SHI Yunli Department of the and Scientific Archaeology University of Science and Technology in China

2017/12/23 1 The Scientific Revolution:

The drastic changes and transformations occurring in nature-knowledge and its making in the 16th to 18th centuries that give rise to what is know as modern science.

2017/12/23 2 N. Copernicus J. Kepler G. Galileo W. Harvey F. Bacon

R. Descartes R. Boyle C. Huygens W. Leibniz I. Newton

2017/12/23 3 The Origins of Modern Science, H. Butterfield 1st edition in 1949 (1900-1979)

2017/12/23 4 Since that revolution overturned the authority in science not only of the Middle Ages but of the ancient world—since it started not only in the eclipse of scholastic philosophy but in the destruction of Aristotelian —it outshines everything since the rise of Christianity and reduces the Renaissance and Reformation to the rank of mere episodes, mere internal displacements within the system of medieval Christendom. Since it changed the character of men’s habitual mental operations even in the conduct of the non-material sciences, while transforming the whole diagram of the physical universe and the very texture of human life itself, it looms so large as the real origin both of the modern world and of the modern mentality that our customary periodization of European history has become an anachronism and an encumbrance.

2017/12/23 5 The Needham Question

• Why, between the first century B.C. and the fifteenth century A.D., Chinese civilization was much more efficient than occidental in applying human natural knowledge to practical human needs.

• Why did modern science, the mathematization of hypotheses about Nature, with all its implications for advanced technology, take its meteoric rise only in the West at the time of Galileo [but] had not developed in Chinese Joseph Needham civilisation or Indian civilisation? (1900-1995)

2017/12/23 6 There is only one problem with the History of Science—

It is far too big a subject!

—Sarton to his graduate students at Harvard

George Sarton (1884–1956)

2017/12/23 7 SHI Yunli Department of the History of Science and Scientific Archaeology University of Science and Technology in China

2017/12/23 8 Contents of the Talk • 2 Old Traditions • 5 New Changes • 1 Conclusion

2017/12/23 9 Old Tradition 1: Natural Philosophy

Physis (φύσις) Nature

Physikoi (φυσικοι) Natural philosopher

Arche (άρχή) Epistēmē (ἐπιστήμη) origin/first cause knowledge /science

2017/12/23 10 Pre-Socratic Search for First Cause

Thales (c.624—c.546 BCE) • Water Anaximander (c.611—c.547 BCE) • Infinite Anaximenes (c.585—c.528 BCE) • Air (c.582—c.496 BCE) • Numbers Empedocles (c. 490— c.430 BCE) • 4 Roots: Fire, Air, Water, Earth (c.460—c.362 BCE)

2017/12/23 • Atomos=Individable 11 Change and Knowledge

Heraclitus (c. 540—480 BCE): everything flows, only Logos is in common, but humans always prove unable to understand it.

Xenophanes (c.570—480BCE): There actually exists a truth of reality, but humans as mortals are unable to know it. You can know something but not really know it.

Parmenides （c. 514BCE - 450BCE）: Sensory faculties lead to false and deceitful conceptions. Reality is one, change is impossible, and existence is timeless, uniform, necessary, and unchanging. It is understood through reason or logos. 2017/12/23 12 (429BCE–347BCE) (, 384BCE – 322BCE)

2017/12/23 Raphael's School of 13 Plato’s Timaeus, Medieval Latin Manuscript, Vatican Library

2017/12/23 14

Plato’s Theory of Ideals/Forms Ontology Epistemology

2017/12/23 15 Plato’s Geometric Atomism

Cube Icosahedron Octahedron Tetrahedron Dodecahedron (earth) (water) (air) (fire) (the fifth element)

elements Solids (a) (b) Fire Tetrahedron 8 0 Air Octoahedron 16 0 Water Icosahedron 40 0 Earth Cube 0 12 Heaven Dodecahedron 0 0

2017/12/23 16 Aristotle’s Works on Natural Philosophy

De Caelo， Physica， Historia Animālium， Medieval，Vatican Medieval，Vatican 13th Cent.，NLM-USA

科技史与科技考古系 石云里 · 科学简史 科学革命篇 教授 · Aristotle’s Natural Philosophy

Knowledge • Logic/analytic

Substances • 4 + 1 elements and 4 prime qualities

Physics • Motions and causes

科技史与科技考古系 石云里 · 科学简史 科学革命篇 教授 · Aristotle’s Organon and Syllogism

Major 1. Categories • All men are mortal. 2. On Interpretation premise 3. Prior Analytics Minor • is a man. 4. Posterior Analytics premise 5. Topics 6. On Sophistical • Therefore Socrates is Conclusion Refutations mortal. Aristotelian elements and qualities

+ Aether

2017/12/23 20 Motions 4 Causes • Change in Quantities • Matter • Change in Space • Form • Change in Quality • Agent • End Medieval Representation of Aristotle’s Cosmos

Earth/Moon sub-lunar realm Mercury Venus Sun Mars Jupiter Saturn Fixed stars and Primum mobile

Note the last : Coelum Empireum Habitaculum Dei et Omnium Electorum Old Tradition 2: Mathematical Treatment of Nature

One of the oldest surviving fragments of 's Elements, found at Oxyrhynchus and dated to circa AD 100. Euclid, c.325—c.265 BCE 2017/12/23 23 The Axiomatic System of the Elements

• Definitions (23 in all): point, line, ends of a line, straight line, surface, edges of a surface, plane surface, plane , … • Common Notions： • Things which equal the same thing also equal one another. • If equals are added to equals, then the wholes are equal. • If equals are subtracted from equals, then the remainders are equal. • Things which coincide with one another equal one another. • The whole is greater than the part. • Postulates： • To draw a straight line from any point to any point. • To produce a finite straight line continuously in a straight line. • To describe a circle with any center and radius. • That all right equal one another. • That, if a straight line falling on two straight lines makes the interior angles on the same side less than two right angles, the two straight lines, if produced indefinitely, meet on that side on which are the angles less than the two right angles. • Propositions：Theorems, constructions, and their mathematical proofs. 2017/12/23 24 Let it be assumed 1. 1. That rectilinear rays proceeding from the eye diverge indefinitely; 2. That the figure contained by a set of visual rays is a cone of which the vertex is at the eye and the base at the surface of the objects seen; 3. That those things are seen upon which visuals rays fall and those things are not seen upon which visual rays do not fall; 4. That things seen under a larger angle appear larger, those under a smaller angle appear smaller, and those under equal angles appear equal; 5. That things seen by higher visual rays appear higher, and things seen by lower visual rays appear lower; 6. That, similarly, things seen by rays further to the right appear further to the right, and Euclid’s Optics in Heiberg J.L. ed.. things seen by rays further to the left Euclidis Opera Omnia, vol. VII appear further to the left; 7. That things seen under more angles are seen more clearly. , c.287-212BC Floating Bodies, On the Equilibrium of Archimedes Planes (ca. 310-ca. 230 BC) On the Sizes and Distances of the Sun and Moon Eccentric Circle , c.262-c.190 BCE

Hipparchus of Nicaea, Epicycle-Deferent ca. 190-ca. 120 BCE Claudius , Mathematical Syntaxis, or , ca.85-ca.165 In Greek, Parchment, Ninth century Pages from 1550 Annotazione on Sacrobosco's Tractatus de Sphaera, showing the Ptolemaic system.

2017/12/23 30 Equant Model

Equant

Earth Ptolemy’s Comments on the Importance of mathematics We accordingly thought it up to us so to train our actions even in the application of the imagination as not to forget in whatever things we happen upon the consideration of their beautiful and well-ordered disposition, and to indulge in meditation mostly for the exposition of many beautiful theorems and especially of those specifically called mathematical. Branches of theoretical philosophy: • Theology(metaphysics)----too aloof; • Physics----too changeful and obscure; • Mathematics-----clear and reliable. New Change 1: From Geocentrism to Heliocentrism

Copernicus as a Renaissance man: • competent in canon law • practices medicine • wrote a tract on coinage • served as administrator of his cathedral, and as a diplomatic representative for Frauenburg • painted his own portrait • made his own astronomical instruments Nicolaus Copernicus 1473-1543

2017/12/23 33 Commentariolus (Little Comments, before 1514) It is particularly such arguments that collapse here, since I treat the earth's immobility as due to an appearance. Georg Joachim Rheticus 1514-1574

Narratio Prima (First Narration, 1540) De Revolutionibus (1543) Reinhold’s view on De Revolutionibus Axiom of Astronomy: Celestial the Motions are Uniform and Prutenic Tables, 1670 Circular, or composed of Uniform and by Erasmus Reinhold (1511-1553) Circular parts.

科技史与科技考古系 石云 · 西方科学史 里教授

Tycho Brahe The large mural quadrant 1546—1601 at Tycho’s Uraniborg The Helio-geocentric System of Tycho

科技史与科技考古系 石云 · 西方科学史 里教授 Mysteriu Cosmographicum, 1596

Johannes Kepler, 1571—1630

科技史与科技考古系 石云 · 西方科学史 里教授 Kepler’s demonstration of the elliptical orbit of Mars. Astronomia nova, 1609

科技史与科技考古系 石云 · 西方科学史 里教授 T2/R3=const.

Harmonice mundi, 1619)

科技史与科技考古系 石云 · 西方科学史 里教授 Tabulae Rudolphinae, Ulm, 1627

2017/12/23 43 New Change 2: Redefinition of the Relation between Natural Philosophy and Theology

Galileo Galilei 1564-1642

科技史与科技考古系 石云 · 西方科学史 里教授 With absolute necessity we shall conclude, in agreement with the theories of the Pythagoreans and of Copernicus, that Venus revolves about the sun just as do all the other planets.

Letters on Sunspots (1613)

科技史与科技考古系 石云 · 西方科学史 里教授 I hold that the Sun is located at the centre of the revolutions of the heavenly orbs and does not change place, and that the Earth rotates on itself and moves around it. Moreover ... I confirm this view not only by refuting Ptolemy's and Aristotle's arguments, but also by producing many for the other side, especially some pertaining to physical effects Christina of Lorraine whose causes perhaps cannot be determined 1565-1637 Mother of Cosimo II de in any other way, and other astronomical Medici discoveries; these discoveries clearly confute the Ptolemaic system, and they agree admirably with this other position and confirm it.

Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina, 1615 科技史与科技考古系 石云 · 西方科学史 里教授 This being granted, I think that in discussions of physical problems we ought to begin not from the authority of scriptural passages but from sense experiences and necessary demonstrations; for the holy Bible and the phenomena of nature proceed alike from the divine Word: the former as the dictate of the Holy Ghost and the latter as the observant executrix of God's commands . It is necessary for the Bible, in order to be accommodated to the understanding of every man, to speak many things which appear to differ from the absolute truth so far as the bare meaning of the words is concerned. But Nature, on the other hand, is inexorable and immutable; she never transgresses the laws imposed upon her, or cares a whit whether her abstruse reasons and methods of operation are understandable to men.

科技史与科技考古系 石云 · 西方科学史 里教授 For that reason it appears that nothing physical which sense experience set before our eyes, or which necessary demonstrations prove to us, ought to be called in question (much less condemned) upon the testimony of biblical passages which may have some different meaning beneath their words. For the Bible is not chained in every expression to conditions as strict as those which govern all physical effects; nor is God any less excellently revealed in Nature's actions than in the sacred statements of the Bible.

The intention of the Holy Ghost is to teach us how one goes to heaven, not how heaven goes.

2017/12/23 48 Sketch of Inquisition headquarters in Rome

The Conclusion of the Inquisition in Feb. 1616: The idea that the Sun is stationary is "foolish and absurd in philosophy, and formally heretical since it explicitly contradicts in many places the sense of Holy Scripture..."; while the Earth's movement "receives the same judgement in philosophy and ... in regard to theological truth it is at least erroneous in faith."

科技史与科技考古系 石云 · 西方科学史 里教授 Decree of General Congregation of the Index March 5, 1616 ...And whereas it has also come to the knowledge of the said Congregation that the Pythagorean doctrine—which is false and altogether opposed to the Holy Scripture—of the motion of the Earth, and the immobility of the Sun, ……Therefore, in order that this opinion may not insinuate itself any further to the prejudice of Catholic truth, the Holy Congregation has decreed that the said Nicolaus Copernicus, De revolutionibus orbium, and Diego de Zuniga, On Job, be suspended until they be corrected; but that the book of the Carmelite Father, Paolo Antonio Foscarini, be altogether prohibited and condemned, and that all other works likewise, in which the same is taught, be prohibited, as by this present decree it prohibits, condemns, and suspends them all respectively.

2017/12/23 50 Galileo facing the Roman Inquisition in 1616 by Cristiano Banti (1857)

Galileo’s correction of Copernicus’ book

科技史与科技考古系 石云 · 西方科学史 里教授 Salviati -----Copernican Simplicius-----Aristotelian Sagredo------Interlocutor

Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, 1632

科技史与科技考古系 石云 · 西方科学史 里教授 Abjuration of Galileo Galileo before the Holy Office in 1633

… with sincere heart and unfeigned faith I abjure, curse, and detest the aforesaid errors and heresies, and generally every other error, heresy, and sect whatsoever contrary to the said Holy Church, and I swear that in the future I will never again say or assert, verbally or in writing, anything that might furnish occasion for a similar suspicion regarding me; but that should I know any heretic, or person suspected of heresy, I will denounce him to this Holy Office, or to the Inquisitor or Ordinary of the place where I may be…. I, the said Galileo Galilei, have abjured, sworn, promised, and bound myself as above; and in witness of the truth thereof I have with my own hand subscribed the present document of my abjuration, and recited it word for word at Rome, in the Convent of Minerva, this twenty-second day of June, 1633. New Change 3: Rise of Empiricism and Experimental Philosophy I need not don a coat of mail or a buckler against you, for you are not learned or experienced enough to refute even one word of mine…you defend your kingdom with belly-crawling and flattery. How long do you think this will last?...Let me tell you this: every little hair on my neck knows more than you and all your scribers and my shoe- buckles are more learned than your Galen and Avicenna, and my beard has Paracelsus, more experience than all your high 1493-1541 colleges.

2017/12/23 54 Andreas Vesalius，1514-1565 On the Structure of Human Body, 1543 William Harvey, 1578-1657 An Anatomical Exercise on the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals, 1628. In the discovery of secret things and in the investigation of hidden causes, stronger reasons are obtained from sure experiments and demonstrated arguments than from probable conjectures and the opinions of philosophical speculators of the common sort.

William Gilbert，1544-1603 On the Magnet and Magnetic Bodies, and on the Great Magnet the Earth, New Physiology, demonstrated with many arguments and experiments， 1600 I have held up a light in the obscurity of Philosophy, which will be seen centuries after I am dead.

Francis Bacon，1561-1626 1. Partitions of the Sciences (De Augmentis Scientiarum) 2. New Method (Novum Organum) 3. Natural History (Historia Naturalis) 4. Ladder of the Intellect (Scala Intellectus) 5. Anticipations of the 2nd Philosophy (Anticipationes Philosophiæ Secunda) 6. The Second Philosophy or Active Science (Philosophia Secunda aut Great Instauration, 1620 Scientia Activæ) • Knowledge must be useful; • Usefulness of knowledge is a way to prove its truth; General • Induction is the only reliable Axioms method: • empirical knowledge is the New experiments basis of learning, & • tables of presence, observations absence, degrees; • first conclude and then exclude; Intermediate • Purgation of the four-fold Idols: Multi Axiomspertransibunt & Idols of the Tribe, the Cave, augebitur scientia the Marketplace, the Theatre. Natural and Experimental Novum Organum Scientiarum History 1620 Sylva Sylvarum= the Forest of Forest New Change 4: Mathematization of Nature

• Not just applying mathematics in studying nature; • Not seeing mathematical laws as convenient instruments; • But believing in the real mathematical structure of the universe; • And the truthful reality of the mathematical laws. Federico Commandino, 1509—1575 ARCHIMEDES. Opera non nulla. Edited by Federico Commandino, with commentary. Venice: Paolo Manuzio, 1558. Simon Stevin 1548—1620

The Principles of the Art Principles on the Weight of Weighing，1586 of Water，1586 Mathematical Semantics of Nature Philosophy [i.e., physics] is written in this grand book. […] It is written in the language of mathematics, and its characters are triangles, circles, and other geometrical figures, without which it is humanly impossible to understand a single word of it; without these, one is wandering around in a dark labyrinth.

Galileo’s Assayer, 1623 The 1st and 2nd Qualities • Primary qualities: size, position, time and motion, ect. mathematically measurable and therefore are real ones. • Secondary qualities: tastes, odor, heat, color, ect. mathematically immeasurable and therefore are unreal ones. • Galileo’s applications of the method: ----in the study of motion, pendulum, cosmology, and strength of beams. The Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences, 1638 • Mathsis Universalis = method with the certainty of mathematics, like ; • Rules and laws in Physics/natural philosophy = of mathematical /geometrical rules and laws; • World = matter (geometrical extension) + motion = mathematical/geometrical René Descartes， magnitudes (division, shape, 1596-1650 motion) ; • Analytical Geometry = a geometry for the explanation of nature. Mathematical experimentation

The Stevin Chain New Change 5: Prevalence of Mechanism • See the world as an inanimate exist, • Attribute the natural phenomena to mechanical rather than any occult actions, • Reduce the macro behavior of a body to the motion and structure of the inanimate corpuscles that compose the body.

2017/12/23 71 The Strasbourg Astronomical Clock by Tobias Stimmer (1539-1584) 中国科学技术大学 石云里教 · 西方科学史 授 And methinks the difference betwixt their opinion of God's agency in the world, and that, which I would propose, may be somewhat adumbrated by saying, that they seem to imagine the world to be after the nature of a puppet, whose contrivance indeed may be very artificial, but yet is such, that almost every particular motion the artificer is fain (by drawing sometimes one wire or string, sometimes another) to guide and oftentimes over-rule the actions of the engine; whereas, according to us, it is like a rare clock, Robert Boyle such as may be that at Strasburgh [sic], where all things 1627-1691 are so skillfully contrived, that the engine being once set a moving, all things proceed, according to the artificer's first design, and the motions of the little statues, that at such hours performs these or those things, do not require, like those of puppets, the peculiar interposing of the artificer, or any intelligent agent employed by him, but perform their functions upon particular occasions, by virtue of the general and primitive contrivance of the whole engine. 中国科学技术大学·石云里教授 西方科学史 Lucretius’ On Nature of Things,

Discovered by Poggio Bracciolini in 1417,

Copied by Girolamo di Matteo de Tauris for Sixtus IV, Italy, 1483 Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers, Diogenes Laërtius, 200-500

The Whole Vol. 10 devoted to Epicurus.

De vitis dogmatibus et apophthegmatibus clarorum philosophorum, Amsterdam 1692, Descartes: Extension, Motion and the Universe

Treatise on the World, 1633 Principles of Philosophy, 1644 Magnetism Refraction Man is Machine Evangelista Torricelli , 1608-47 Blaise Pascal，1623-1662

Experiments at Puy de Dome Otto von Guericke, 1602-86 Magdeburg Hemisphere Robert Boyle (1627-91) New Experiments Phisico-Mechanical, Touching the Spring of the Air and Its Effect (1660) The Skeptical Chymist, 1661

Corpuscles, Corpuscular Philosophy The Conclusion: Newton’s Great Synthesis

Plato is my friend, Aristotle is my friend, but my best friend is truth.

Isaac Newton, 1643-1727 The Mathematical Principle of Natrual Philosophy, 1st edt. 1787;

2nd edt. 1713; 3rd edt. 1726. Contents of the Principia

• Definitions: Mass, Momentum, Inertia, Acting Force, Centripetal force;+ Scholium: relative/absolute time, relative/absolute space. • Axioms or Laws of Motion: Three Laws ; • Book 1: De motu corporum (On the motion of bodies) [in free space]. • Book 2: De motu corporum (On the motion of bodies) [in medium]. • Book 3:De mundi systemate (On the system of the world) . Mathematization of Nature

Since the ancients (as we are told by Pappas), made great account of the science of mechanics in the investigation of natural things; and the moderns, lying aside substantial forms and occult qualities, have endeavoured to subject the phenomena of nature to the laws of mathematics, I have in this treatise cultivated mathematics so far as it regards philosophy. […] and therefore we offer this work as the mathematical principles of philosophy. Force as a key mathematical quantity …for all the difficulty of philosophy seems to consist in this – from the phenomena of motions to investigate the forces of nature, and then from these forces to demonstrate the other phenomena; and to this end the general propositions in the first and second book are directed. In the third book we give an example of this in the explication of the System of the World. Mechanism

…for I am induced by many reasons to suspect that they may all depend upon certain forces by which the particles of bodies, by some causes hitherto unknown, are either mutually impelled towards each other, and cohere in regular figures, or are repelled and recede from each other; which forces being unknown, philosophers have hitherto attempted the search of nature in vain; but I hope the principles here laid down will afford some light either to this or some truer method of philosophy. Rational mechanics

It comes to pass that geometry is commonly referred to their magnitudes, and mechanics to their motion. In this sense rational mechanics will be the science of motions resulting from any forces whatsoever, and of the forces required to produce any motions, accurately proposed and demonstrated. Emphasis on experience and experimental knowledge

Newton’s grave in the Westminster Abby, Designed by William Kent Sculptured by Michael Rysbrack ,1731 Inscription on the grave

Here is buried , Knight, who by a strength of mind almost divine, and mathematical principles peculiarly his own, explored the course and figures of the planets, the paths of comets, the tides of the sea, the dissimilarities in rays of light, and, what no other scholar has previously imagined, the properties of the colours thus produced. Diligent, sagacious and faithful, in his expositions of nature, antiquity and the holy Scriptures, he vindicated by his philosophy the majesty of God mighty and good, and expressed the simplicity of the Gospel in his manners. Mortals rejoice that there has existed such and so great an ornament of the human race! Alexander Pope, 1688-1744

Nature and Nature's laws lay hid in night; God said, Let Newton be! And all was light.

By Jean-Baptiste van Loo, ca 1742 96