoseLefty, ensuing popularity led to its selection, in July 1935, as the first play performed by Theatre. Negro People’s Rose McClendon’s direction, Theatre the League New was direction, well-positioned to “revolutionary adopt symbol” the Conference held innovated later by Writers that Kenneth year Burke American (1935:88– at the In his Burke 92). infamous argued deployed address, that “the by the worker” left-wing symbol recommendation seems Burke’s to have cultural workers should be “the replaced people.” with led to the widespread semantic change Theatre–affiliated among groups. New 10. 11.

dock walloper, just like you” dock walloper, Indeed, though the Indeed, play attempts to represent the dissolution of racial difference solution, as evidenced solution, by the many celebrations of cially change its Theatre name to Theatre the League New (New 12. Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00004 by guest on 30 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00004 by guest on 30September 2021

64 Melissa Barton such theatres across the country.the across theatres such forming in interest would,renewed turn,theatres a in black prompt separate of tutionalization special FTP’sunits.”of the “Negro institution for seed the become would Theatre insti- This Federal indeed,Projects’the stance: Arts ognize McClendon’smagnanimous People’s Negro group’srec- to distinct,better as “contribution”the group each recognized,preserve would nations.”federated of a “nation of oric Federal Projects’the Arts to rhet- amenable be ultimately would nationalism,that alternate one People’s,”an 1930s,suggest late would the throughout theatres several by adopted name the “the people” into a coherent,people”a “the unified into ‘America’Front,transmute Popular sought,words,(1996:9).to the FTP other like the In itself” workers, of ethnic figure and the the of reclaiming African ture by culture,part American in alliances,between racial mediating and Anglo ethnic culture,forge cul- American to the sought FTP’s People’s”“National culture Denning’s public thatreflects Front argument “Popular U.S.noted,the has of the Denning symbol Front.central “people”Popular the became The (Federalpatrons theatre of class elite an ple”than rather MagazineTheatre 1936). Michael As Theatre,”FTP’sthe describe to audience,”intended “new common the “peo- from drawn one the People’sitself “National naming Federal Project the Theatre in culminate would trend of Frank of Wilson’s the rial,congratulated Actor’sthey rewriting Emergency the protested Association,had which the edito- called 1934 companies.“Jim-Crowing”they a theatre what In of opposed strongly button capitalist the into of issue 1932 Fight,”as Big such “The sketches agitprop to fall in the thrown in platitude published mon white existence.and social com- “unity”Black of a category was determining plays, the their as emphasize to ers’wanted they movement,as even work- the to significance greater their prove would that milestone a as workers black of sion negro,”of workers.”interests “white the with line large,in writ are LOWTThe inclu- the set to to simply workers”“the once “negro and workers”white (1931:2).as well Significantly,as negro the of interests here once refers Elion the serve workers’may the theatre that so activity this into workers negro in draw to effort sible revue cal Broadway,”on Negro the of WorkersElion Henry musi- the Laboratory condemned Theatre ranks.their In among workers “The black of absence the lamented articles these frequently as in of issues and 1932 1931 April June the in printed were Scottsboro on based plays sketches: new for material provided had rape) of charges ous spuri- on death to in sentenced men Alabama black young of group (a Nine Scottsboro the struggle.class the of in case front The key a as LOWTdiscrimination The race ending saw theatres. black of formation the see to wanted who programmers cultural other of ambitions the with theatre’sconverged new program the that point this at actors.was black It requiring plays of repertoire limited a by circumscribed themselves find jobs,to new only for Carter,ing.Jack and Ingram Rex workers,from as These graduate such would direct- and acting of techniques in trained were who workers theatre black required gressivism pro- this demonstrate to need credentials,its progressive but its of sign question”a “race as of League WorkersThe the on stance its viewed New League the Theatre later and Theatres People’sNegro of Rise The Theatres Line Mason-Dixon the Crossing actors to share the stage with black actors (New actors black with 1934b:4). Theatrestage the share to actors Workers Theatre Throughout its early years, the LOWT was determined to attract black workers to its ranks.its to workers years,black LOWTearly attract the its to Throughout determined was George White’ Workers chant,the Theatrewith , ended which “A blow white and black united (also known as known (also Mose Brother criticizing “the insidious slander of the Negro people”Broadway,Negro on the of slander criticizing insidious “the just and and called on “every workers’ theatre group to make every pos- every make on to workers’called group “every and theatre Scandals s — / for a workers’ and farmers K.O.!”workers’farmers a and for / 1932).(Lee Indeed, LOWT the by means of theatre attendance.theatre of means yet by And nation “Negro This pluralistic vision of a national culture,each national with a of vision pluralistic This negro,”the of that interests suggest “the to if as ) so that it would not require white require not would it that so Mose) Meek Workers Theatre.appeared frequently Articles rather than rather class racein and theory ,in both Stevedore looking — / Negro People’s Theatre 65 - theatre” with ­theatre” in Stevedore equating ­ ethno , eventually find find eventually , Stevedore Asked if the “serve theatre should 13 1933:4–5). Theatre distributed in 1933 to New prominent the- about “crossing Chicago’s Mason-Dixon Line” Mason-Dixon “crossing Line” Chicago’s Theatre about New

Other survey respondents pagespublished includedin Michaelthe Gold, magazine’s Gorelik, Mordecai Paul Lawson. Howard and John George Sklar, Green, While the League of Workers Theatres discouraged the “Jim Crowism” of Theatres “Jim black discouraged Crowism” commu- the While the Workers League of Even though the coalition of Harlem’s Negro People’s Theatre and Theatre the move- New Negro People’s Even though the coalition of Harlem’s even By as 1935, the Theatre rechristened League New continued to denounce Broadway’s , while and at Bess, the same time Porgy looking forward to the “the day Ellingtons when

nity theatres, these nity same with theatres, theatres the would, help of plays like plenty of Realism room big increasingly in Theatre tent. called the League’s for New represen- tations of black characters performed by and black those actors, whose mission was the founda- tion of a black theatre were waiting the in Rose preeminent the McClendon, black wings. actress, to the survey if tersely, responded agreeably, Theatre (New atre people York throughout New 13. as an ‘escape’ from life,” McClendon answered, “yes.” Should “reflectthe contempo- theatre “yes.” McClendon answered, from life,” ‘escape’ as an Should “exclude Also the class yes. theatre struggle fromrary itssocial themes”?conflicts?” No. These questions attractionreflected to McClendon’s the many and multiple aims of the New and Asked not accommodation Theatre, merely of to Theatre’s bourgeois the interests. New “Which outlook-upon-life offers the greatest creative stimulation for the dramatist of today?” Her “workers” interest in “revolutionary.” McClendon and also circled “liberal” two options: McClendon theatre saw notwithstanding, her involvement with Theatre the coalition New as enabling her to fulfill her dream of a Speaking Negro two theatre. years later before an audience an ailing Theatre, McClendon “left-wing credited the Negro People’s for Harlem’s we At have last, a - the I will die happy. “If theatre I “our possible: die own” tomorrow, making performance Tonight’s atre of something our I own, have been wanting for the last fifteen years. proved it and it proved another thing: that we belong in the left-wing theatre and only in the left-wing movement can we build and maintain such (in a Naison theatre” 1983:154). ment Theatres the owed would push much pragmatism, for to Negro McClendon’s People’s also absorb some of the progressive rhetoric In of Theatre a the League. pamphlet New from theatre in “A Augustus Smith wrote, Theatre,” a Negro People’s circa “Towards 1939 entitled which the revolutionary traditions and rich culture of the Negro people find articulate form is America needed today in [...] It can give a strong ammunition to the national Negro libera- rhetoric echoes Smith’s the Theatre Box League League 31). (New Records, tion movement” who “revolutionary had - tradi Theatres, long “the had argued Negro that people” Workers of His Theatre vision imagined for that Theatre a the League Negro New would People’s tions.” Theatres cre- the new Thus, Negro People’s aid “national in Negro the liberation movement.” ated a space for both radical and bourgeois black theatre people to pursue their dramatic inter ests side by side. the league Americans, had begun African to portrayals advocate of the cultivation of a Negro drama Edward “such and Morrow tripe theatre. lambasted as [...the] lamp-black Negroisms” of and [sic] the will Hughes’ take desire for their Morrow’s themes from (1935:5). their blood” “themes from indicates their the blood” success of productions like graphic realism In with his radicalism. celebration of the new coalition “united of front,” the Mark Marvin reported that the regional conference of the league recently held in Chicago “had a long and earnest discussion concerning the creation of a Negro theatre that will be the authentic expression of the rich culture and militant traditions of the exploited Negro peo- even while Theatre Thus, the League New was “fight determined against to (1935:24). ple” actively by encourage it 1937, Negro would, theatre Jim-Crowism [...] behind the footlights,” As the head groups of Alice (Marvin the 1935:24). play service for Theatre the League, New who had Evans, earlier written in courted Negro groups to for perform mem- interracial Abraham theatre Lincoln at Center, bership in the Evans League eagerly (1934:10). followed the progress of Langston Hughes’s Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00004 by guest on 30 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00004 by guest on 30September 2021

66 Melissa Barton and eventually taking a drama degree at the University of Iowa in 1936. in Iowa of University the at degree drama a taking eventually and University,Fisk to matriculating elite Kappa the sorority,Alpha of Alpha member a becoming before Chicago and Colorado in poverty desperate in childhood her spent had McConnell Dead Arise,by written Theodore WardKentucky,McConnell.in Fanny Born by directed and sketch the performed School,group High a DuSable at Congress Negro National the by sponsored 1938,protest March anti-lynching when,in an came atre’sat moment galvanizing the- 1936,the as but early as began Side South the people’son a theatre organize to Efforts movement.theatre little the of legacy the in trained been had who people theatre and activists FTP’sthe inspiration. Chicago’s left-wing of coalition People’sa Negro of out grew Theatre from forming them of groups,many theatre with black out seek to continued League Theatre service.licensing Meanwhile,and New play-reading local the central ous a “units”offering and numer overseeing New as League,the itself Theatre after imagining ways many in itself eled Federal Project’sthe Theatre into transmuted had units.”Harlem “Negro in mod- FTP The Chicago’sand Suitcase NPT. League’snewsletter the internal of 16). issues Box Successive for.theatre”a you’veRecords,(New such that League launched hear Theatre It’s to wonderful I’vethat been 1938, July 15 on NTL, replied the “It’s Evans project about a information for Evans wrote first People’sNegro the Suitcase Chicago. and Harlem in Theatre Theatre McConnell Fanny When 14. ‘exclusive’Club.’Drama [sic] ‘dilletant again her write you When dismay,some with Hughes Langston to write “F.another just this make to McC.going is sive,year,useful,same people’s that vital theatre”of Papers, May 6).(Ellison 3 Box would By he a of “progres- anticipation eager in member,1938 Party March 19 on McConnell to wrote 13).Davis,Robert meanwhile, who,Margaret like Walker Flory,Ishmael and Communist a was times”Papers,all (Ellison to Box and peoples universal,all nearly to most is appeal whose he is artist greatest cold.the me But leave may them stirs others,what move and not may me moves Stanislavsky,as well as drama modern notes,of her history in the writing studied “What had she Iowa at empathy; audience to appeal would that portraits realistic for preference her indicated Shapiro’sfor Jack praise duplicates nearly which ing fight,”and love and portray hunger to who African beings as human Americans phras- “mere People’sNegro a for Center,”(“Prospectus Art playwrights Papers,7).Ellison wished Box She theatres,a little place”offering commercial “reputable best with the people” attract “qualified to to trend “professionalize”recent the non- in follow would group theatre McConnell,new the Negro.stage For the of stereotypes the combat to and directors and actors black for tunities oppor create to was aim days,chief Iowa her her in stage the from exclusion leagues.by Stung more her “progressive”to sympathetic (2007:177),col- remained writes McConnell Rampersad views.conflicting held radical,”herself outset, a McConnell the “Hardly and from as Arnold People’s Center,”Art Director.Executive Papers,elected 7).Ellison was Box McConnell Side South Writersthe Margaret Group: Negro Walker a for (“Prospectus Davis Robert and a People’sof “Negro formation Theatre,”included which Ward from colleagues his of two and the discuss to group a 1938,organized March meeting,McConnell 20 mass on anti-lynching to NPT members, she was careful to stipulate that by that “people’sstipulate mean to not theatre”“pro- careful did members, was she NPT she to community.performance the for modeled she that memo savvy a semantic In a demonstrating Papers,53). (Hughes Box do!”organization.you democratic you’vecourse informed.Don’tthat Of been intimate Savvy?

By the time of her premature death in 1936,McClendon’sin People’sRose death Negro premature her of Theatre time the By The diversity of the group, and consequently of their aims for the theatre,clear the was for aims their of group,consequently the and of diversity The McConnell proved quite adept at managing the group’s varying interests, at least for a time,a group’sfor interests,the least varying managing at at adept quite proved McConnell . She would take the name Fannyname the take McConnellInvisibleShewould Ellison.Man. novel his on work at already then Ellison, Ralph young a marry eventually and meet would McConnell 1944, In tremendously much interested in for several years, and tried to help lay the basis the lay help to years,tried several and for in interested much ­tremendously Stevedore.Indeed, McConnell’s humanism New both featured News Theatre — stress the need for broad- for need the stress 14 Twothe after weeks Even the Even

- - Negro People’s Theatre 67 - - in substi- real conditions — ’s end- ’s Stevedore wholesome wholesome and sig- set out in that most —

’s Mason family ’s in White Fog Big she clearly believes that the the- —

perhaps deliberately — she told the group: a much more comfortable world and yet you may — t You Want to Be Free? to Be Free? Want You t “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness” liberty, “life, Don’ — you can help to bring about a new day” “If —

not for the sake of truth, not as a scientist seeking truth, but as one upon whom Truth not for the sake not of as truth, a scientist but seeking as truth, one Truth upon whom idle talent of who have found Negroes no outlet and have little chance of ever finding it in —

Perhaps most significantly, McConnell had allowed the “Negro interpretation People’s of Perhaps most significantly, nificant entertainment through performances that are pertinent in theme & to the lives of the people of the The Theatre community Negro is [...] Peoples also organized to absorb the Box the (Ellison 6; professional Papers, emphasis theatre. added) While McConnell would tout the theatre’s “progressivism” in she some While also “progressivism” quarters, McConnell used would tout the theatre’s The Theatre Negro is Peoples organized to provide for the community You are often are going not to inter be accused of belong We [sic] You to a radical theatre. ested in doing propaganda plays. We are only interested in presenting I the ask We truth. ested in doing propaganda plays. you not to be taken in by people who accuse you of dealing in propaganda because they themselves prefer to I ignore am realities. sure that everyone [sic] of you will agree that if anyone [sic] of the problems Langston Hughes touches on in his play were corrected we would live in a much better world let let it don’t Don’t shake you, have heard “radical.” from some or people that “red” it is young and frank every and reason you’ve to be courageous and stout- You’re it touch you. And if it you should can hearted help about doing. to what bring you’re about a new day, make For you we and glad. all the believe in the right of every man Liberty, to Life, Box Pursuit (Ellison 7) of Papers, Happiness. the NPT’s campaign to save the play, even though many South campaign Siders the had to NPT’s save originally the objected play, to the play on the grounds that the family was decidedly the opposite (“Important Notice to The Box 19 Ellison 6). May Papers, 1938, Who Feel Those the Need All of Theatre,” a Negro “wholesome wouldand begineuphemism significant” to appear in requests to sponsors and Theatre advertisements throughout for the the rest Negro of People’s 1938 and early 1939. to referring remain to and Theatre” ambiguous, the as theatre” a group both “people’s as a Whereas the like former phrasing, “permanent theatre for the Negro people.” The unlikely word “wholesome” had also The “wholesome” been unlikely used word to describe American of documents, American the of Declaration documents, of Independence. the language of the little theatre movement to as attract well from audiences, as among patrons, In the the middle-class September NPT South “sponsoring reformers. 1938, organized Side’s a McConnell wrote a that paragraph would of committee” help On copy raise 3 funds. October, for the committee chair Lillian Summers to use in attracting sponsors: viewed stagings ing, of blackness as a means to its elimination as a significant category of social atre can make the “truth” more visible. At the she same gives time, her more cast atre visible. the can “truth” language make with the which to defend themselves from red baiting: rather than being un-American and communis- the play tic, upholds tenets Though she made her opposition to “propaganda theatre” explicit, McConnell echoes W.E.B. W.E.B. Though McConnell she echoes made explicit, her “propaganda opposition theatre” to (1926) “Criteria Art” infamous of Du essay Negro Bois’s tuting the word “truth” for “propaganda.” The essay is “[A]ll well remembered for the dictum, “propaganda.” for tuting “truth” the word but art Du is Bois propaganda also and equates ever art must and be propaganda [...],” with “[W]hat have truth: been the tools of the artist in times gone by? First he of has all, used the Truth eternally thrusts itself as the highest handmaid as of the imagination, one great vehicle of uni- (Du presenting versal Bois For the understanding” [1926] McConnell, 1994:66). Americans would African incite sufficientof outrage to motivate her audiences to ensure that Though those she conditions couches would her be hope changed. for the effect of the play in the conditional ing the membership the language to make their work In more a palatable. speech to the - ensem ble on the opening night of paganda theatre” (20 March 1938, Ellison Papers, Box 7). But, despite her But, own Box more (20 Ellison 7). liberal paganda March Papers, theatre” 1938, McConnell demonstrated stance, her keen awareness of frequently linguistic offer distinctions, Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00004 by guest on 30 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00004 by guest on 30September 2021

68 Melissa Barton play selections like selections play enduring,”injustices.was those it However,protest tices to audiences its encouraging without injus- many the over public the of resentment pent-up to the only “release served plays the changed. actually Indeed, were satisfied, few been wrote, perhaps, but have McConnell may as compromises 1941,Papers,53).Hughes Box development This between of theatre”schedule Hughes,significance”plays “good January to “social and 31 (Davis production its alternate to agreeing point years,one more at several for along limped NPT NPT.the from resign to McConnell forced Buford) Ligon Withoutleadership,her Chicago’s demands.their make to words the with people,”the of stage problems to “the atre community the backstage,arm did to she and, as just the- use 2004).to Chansky determined time,1996; was same Jackson McConnell the 1999; At (Larabee decades previous from proponents theatre little of theories need”the munity echoes provide amusement”would serve “wholesome theatre com- to the “a McConnell’s that sense aims: dual these 1938,described September ship,she 8 dated theatre’sthe member to letter people.a black In of suffering the portray to desire a and uplift of tenets of blend a were NPT the for McConnell’shopes that own clear recipients, is ticular it par please to designed seems certainly functions.correspondence populist her of some While and paternalistic both serve would theatre the that hope earnest an encies,revealed McConnell constitu- various to theatre the educate.representing to In wished she audiences very the attract going,to theatre and her keep to order in Side South the on leadership black the of support the needed she that themselves. knew to She people the reflect would ­“progressive”that theatre training,a her of and from theatre theatres “wholesome”a little both the uplift,on modeled more something “permanent.”as People’sNegro the envisioned as McConnell Theatre themselves,in and end an as blackness of stagings imagined existence,latter the “audience organization,” we might view the very organization of the performance community as community performance organization,”the “audience of organization very the view might we community.coalescing for engine from organization”shift “worker the to lament than Rather an as theatre the of spirit interaction.”the human to of true is theatre the of understanding This a as “laboratory theatre the of space the structuring gathering,fact for in occasion or event an theatre,than black more the Wilkerson“mainstream” that as argues theatre theatre, the treats 1999: in Margaret by Wilkersondescribed theatre black the for basis the established having as Theatres by , rather than rhetorical, means. In this respect, we should view the Negro People’sNegro rhetorical,aesthetic,the than view respect,means.rather should this we In By the end of 1939, fatigue, a new job, and a new marriage (to NPT publicity manager publicity NPT (to 1939,marriage of new job,fatigue,end a new the and a By Papers,7) (Ellison Box him.attracts that amusement wholesome no is there and to go to home at one no is there corners,street because on time his spends who boy eight,their until and nine from So Mrs.and for So cooks worker, who Negro wife the his ditches,to digs and who man the people.the of problems and Tolife day to day the on emphasis expression,and clarity denied [sic] for hereto- people young of group large creative,expression,a and of for artistic avenue an People’shand,Negro one need.the the community On opens a Theatre supply to ing attempt- group a are plays,we give but to organized people Weof group a just not are ([1999] 2006:35) ([1999] piece.museum a than rather potential and interaction human of laboratory a as theatre the treat to companies these allows occasion and event as theatre of [...] concept tion The audience’sblack reac- a for stimulus unique a as viewed is choice Each [...] accepts atre the- mainstream than even materials of spectrum broader a tolerates reason,theatre black stimulus.that of For form a as event performance the to approach common a actuality in is theatre community by productions of mixture incongruous an like seems often What — illustrates the sacrifice inherent in McConnell’s linguistic ambiguities: everyone McConnell’s ambiguities: in linguistic inherent sacrifice the illustrates — Don’ these are you and others who will come in. On the other hand,gives other in.it the come On will who others and you are these t You WantFree?Be to offered the best chance of producing agitation producing of chance best the offered — a reductio ad absurdum ad reductio of the new theatre’snew the of ­therefore - - Negro People’s Theatre 69 - Theatre Theatre , ed. Henry ed. , Congress Theatre, June:4. Workers February. ’ Writers American November:2. Theatre, December:10–11. New Within the Circle: An Anthology of African American African Anthology of An the Within Circle: Workers Theatre, Theatre, Workers Black Metropolis: A Study of Life Negro in Metropolis: Black a Northern New City. Theatre, March:23. New 28 April:30. 28 Yorker, New 19 April:33. 19 Times, York New New Masses, 1 May:29. . 23 June. https://coral.uchicago.edu/display/utopianfutures/ 23 June. . FeelKit 1936. “The People’s Theatre Grows Stronger: WPA Drama Continues to Make Theatre WPA Grows Stronger: “The People’s 1936. The Cultural Front: The Laboring of American Culture in the Twentieth Century. Twentieth American Culture The in the Laboring of Front: The Cultural Composing Ourselves: The Little Theatre Movement and the American Audience. Audience. American Theatre Movement and the The Little Composing Ourselves: 1, 6:1. 1, Theatre Magazine Federal Passionately Human, No Less Human, Divine: 1915–1952. Religion and Culture in Chicago, Black Passionately . Ann Arbor: Ann The of Stages Community Theater. in the Modern Rooms View: with a The National Stage: Theatre and Cultural Legitimation in England, France, and America. and France, in Legitimation England, Theatre and Cultural The National Stage: . Cambridge: Cambridge . 1935–1939 University Theatre, Blueprints for a Federal Black

Literature. Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library. Yale University. Yale Beinecke Rare Literature. Book and Manuscript Library. Press. University of Michigan Press. Princeton: Princeton University Press. International Publishers. York: New 88–92. Hart, IL: Southern Carbondale, Illinois University Press. AFFECT (4 March 2010). Theatrical History.” 3:337–61. 48, Journal University 11 unpublished of manuscript. Chicago. Workshop, Cultures Chicago: University of Chicago Press. London: Verso. London: York: Harcourt Brace and Co. York: Durham and 60–68. Angelyn Mitchell, Criticism from the Literary Harlem Renaissance ed. to the , Present London: Duke University Press. Hughes, Langston. Papers. James Weldon Johnson Collection in the Yale American Collection of Johnson Collection Yale in the Weldon James Papers. Langston. Hughes, American Reform.” and Theatre, “Civic Play-Housekeeping: Gender, 1996. Shannon. Jackson, Fraden, Rena. 1994. 1994. Rena. Fraden, “Stevedore.” 1934. Michael. Gold, mance communities. References group discussion University 22 on of June. affect. Chicago. Working Affective 2006. Publics Group. “The Play.” 1934. Brooks. Atkinson, 1998. Richard L. Barr, America.” Theatres in Workers for Technique A “Wanted: 1931. Sidney. Bell, Theatre.” “The 1934. Robert. Benchley, 2005. D. Wallace Best, In “Revolutionary America.” Symbolism in 1935. Kenneth. Burke, 2004. Dorothy. Chansky, New Masses, 11 June:27. Theatre.” “The 1935. Allen. Chumley, April. 30 Chicago, Personal interview. 2008. Lester. Chung, 1996. Michael. Denning, DC. Washington, Library Manuscript of Division. Congress. Papers. Ralph. Ellison, Mason-Dixon “Below Line.” Chicago’s 1934. Alice. Evans, “Affect.” 2009. Chicago. FeelTank Theatre Magazine. Federal American Baldwin.” Wright, “From Affective Sentimental Fictions: to Stowe, 2009. Adam. Jernigan, “The New Plays.” 1935. Herbert. Kline, 1992. Loren. Kruger, creating the necessary staging ground for By public streamlining debate. seemingly antagonis- tic ideological tensions into an if institutional only form, for a Fanny short McConnell’s time, NPT and Theatres the managed many to capable other coalesce perfor Negro viable, People’s Drake, St. Clair, and Horace Cayton. 1945. and 1945. Horace Cayton. Clair, St. Drake, Du Bois, W.E.B. [1926] 1994. “Criteria of Negro Art.” In “Criteria Art.” of Negro [1926] 1994. W.E.B. Du Bois, “The Negro on Broadway.” 1931. Henry. Elion, Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00004 by guest on 30 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00004 by guest on 30September 2021

70 Melissa Barton New Theatre. New 1934a.Theatre. Contest.”“Play New 1933.Theatre. the for American “Prospects Theatre.” Bulletin. NegroDoing History 1939.is Today.”Church Negro the “What Naison,Mark. 1983. Morrow,Edwin. 1935. Gerswhin’son Ellington “Duke ‘Porgy.’” Marvin,Mark,New League.and Theatre 1936. Marvin,Mark. 1935. “An Peoples American Theatre.” Mareg,E.W., trans. 1931. the “How ‘Workers Theatre’ WorksGermany.”in Lyman,John. 1934. Saints.” and “Stevedores Literary1934.Digest. “TroublePortrayed.”Docks the at Down Levine,Ira A.1985. Lee, Will.1932. Fight.” Big “The Larabee, of Ann.Drama Transformation’:1999. “‘The Neighborhood the and Idealism House Settlement Shapiro,Jack. 1934. “Stevedore.” Redd, Tina.1995. “Stevedore Rampersad, Arnold.2007. Peters,Sklar.Paul,George and 1934. Oak,M.Liston 1934. Replies.” Union “Theatre North,Michael. 1994. New League.Theatre Records.and Division.Manuscripts Archives New The YorkLibrary.Public Astor, New Theatre. New Theatre.1935a.New Editorial. Theatre,February:3. Workers Theatre. Wilkerson,Margaret.2006. [1999] Black“Redefining Theatre.” In Spivak,Chakravorty.Gayatri 1988. Speak?”Subaltern In the “Can Sklar,George. 1934. “Workers Theatre Advances.” October:11–12. J. Playhouse.”In of DramaAmerican and 7,Theatre(Spring):66–87. 2 Press. University Oxford Lenox,and TildenFoundations. Tasksthe of Workers States.”United the in Theatre Routledge. London: Literaryin CulturalConcepts and Critical Studies, vol. J.3,Laurie with ed.Murphy Brenda C. Cella, 31–44. Press. Grossberg,Illinois Lawrence of 271–313.and eds.University Nelson Urbana: Cary

Ellen Gainor,Ellen 123–38. Press. Michigan of Ann University Arbor: 1934b. 1935b.New the Theatre.”for “Prospects 1932. National “First WorkersDevelopment,the Prospects,on Conference and Theatre Performing CulturalAmerica: in Nationalism American Theater,eds.D. Jeffrey and Mason Left-WingDramatic the in Theory American Theatre. Press. Research Ann UMI Arbor: Editorial. . Urbana: University of Illinois Press. Illinois Depressionof .the University During HarlemUrbana: in Communists The Dialect of Modernism: Race, Modernism: Language,of Dialect The and Twentieth-CenturyLiterature .New York: Ralph Ellison: Ralph BiographyA .New York: Alfred A.Knopf. in Seattle: A Case Study in The Politics of Presenting Race on Stage.”on Race Presenting of in Politics Study Seattle: The Case in A New Theatre, New Theatre, Workers January–February:4–11. Theatre, New Theatre,December:20. Stevedore: in Play A Three Acts.New York:Covici, Friede. September:4. Opportunity, May:13–14. Audience Organization.Audience New September:12. Theatre, New Theatre, New Theatre, New September:24. Theatre, Workers Theatre, May:149. New September–October:4–5. Theatre, LiteraryMay:38. 5 Digest, September:8. New Theatre, Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture, of Interpretation the and Marxism Twentieth Century Drama:American December:24. New York:New League. Theatre Negro History Bulletin, NegroHistory May:5. Workers Theatre, December:5. May:7. Journal