SHI Yunli Department of the History of Science and Scientific Archaeology University of Science and Technology in China 2017/12/23 1 The Scientific Revolution: The drastic changes and transformations occurring in nature-knowledge and its making in the 16th to 18th centuries that give rise to what is know as modern science. 2017/12/23 2 N. Copernicus J. Kepler G. Galileo W. Harvey F. Bacon R. Descartes R. Boyle C. Huygens W. Leibniz I. Newton 2017/12/23 3 The Origins of Modern Science, H. Butterfield 1st edition in 1949 (1900-1979) 2017/12/23 4 Since that revolution overturned the authority in science not only of the Middle Ages but of the ancient world—since it started not only in the eclipse of scholastic philosophy but in the destruction of Aristotelian physics—it outshines everything since the rise of Christianity and reduces the Renaissance and Reformation to the rank of mere episodes, mere internal displacements within the system of medieval Christendom. Since it changed the character of men’s habitual mental operations even in the conduct of the non-material sciences, while transforming the whole diagram of the physical universe and the very texture of human life itself, it looms so large as the real origin both of the modern world and of the modern mentality that our customary periodization of European history has become an anachronism and an encumbrance. 2017/12/23 5 The Needham Question • Why, between the first century B.C. and the fifteenth century A.D., Chinese civilization was much more efficient than occidental in applying human natural knowledge to practical human needs. • Why did modern science, the mathematization of hypotheses about Nature, with all its implications for advanced technology, take its meteoric rise only in the West at the time of Galileo [but] had not developed in Chinese Joseph Needham civilisation or Indian civilisation? (1900-1995) 2017/12/23 6 There is only one problem with the History of Science— It is far too big a subject! —Sarton to his graduate students at Harvard George Sarton (1884–1956) 2017/12/23 7 SHI Yunli Department of the History of Science and Scientific Archaeology University of Science and Technology in China 2017/12/23 8 Contents of the Talk • 2 Old Traditions • 5 New Changes • 1 Conclusion 2017/12/23 9 Old Tradition 1: Natural Philosophy Physis (φύσις) Nature Physikoi (φυσικοι) Natural philosopher Arche (άρχή) Epistēmē (ἐπιστήμη) origin/first cause knowledge /science 2017/12/23 10 Pre-Socratic Search for First Cause Thales (c.624—c.546 BCE) • Water Anaximander (c.611—c.547 BCE) • Infinite Anaximenes (c.585—c.528 BCE) • Air Pythagoras (c.582—c.496 BCE) • Numbers Empedocles (c. 490— c.430 BCE) • 4 Roots: Fire, Air, Water, Earth Democritus (c.460—c.362 BCE) 2017/12/23 • Atomos=Individable 11 Change and Knowledge Heraclitus (c. 540—480 BCE): everything flows, only Logos is in common, but humans always prove unable to understand it. Xenophanes (c.570—480BCE): There actually exists a truth of reality, but humans as mortals are unable to know it. You can know something but not really know it. Parmenides （c. 514BCE - 450BCE）: Sensory faculties lead to false and deceitful conceptions. Reality is one, change is impossible, and existence is timeless, uniform, necessary, and unchanging. It is understood through reason or logos. 2017/12/23 12 Plato (429BCE–347BCE) (Aristotle, 384BCE – 322BCE) 2017/12/23 Raphael's School of Athens 13 Plato’s Timaeus, Medieval Latin Manuscript, Vatican Library 2017/12/23 14 Plato’s Theory of Ideals/Forms Geometry Ontology Epistemology 2017/12/23 15 Plato’s Geometric Atomism Cube Icosahedron Octahedron Tetrahedron Dodecahedron (earth) (water) (air) (fire) (the fifth element) elements Solids (a) (b) Fire Tetrahedron 8 0 Air Octoahedron 16 0 Water Icosahedron 40 0 Earth Cube 0 12 Heaven Dodecahedron 0 0 2017/12/23 16 Aristotle’s Works on Natural Philosophy De Caelo， Physica， Historia Animālium， Medieval，Vatican Medieval，Vatican 13th Cent.，NLM-USA 科技史与科技考古系 石云里 · 科学简史 科学革命篇 教授 · Aristotle’s Natural Philosophy Knowledge • Logic/analytic Substances • 4 + 1 elements and 4 prime qualities Physics • Motions and causes 科技史与科技考古系 石云里 · 科学简史 科学革命篇 教授 · Aristotle’s Organon and Syllogism Major 1. Categories • All men are mortal. 2. On Interpretation premise 3. Prior Analytics Minor • Socrates is a man. 4. Posterior Analytics premise 5. Topics 6. On Sophistical • Therefore Socrates is Conclusion Refutations mortal. Aristotelian elements and qualities + Aether 2017/12/23 20 Motions 4 Causes • Change in Quantities • Matter • Change in Space • Form • Change in Quality • Agent • End Medieval Representation of Aristotle’s Cosmos Earth/Moon sub-lunar realm Mercury Venus Sun Mars Jupiter Saturn Fixed stars and Primum mobile Note the last sphere: Coelum Empireum Habitaculum Dei et Omnium Electorum Old Tradition 2: Mathematical Treatment of Nature One of the oldest surviving fragments of Euclid's Elements, found at Oxyrhynchus and dated to circa AD 100. Euclid, c.325—c.265 BCE 2017/12/23 23 The Axiomatic System of the Elements • Definitions (23 in all): point, line, ends of a line, straight line, surface, edges of a surface, plane surface, plane angle, … • Common Notions： • Things which equal the same thing also equal one another. • If equals are added to equals, then the wholes are equal. • If equals are subtracted from equals, then the remainders are equal. • Things which coincide with one another equal one another. • The whole is greater than the part. • Postulates： • To draw a straight line from any point to any point. • To produce a finite straight line continuously in a straight line. • To describe a circle with any center and radius. • That all right angles equal one another. • That, if a straight line falling on two straight lines makes the interior angles on the same side less than two right angles, the two straight lines, if produced indefinitely, meet on that side on which are the angles less than the two right angles. • Propositions：Theorems, constructions, and their mathematical proofs. 2017/12/23 24 Let it be assumed 1. 1. That rectilinear rays proceeding from the eye diverge indefinitely; 2. That the figure contained by a set of visual rays is a cone of which the vertex is at the eye and the base at the surface of the objects seen; 3. That those things are seen upon which visuals rays fall and those things are not seen upon which visual rays do not fall; 4. That things seen under a larger angle appear larger, those under a smaller angle appear smaller, and those under equal angles appear equal; 5. That things seen by higher visual rays appear higher, and things seen by lower visual rays appear lower; 6. That, similarly, things seen by rays further to the right appear further to the right, and Euclid’s Optics in Heiberg J.L. ed.. things seen by rays further to the left Euclidis Opera Omnia, vol. VII appear further to the left; 7. That things seen under more angles are seen more clearly. Archimedes, c.287-212BC Floating Bodies, On the Equilibrium of Archimedes Palimpsest Planes Aristarchus of Samos (ca. 310-ca. 230 BC) On the Sizes and Distances of the Sun and Moon Eccentric Circle Apollonius of Perga, c.262-c.190 BCE Hipparchus of Nicaea, Epicycle-Deferent ca. 190-ca. 120 BCE Claudius Ptolemy, Mathematical Syntaxis, or Almagest, ca.85-ca.165 In Greek, Parchment, Ninth century Pages from 1550 Annotazione on Sacrobosco's Tractatus de Sphaera, showing the Ptolemaic system. 2017/12/23 30 Equant Model Equant Earth Ptolemy’s Comments on the Importance of mathematics We accordingly thought it up to us so to train our actions even in the application of the imagination as not to forget in whatever things we happen upon the consideration of their beautiful and well-ordered disposition, and to indulge in meditation mostly for the exposition of many beautiful theorems and especially of those specifically called mathematical. Branches of theoretical philosophy: • Theology(metaphysics)----too aloof; • Physics----too changeful and obscure; • Mathematics-----clear and reliable. New Change 1: From Geocentrism to Heliocentrism Copernicus as a Renaissance man: • competent in canon law • practices medicine • wrote a tract on coinage • served as administrator of his cathedral, and as a diplomatic representative for Frauenburg • painted his own portrait • made his own astronomical instruments Nicolaus Copernicus 1473-1543 2017/12/23 33 Commentariolus (Little Comments, before 1514) It is particularly such arguments that collapse here, since I treat the earth's immobility as due to an appearance. Georg Joachim Rheticus 1514-1574 Narratio Prima (First Narration, 1540) De Revolutionibus (1543) Reinhold’s view on De Revolutionibus Axiom of Astronomy: Celestial the Motions are Uniform and Prutenic Tables, 1670 Circular, or composed of Uniform and by Erasmus Reinhold (1511-1553) Circular parts. 科技史与科技考古系 石云 · 西方科学史 里教授 Tycho Brahe The large mural quadrant 1546—1601 at Tycho’s Uraniborg The Helio-geocentric System of Tycho 科技史与科技考古系 石云 · 西方科学史 里教授 Mysteriu Cosmographicum, 1596 Johannes Kepler, 1571—1630 科技史与科技考古系 石云 · 西方科学史 里教授 Kepler’s demonstration of the elliptical orbit of Mars. Astronomia nova, 1609 科技史与科技考古系 石云 · 西方科学史 里教授 T2/R3=const. Harmonice mundi, 1619) 科技史与科技考古系 石云 · 西方科学史 里教授 Tabulae Rudolphinae, Ulm, 1627 2017/12/23 43 New Change 2: Redefinition of the Relation between Natural Philosophy and Theology Galileo Galilei 1564-1642 科技史与科技考古系 石云 · 西方科学史 里教授 With absolute necessity we shall conclude, in agreement with the theories of the Pythagoreans and of Copernicus, that Venus revolves about the sun just as do all the other planets. Letters on Sunspots (1613) 科技史与科技考古系 石云 · 西方科学史 里教授 I hold that the Sun is located at the centre of the revolutions of the heavenly orbs and does not change place, and that the Earth rotates on itself and moves around it.