State of the Environment Report for Uganda, 2000/2001

STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT FOR UGANDA, 2000/2001

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National Environment Management Authority P.O .Box 22255 Kampala, Uganda http://www.nemaug.org

Typeset in 12 point Times New Roman by NEMA; and printed in South Africa by ……

Editorial committee Charles Sebukeera, Editor-in-chief Frank Turyatunga, Technical Editor Ruhi Nalumoso, Copy Editor/Proof Reader Elizabeth Gowa, Layout/Production Manager Jessica Adripa, Word processing/graphics Bob Kakuyo, Technical Assistance

Acknowledgements Elizabeth Mutayanjulwa, Cover page Beatrice Adimola and Living Earth Foundation (Uganda), photo credits

iii Steering Committee Prof. J.Y. Okedi National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) Dr. Aryamanya-Mugisha, H NEMA Mr. M. Rutangye NEMA Mr. C. Sebukeera NEMA Ms. F. Ssewankambo NEMA Dr. P. Kasoma Makerere University Institute of Environment and Natural Resources Ms. A. Karekaho United Nations Development Programme Ms. R. Bogere Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development Mr. R Busard United States Agency of International Development Dr. D. Tunstall World Resources Institute Mr. I. Kapalaga Grants Management Unit Ms. R. Musoke Ministry of Lands, Water and Environment Ms. J Nakamya Uganda Bureau of Statistics Mr. C. Drazu The Netherlands Embassy Dr. M. Isooba Uganda Wildlife Society

Technical Review Committee Dr. Aryamanya-Mugisha, H NEMA Mr. Charles Akol NEMA Mr. Eugene Muramira NEMA Dr. Festus Bagoora NEMA Dr. Robert Ogwal NEMA Ms. Beatrice Adimola NEMA

Authors Dr. Yakobo Moyini Mr. Gershom Onyango

Principal Researcher Margaret Aanyu

Research Assistants David Kironde Martin Aryagaruka Jocelyne Mutegeki Elsam Turyahabwe Rober Sabiiti John Tumwiine Susan Abeja Tom Okao Orech Peace Matovu

Digital Map Production Firipo Mpabulungi Sula Kibira Patrick Buyinza

iv TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF BOXES...... x ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS...... xi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... xiv FOREWORD ...... xv EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...... xvi

1 Environment and Development...... 2 Economic Growth ...... 2 Development in a Wider Context ...... 3 Sustainability...... 4 Poverty ...... 7

2 Land ...... 15 Land Resources and Food...... 15 Land Degradation...... 17 Population ...... 18 Overgrazing...... 19 Bush Burning ...... 20 Agrochemicals ...... 22 Soil erosion ...... 23 Land Tenure...... 25

3 Forests and Woodlands ...... 32 Forests and Woodlands...... 32 Deforestation...... 36 Encroachment ...... 36 Land Conversion for Agriculture Outside Protected Areas...... 38 Unsustainable Harvesting ...... 39 Urbanization and Industrialization...... 40 Institutional failures ...... 41

4 Wetlands Resources...... 43 Wetlands Degradation...... 49 Draining of Wetlands...... 49 Vegetation Depletion and Changing Land-Use ...... 50 Industrial Pollution...... 50 Policies, Laws and Treaties...... 51 Policies and Laws ...... 51 Tenurial Arrangements ...... 52 The RAMSAR Convention...... 54

5 Freshwater Resources...... 56 Supply and Demand...... 58 Access ...... 59 Water for Livestock ...... 61 Water for Irrigation...... 63 Quality...... 63 v Institutional Framework...... 64

6 Biodiversity...... 66 Loss of biodiversity...... 71 Habitat Loss ...... 74 Unsustainable Harvesting ...... 74 Introduction of Alien Species ...... 75

7 Urban Areas ...... 78 Proliferation Of Slums And Unplanned Settlements...... 79 Water and Sanitation...... 82 Piped Water...... 82 Sanitation ...... 84 Year...... 84 Solid Waste Management ...... 85

8 Atmosphere...... 93 Climate Change...... 93 Climate Variability...... 94 Temperatures...... 94 Rainfall...... 95 Atmospheric Pollution ...... 98

9 Human Health and Environment...... 104 Diseases Prevalence...... 106

10 Environmental Disasters ...... 111 Drought ...... 111 Floods and Landslides...... 112 Wars and Conflicts...... 115

11 Policy Responses...... 119 Introduction...... 119 Policies, Laws and Institutions ...... 120 Environmental Policy Reforms...... 120 Legal Reform for Environmental Management...... 122 Institutional Reforms ...... 124 Decentralized Environment Management...... 126 Economic Instruments ...... 132 Financing Environmental Action...... 136 Public Participation...... 139 Environment Information and Education...... 140 Environmental Information...... 140 Environmental Education...... 141 Social Policies...... 141 Conventions and Agreements ...... Error! Bookmark not defined.

12 Future Outlook...... 148 Ostrich Scenario (Conventional Worlds)...... 153 vi Conventional Development ...... 154 Policy Reform ...... 155 The Moribund Scenario (Barbarization)...... 155 Breakdown ...... 156 Fortress World ...... 156 The Flying Crane Scenario (Great Transitions)...... 157 Eco-communalism ...... 157 New Sustainability Paradigm...... 157 The Surprise Surprise Scenario...... 158 Unintended Policy Effects ...... 158 Disasters...... 159 The Preferred Future for Uganda – A synthesis ...... 159

13 Outlook and Recommendations...... 165 Outlook for the 21st Century ...... 165 Time is Running Out...... 166 New Problems...... 167 Continued success...... 167 Recommendations for Action ...... 168 Tackling the root causes...... 168 Policies...... 168 Decentralized Environmental Management...... 169 Economics...... 169 Data and Information ...... 170 Regulations and standards...... 171 Financing...... 171

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1: Trend of Per Capita GDP for calendar years over the period 1982-1999 ...... 3 Figure 1.2: Allocation of Environmental Degradation cost by Contributing Factor (1991) ...... 4 Figure 1.3: Actual and projected population for Uganda (1931-2015) ...... 6 Figure 1.4: Overview of Planning/Information Flows...... 12 Figure 2.1: Land-use pattern in Uganda as of 1993...... 15 Figure 2.2 Trends in Livestock Numbers (mill.) 1970 - 1997...... 17 Figure 2.3 Arable land per capita for the period 1931 - 2015...... 18 Figure 2.4 Cattle production in government sponsored ranches...... 21 Figure 3.1 Land use pattern as of 1993...... 33 Figure 3.2 Estimated loss of forest cover in Uganda (1900 to 2000) ...... 36 Figure 3.3: Forest Cover and Surrounding Population Densities ...... 37 Figure 3.4: Actual and Projected Closing Balance of Woodfuel for Uganda 1995-2014 ...... 39 Function ...... 44 Figure 4.1: Major Wetlands of Uganda ...... 47 Figure 6.1 ...... 67 Figure 6.2 Indices Reflecting the Loss of Biodiversity ...... 71 since the 1960s...... 71 Figure 7.1 Urban Population in Uganda ...... 78 Figure 7.2 The skyline of the rapidly expanding city of Kampala ...... 79 Figure 7.3 Improper disposal of waste contributes to disease epidemics and land degradation .. 85 vii Figure 7.4 Estimated Daily Solid Waste Generation Rate for Kampala City 1969 - 2000 ...... 86 Figure 7.5 A clean up session by concerned citizens. Burning of polythene which forms a big part of municipal waste releases dioxins, which are poisonous into the air ...... 89 Figure 8.1 Mean Annual Rainfall ...... 97 Figure 8.2 Number of Registered Vehicles over the period 1971 – 1999 ...... 99 Figure 8.3 Consumption of Petroleum Products, 1970-1999 ...... 100 Figure 10.1 HIV Infection Rates among Antenatal Care (ANC) Attendees at Selected Hospitals ...... 114 Figure 10.2: AIDS Cases at Selected Ante-Natal Clinics 1983-99 ...... 115 Figure 11.1: Structure of Decentralized Environmental Management in Uganda...... 128 Figure 11.2: Districts with Targeted Environment Management Programs...... 130 Figure 11.3: Cumulative Acreage Planted by the Forestry Department and Private...... 135 Farmers in Kajjansi Forest Reserve ...... 135 Figure 11.4: Charges Under the Water (Waste) Discharge Regulations 1997 ...... 136 Figure 11.5: Environment Investment Programme...... 137 Figure 11.6: Village meetings articulate local environmental problems so that they are addressed at higher levels through inclusion in the district environment action plansError! Bookmark not defined. Figure 11.7 NEMA’s Information Linkages at Horizontal and Vertical Levels Error! Bookmark not defined. Figure 12.1: Characterization of Trends in Quality of life of Ugandans...... 149 Figure 12.2. Uganda’s Development Scenarios – Vision 2025...... 151 Figure … Photograph...... 172 Figure … Photograph...... 173 Figure … Photograph...... 173 Figure … Photograph...... 174 Figure … Photograph...... 174

LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1 Selected human development indicators in Uganda 1980 and 1998 ...... 4 Table 1.2 Fisheries statistics per Boat, Bukungu, Lake Kyoga, 1995, ...... 8 1996 and 1997...... 8 Table 1.3 Household Consumption Gains by Region...... 9 Table 1.4: Household Consumption Gains by Economic Sector (1992-1997)...... 10 Table 1.5: Selected economic and social welfare Indicators ...... 11 Table 2.1 Trends in Food Crop Production (Estimates), 1990-2000...... 16 Table 2.2 Overgrazed Counties and Subcounties at District Level ...... 20 Table 2.3 Estimates of the Proposition of Land Area Affected by Soil Erosion in Selected ...... 24 Districts of Uganda ...... 24 Table 2.4 Evolution of Land Ownership and Management Policies in Uganda, 1994-1998 ...... 27 Table 3.1 Forest Areas by Ownership/Management Status (Km2)...... 32 Table 3.2 Distribution of Forest Types by Districts in Km2 ...... 34 Table 3.3 Trends In Roundwood Removals From Natural Forests 1970-1997 (m3)...... 40 Table 3.4 Area of Coniferous and Eucalyptus...... 40 Plantation 1972-1997 (Hectares) ...... 40 Table 4.1 Categorization of Wetlands by Functions...... 44 Table 4.2 Total Wetland Area (km2) and Area Converted by District, Uganda...... 44 Table 4.3 Categories of Values of Wetlands Resources...... 45 viii Table 4.4: Concentration of Metals (parts per million) in Waters,...... 50 Sediments and Plant Tissue Near Kilembe Mines...... 50 Table 5.1 Major Lakes of Uganda ...... 56 Table 5.2 Statistics on Selected Major Rivers ...... 57 Table 5.3 Water Balance...... 57 Table 5.4 Projected Water Demands for Consumptive Use and ...... 58 Resource Availability...... 58 Table 5.5 Water Production, Installed Capacity and Population Served in Selected Urban ...... 59 Areas, December 2001...... 59 Table 5.6 Domestic Water Demand (‘000m3/year) by Catchment...... 61 Table 5.7: Showing Rural Water Supply Investments to Attain 75% Coverage by...... 61 the Year 2015...... 61 Table 5.8 Past and Future Livestock Water Demand by District ...... 62 Table 5.9 Proposed Water Quality Standards...... 64 Table 6.1 Examples of Medicinal Values of Uganda’s Biodiversity Resources ...... 70 Table 6.2 Estimates for populations of larger mammals in Uganda...... 72 Table 6.3 Wetlands Biodiversity in Uganda...... 73 Table 6.4 Recommendations for Rationalizing Wildlife Protected Areas...... 75 Table 7.1 Population and Growth Rates of Major Urban ...... 80 Centers 1969 and 1991...... 80 Table 7.2: Number Of Connections by Urban Area for both Metered ...... 83 And Un-metered Water Connections...... 83 Table 7.3 On-going and planned projects by NWSC ...... 83 Table 7.4 Number of Connections by City and Year for both Metered and...... 84 Un-metered Piped Sewerage Connections...... 84 Table 7.5 Waste collection in Kampala City January-June 2000 ...... 90 Table 7.6 Policy, legal and institutional provisions relevant to waste management and Implementation ...... 91 status by municipalities...... 91 Table 8.1: Maximum, minimum and average mean temperature and departures for 1997, 1997, 1998 and 1999...... 94 Table 8.2 Records of Regional Dry and Wet Years Between 1943 to 1999 ...... 96 Table 8.3 Proposed Environmental Air Quality Standards for Uganda...... 102 Table 9.1 Average Distance (Km) to a Health...... 105 Facility (1999/2000)...... 105 Table 9.2 Trends in the Number of Recorded Cases of Major Diseases in Uganda 1991-1998 106 Table 9.3 Average Per capita Expenditure...... 106 on Health Care ...... 106 Table 9.4 Immunization Coverage in Uganda 1991-1997 (percent) ...... 109 Table 9.5 Health Targets by 2002...... 110 Table 11.1 Key Environmental and Other Sectoral Policies ...... 121 Table 11.2 Status of Recruitment of District Environment Officers (DEO) and Establishment of ...... 129 District Environment Committees (DEC)as at December 31, 2000...... 129 Table 11.3 International Environmental Conventions of Importance to Uganda...... 143 Table 11.4 Summary of Regional Agreements...... 145 Table 12.1: Scenarios Matrix...... 152 Table 12.2: State of Environment Scenarios...... 153 Table 12.3 The Driving Forces and their Characteristics ...... 161 ix Table 12.4 Environmental Consequences of the Flying Crane Scenario...... 162

LIST OF BOXES Box 1.1: Economic Performance Vs Environment...... 5 Box 1.2: Contribution of the Poor Towards Environmental Degradation...... 9 Box 1.3: Improvements in poverty trends...... 10 Box 2.1: Effects of overgrazing in parts of Kotido, Moroto, Nakasongola and Rakai...... 21 Box 2.2: Effects of fire on the rangeland ecosystem ...... 22 Box 2.3: Floriculture-An agrochemicals intensive agriculture...... 23 Box 2.4: Provisions of Busuulu and Envujjo Law 1928...... 29 Box 2.5: Provisions of Ankole Landlord and Soil Conservation Laws...... 30 Box 3.1: Forestry in the Wider Economy ...... 35 Box 3.2: Encroachment in Mabira and other Forest Reserves in Uganda...... 38 Box 4.1: The major functions and values of wetlands in Uganda ...... 45 Box 4.2: Encroachment on Kampala City Wetlands ...... 48 Box 4.3: Individualization of Communal Wetlands in Uganda...... 53 Box 5.1: Effects of dams in Karamoja...... 63 Box 6.1: Major biodiversity ecosystems in Uganda ...... 68 Box 6.2: Biodiversity hot spots in Uganda ...... 68 Box 6.3: Relationship between biodiversity and Uganda’s economy ...... 69 Box 6.4: Vision, goals and objectives of the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan.... 71 Box 7.1: Status of Current Technological Issues for Solid Waste Management in Uganda ...... 88 Box 10.1: President Yoweri Museveni warns leaders over laxity on AIDS...... 113 Box 11.1: Environmental Regulations Developed before the National Environment Statute.... 124 Box 11.2: Environment Related Laws Developed After the National Environment Statute...... 124 Box 11.3: Role of the District Environment Committee (DEC)...... 126 Box 11.4: Decentralized Environmental Management Provisions of the National Environment Management Policy ...... 127 Box 11.5: Strategies for the implementation of the policy statement on collaborative forest management ...... 131 Box 11.6: Goal, Objectives of the Community Protected Areas Institution Policy ...... 132 Box 11.7 Tools for Environmental Management ...... 133 Box 11.8 Examples of successful application of economic instruments...... 134 Box 11.9: Examples of Financing of Environmental Management in Uganda Through External Assistance ...... 138 Box 11.10: Community Participation in District Planning...... 140 Box 11.11: Pre-Stockholm Conventions Uganda Entered into ...... 143 Box 11.12: Post Stockholm Conventions Uganda Entered into ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

ACODE...... Advocates Coalition for Development and Environment ACTS ...... AIDS ...... Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome ARI...... Acute Respiratory Infection AWF...... African Wildlife Foundation BOD ...... Biological Oxygen Demand BR ...... Biosphere Reserve BTTB ...... BWR ...... Bugungu Wildlife Reserve BZ ...... Buffer Zone CARE...... Carry American Relief Everywhere CBD ...... Convention on Biological Diversity CBO ...... Community Based Organization CDIAC...... carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center CFC...... Cloro-fluoro carbons CITES ...... Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species COBs...... Conserve Biological Diversity for Sustainable Development DEAP ...... District Environment Action Plan DED ...... DEP...... Department of Environment Protection DFID ...... UK Department of International Development DMC ...... DRC ...... Democratic Republic of Congo DWD...... Directorate of Water Development EIA...... Environment Impact Assessment EIN...... Environment Information Network ELU...... Environmental Liaison Units EMCBP...... Environment Management Capacity Building Project ENSO ...... El Nino Southern Oscillation EPED...... Environment Protection and Economic Development project FAO ...... Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations FAOSTAT ...... FRP ...... Forest Rehabilitation Project GDP ...... Gross Domestic Product GEF...... Global Environment Facility GHG...... Green house gases GMOs...... Genetically Modified Organisms GNP ...... Gross National Product GOU...... Government of Uganda GTZ...... German Technical Corporation HIV ...... Human Immunodeficiency Virus IDA ...... IDEA...... IGAD ...... Inter-Governmental Authority on Development IGCP ...... International Forest Conservation Trust IITA ...... xi IPC ...... Inter-ministerial Policy Committee IPCC...... Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change IUCN...... World Conservation Union JMC...... Jinja Municipal Council KCC ...... Kampala City Council LVEMP...... Lake Victoria Environment Management Program MAAIF...... Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries MBIFCT...... Mgahinga Bwindi Impenetrable Forest Conservation Trust MDLG...... Mpigi District Local Government MDPR MFEP ...... Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning MFPED ...... Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development MGNP...... Mgahinga Gorilla National Park MNR ...... Ministry of Natural Resources MOH ...... Ministry of Health MTTI...... MTWA...... Ministry of Tourism, Wildlife and Antiquities MWEMEP...... Ministry of Water, Energy, Minerals and Environment Protection MWLE ...... Ministry of Water, Lands and Environment MWTHC ...... Ministry of Works, Transport, Housing and Communications NARO ...... National Agricultural Research Organization NBU ...... NBU ...... NCC ...... National Consultative Council NDBD ...... National Biodiversity Data Bank NEAP ...... National Environment Action Plan NEF...... National Environment Fund NEMA...... National Environment Management Authority NFA ...... National Forest Authority NFMCP...... Natural Forest Conservation and Management Project NGO...... Non-Governmental Organization NICU...... National Inputs Coordination Unit NIDS ...... National Immunization Days NORAD ...... Norwegian International Development Agency NRA ...... National Resistance Army NRM ...... National Resistance Movement NTAE...... Non-Traditional Agricultural Export NWCMP ...... National Wetlands Conservation and Management Programme NWSC...... National Water and Sewerage Corporation PACD...... Plan of Action to Combat Desertification PAF ...... Poverty Action Fund PAMSU...... Protected Area Management and Sustainable Use project PEAP...... Poverty Eradication Action Plan PET ...... Potential Evapotranspiration PHC...... Primary Health Care PMA...... Program for the Modernization of Agriculture QENP ...... Queen Elizabeth National Park RUWASA ...... Rural Water and Sanitation Project SADC...... xii SARDC ...... SDC...... SNR...... Strict Nature Reserve SOE...... State of the Environment SPLA...... Sudanese Peoples Liberation Army STI...... Sexually Transmitted Infections TECCONILE ...... Technical Cooperation Committee for the Promotion of the Development and Environment Protection of the Nile Basin THF...... Tropical High Forest TOGA ...... Tropical Ocean and Global Atmosphere UDHS...... Uganda Demographic Health Survey UEPF...... UFSUP ...... Uganda Forest Sector Umbrella Programme UNCCD ...... United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification UNCHS...... UNCOD ...... United Nations Conference on Desertification UNDP...... United Nations Development Programme UNEP ...... United Nations Environment Programme UNEPI...... Uganda National Expanded Programme for Immunization UNESCO ...... United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNFCCC ...... United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change UNHCR ...... United Nations High Commission for Refugees UNIDO...... United Nations Industrial Development Organization UNLF ...... Uganda National Liberation Front UNSCS...... UPPAP ...... Uganda Participatory Poverty Assessment Project UPSR ...... Uganda Poverty Status Report USAID ...... United States Agency for International Development UWA...... Uganda Wildlife Authority UWS...... Uganda Wildlife Society WAP...... Water Action Plan WDD...... Water Development Department WMO ...... World Meteorological Organization WPC...... Water Policy Committee WRI...... World Resources Institute WWF...... World Wildlife Fund for Nature

xiii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

xiv FOREWORD

xv EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Introduction This is the fourth time Uganda is reporting on the country’s state of the environment (SOE). The first was in 1994 with subsequent reports produced in 1996 and 1998. While districts are mandated to produce state of environment reports annually, it is the statutory duty of the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) to produce national reports biennially.

Format and content The SOE 2000 differs radically from the previous three both in format and content. While the report is entirely home grown, the new format has benefited from the process, findings and output of the United Nations Environment Programme’s GEO (Global Environment Outlook) Project. The main reason for change in format and content is the fact that the previous three reports presented the state of the environment largely along sectoral lines. Also, after production of the third issues it became clear that the reports were beginning to become rather repetitive. Feedback from users of the last three issues indicated that the content was not comprehensive and integrated enough. The content also lacked policy-relevant assessments and a look into the future. Finally it was felt that rather than try to cover a wide range of issues some of which were of peripheral importance, it would be better to focus on key issues in each thematic area. Consequently, the reader should bear this important departure in mind when reading the SOE 2000. For each issue identified, reporting follows the pressure-state-response framework judiciously mixed to allow for ease of reading. As a result, in addressing the shortcomings of the last three issues and incorporating additional features, the new format consists of this introduction and five sections as described below. The identification of the themes and key issues were carried out in a participatory manner.

Section 1 looks at environment and development, and in particular emphasizing how the poor impact on and are, in turn, impacted upon by the environment.

Section 2 is the closest thing to the traditional SOE reports. Even then, only key themes in which there are key issues, qualify for inclusion. The themes covered together with the keys issues are shown below.

Theme Key issues covered Land Degradation Tenure Forests and woodlands Deforestation Wetlands Degradation Freshwater Access Quality Biodiversity Loss of biodiversity Introduction of alien species Urban areas Proliferation of slums and unplanned settlements Water and sanitation Solid waste management Atmosphere Climate change Climate variability Urban air pollution Human health and environment Disease prevalence Environmental disasters Wars and conflicts Droughts Floods HIV/AIDS

xvi Section 3 looks at policy responses. The section describes the different types of policy response that are being used to address environmental issues; and also tries, where possible, to assess their success or failure. The quantitative assessment of success or failure of policy initiatives and developments is not easy. Furthermore, for Uganda, most of the policies are relatively new, making it extremely difficult to assess or even attribute impacts. Nonetheless, the section is treated under the following clusters: laws and institutions; economic instruments; decentralized environmental management; financing of environmental action; public participation; environmental information and education; and social policies.

Section 4 attempts a look into the future, principally for two reasons. First, present day actions also have consequences that reach far into the future. Second there is a need to look at the environmental issues that are likely to requires priority attention in the future. There are many paths of scenarios to choose from for future direction. This section adopted the four scenarios formulated in the national Vision 2025 process. The rationale is that the scenarios (Flying Crane, Ostrich, Peaceful Slumber and Moribund) were identified through a participatory process where Ugandans reached a consensus on the landscape of the future and possible unfolding of events. The likely environmental consequences of following each of the paths were then identified and presented in this section.

Section 5 is the final part of the report. It addresses Uganda’s population growth that threatens to outstrip the country’s environmental absorptive capacity and natural resource base. It also offers observations on emerging problems. Then the section documents significant achievements realized so far. Finally, the section proffers recommendations for action.

The data challenge In producing the SOE 2000, the research assistants and authors were constantly confronted by the lack of relevant data. This is not unique to Uganda. It is a common experience worldwide. Within the environmental domain, there are still serious data gaps related to, for example, indoor air pollution, the state of fish stocks and forest quality.

Furthermore, adopting the GEO format means going for integrated environmental assessment. This approach requires that the SOE report should answer the following questions: What are the main environmental trends? What are the environmental impacts of policies? Are the environmental policies meeting their targets and achieving their objectives? Answering these type of questions requires accurate, harmonized, time-series datasets on a wide range of issues, with appropriate resolution and spatial coverage, which can be turned into policy-relevant information. While the idea was to report on environmental trends covering the period 1970 to 2000, it was not possible to obtain data for all the issues described in this report. In particular data gaps were most severe for the period 1970-1990, reflecting the collapse of administration up to 1986 and the time the new government took to restore administrative normalcy. Although core environmental datasets are improving, expanding and becoming more accessible, there are still numerous inconsistencies and shortcomings to contend with. Also in Uganda’s context, there is not yet enough feedback and validation during the process that connects collectors, collators, disseminators and end users. However, the situation is improving and subsequent issues of the SOE for Uganda are expected to reflect this.

xvii

PART 1

ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT

Environment and Development

While the link between environment and the economy is complex, it is also crucial that this link be better understood. For one, towards the end of the Earth Summit in Rio in 1992, it became clear that without better environmental stewardship, development is likely to be undermined; and without accelerated development in poor countries, environmental policies are certain to fail (Serageldin, 1994). Uganda’s response to this challenge was the formulation of the National Environment Management Policy (NEMP) in 1994. The overall goal of NEMP is sustainable social and economic development, which maintains and enhances environmental quality and resource productivity on a long-term basis to meet the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (MNR, 1994).

This section presents a brief description of Uganda’s economic growth and brief treatment of whether this growth can be sustained. The last part of the Section is devoted to the main issue in Uganda’s development, namely, poverty.

Economic Growth

Uganda celebrated its independence in October 1962 with great joy and high expectations about the benefits of political independence (MFPED, 1999a). Initially, this was well-founded. By 1966, per capita income in Uganda was higher than that of Kenya, Tanzania and even Thailand (World Bank, 1987). Unfortunately, this wealth could not be sustained due to political turmoil and macroeconomic mismanagement. After 1970, Ugandans became poorer. Wealth recovered to the 1966 level only by 1991. Both Kenya and most remarkably Thailand, has now surpassed Uganda where wealth is concerned (MNR, 1994). Uganda now is considered one of the poorest countries in the world (UNDP, 1997), comparing poorly with other neighbouring countries in terms of per capita GDP and GNP, mortality rates, life expectancy and social services among others (NEMA, 1988). In 1995, Uganda was rated the 14th poorest country in the world; but by 1997 the country’s position improved somewhat and was the 20th (World Bank, 1998). Political turmoil, poverty, low savings rate, high inflation, underemployment, high external debt and inadequate managerial capacity were some of the factors that contributed to Uganda’s disappointing economic performance during the 1971-1985 period (MFPED, 1999a).

2 Figure 1.1 shows the trend of per capita GDP for the period 1982 to 1999. The data shows that after a general decline, from 1986 onwards, Uganda registered a remarkable turnaround in economic growth. However, in addition to growth, one must also address the other aspects of development.

Figure 1.1: Trend of Per Capita GDP for calendar years over the period 1982-1999

170

160

150

140

Per capita GDP 130 ( x 1000 U Shs) 120

110

100

80 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 Period (calendar years)

Source: MFPED, 2000

Development in a Wider Context

In the 1950s and 1960s, the concept of development was defined as a largely economic process, in which wealth would trickle down and improve human welfare (UNEP, 1999). Today, development is interpreted in a much broader concept. For example, UNDP in its definition explores critical issues such as gender inequality, growth, poverty and consumption patterns (UNDP, 1998); and calculates a human development index based on life expectancy, adult literacy, school enrolment and GDP per capita. On the other hand, the Earth Summit in Rio defined sustainable development, through its action plan, Agenda 21, as a multifaceted process involving issues and requiring the participation of governments, international organizations and major groups (UNEP, 1999). The term ‘sustainable development’ was brought into common use by the World Commission on Environment and Development (The Brundtland Commission) in 1987; and calls for development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the needs of future generations (WCED, 1987). In attempting to operationalize the concept of sustainable development, the World Bank’s approach has focused on increasing the stock of national or global capital as the case may be. This approach recognizes four types of capital (Serageldin and Steer, 1994): human-made or ‘fabricated’ capital (machines, factories, buildings and infrastructure); natural capital, the stock of environmentally provided assets (such as soil, sub-soil minerals, forests, atmosphere, water, wetlands); human capital (investments in education, health and nutrition of individuals); and social capital (the institutional and cultural basis for society to function). For most countries, particularly the industrialized ones, social capital accounts for the largest share of national wealth. In Uganda, it is natural capital that accounts for the lion’s share of national wealth.

3 Table 1.1 shows selected human development indicators for Uganda covering the years 1980, 1989 and 1998. The data indicate a general improvement in the living conditions of Ugandans. Over the period 1980 to 1998, infant mortality rate declined by 29%; while there was a slight improvement in life expectancy at birth. The number of Ugandans with access to safe water more than tripled. Medical attention also improved with a 22.5% decrease in the population per physician. The percent of population engaged in agriculture also decreased by 7.0%; while the percentage of those employed in industry increased by 155%. Impressive as these gains are, it is equally important for Ugandans to know if the development gains can indeed be sustained well into the future.

Table 1.1 Selected human development indicators in Uganda 1980 and 1998 1980 1989 1998 % change 1980/1998 Infant mortality rate (per thousand live birth) 124 116 88.0 -29.0 Life expectancy at birth total (years) 46 47 47 2.2 Access to safe water (% population) 11 34 46.0 +318.2 Population per physician (thousands) 24 22.6 18.6 -22.5 Illiteracy rate (% population age 15+) - 58 38.2 Illiteracy rate female (% of females age 15+) - 66 53.0 Labour force in agriculture (% of total) 86 84 80 -7.0 Labour force in industry (% total) 4 5 10.2 +155.0 Source: MFPED (2000).

Sustainability

While Uganda has made remarkable achievements in economic growth and overall development, it is not clear if these improvements can be sustained. Box 1.1 presents the view that perhaps Uganda’s economic performance is being achieved at the expense of the environment.

The costs of environmental degradation in Uganda are quite significant, conservatively estimated at 4-12% of GNP due to, primarily, soil erosion (Figure 1.2). In 1991, these costs were estimated to be in the range of $170-460 million per annum. (Slade and Weitz, 1991). The annual stream of environmental degradation costs is equivalent to a debt of $1.3 billion to $3.8 billion today, assuming a social discount rate of 12% per annum (the Government’s cost of capital). If not paid, this is the debt the present generations of Ugandans will leave for future generations.

The forces that drive change are a complex mix of economic and political factors magnified by a high rate of population growth, for they interact in ways that are difficult to predict (UNEP, 1999). Uganda, like other developing countries, is still on a rising curve of production and pollution. Uganda’s modernization drive, centered on industrialization means that the country is replicating the resource use patterns typical of the earlier phases of development in industrialized countries (UNEP, 1999)

Figure 1.2: Allocation of Environmental Degradation cost by Contributing Factor (1991)

4 9% 1% 4% 1% Deforestation Soil erosion Water hyacinth Biodiversity loss Water contamination

85%

Source: Slade and Weitz, (1991)

Box 1.1: Economic Performance Vs Environment

At the macroeconomic level, it would be useful to know what the costs of environmental degradation are in relation to Uganda’s national economic performance. The traditional measure of national economic performance is Gross National Product (GNP). The aim of this accounting device is to provide an information framework suitable for analyzing the performance of the economy. The concept of GNP, which is a measure of all the goods and services produced by the economy at market prices, does not, however, take into account the degradation of natural resources employed in generating this output.

While it is true that Uganda’s GNP has grown in real terms since the initiation of the economic recovery program in mid-1987, this growth is due in part to non-sustainable use of the resource base. Growth is being achieved, but at the expense of future growth because the asset base is being used up faster than it is being replenished. In other words, economic growth is occurring but with an increasing opportunity cost to future generations. For example, extraction of wood and timber from the forests shows up in GNP as production. This is true even though the rate of extraction exceeds the rate of growth. If this net decrease continues year after year, at some point, all of the forest capital will be used up.

The concept of “Sustainable Net National Product” (SNNP) is a technique which could help Uganda properly account for the use of natural resources and warn policy makers that renewable resources were being used in an unsustainable way and to what extent. Unlike conventional GNP measures, the SNNP excludes investment, which is necessary for maintaining environmental integrity (defensive expenditures) and income from resource harvesting which involves depletion of resource stocks (depreciation of natural capital).

(Unfortunately), the SNNP is a measure, which is still in the early stages of development as a national accounting tool. Credible and widely accepted techniques for valuing natural resources have also not yet been agreed on and adopted on any scale globally.

Source: Slade and Weitz (1991)

Figure 1.3: Actual and projected population for Uganda (1931-2015)

35 32.5

30 28.0 25.0 25 22.2

Population 20 16.7 (millions) 15 9.5 10

5 3.5

0 1931 1969 1991 2000 2005 2010 2015 Year

Source: UBOS (2000)

While Uganda is striving for modernization, its economy is still largely dependent on agriculture. With its increasing population, the amount of per capita arable land available is also on decrease, although still more than the global availability of crop land of 0.25ha in 1995 (FAOSTAT, 1997). This means that in future, there will be a need to intensify agriculture to raise productivity to satisfy the increasing demand for food. Despite the HIV/AIDS epidemic, the real rate of increase of Uganda’s population is still high. Figure 1.3 shows actual and projected trends for Uganda’s population in 84 years.

Uganda’s population would have increased almost ten times from 3.5 million in 1931 to a projection of 32.5 million by 2015. This means economic growth will need to be sustained at higher rates if significant improvements in the welfare of Ugandans are to be achieved. This rate is estimated to be at least 8% per annum (MNR, 1994). The demands placed on the environment to provide resources for human activities and to absorb wastes will continue to grow steadily with the rising population and increasing per capita consumption (UNEP, 1999). Given that Ugandans are to a large extent dependent on natural resources (water, soil, forests and fish stocks, for example), population increases will continue to put a lot of pressure on these resources.

Governance also has an important influence on the environment as evidenced by the unsustainable exploitation of resources in the 1970s and mid 1980s in Uganda. A lot has improved since then. The center has devolved large parts of its roles, functions and services to lower levels of government. Uganda’s Constitution provides for the right of every Ugandan to a healthy environment (GOU, 1995).

Since the early 1990s, Uganda has to a large extent abandoned the traditional state control of economic activities and centralized planning. The economy is now fully liberalized. While market systems have been inherently efficient at economic organization, environmental costs have traditionally been excluded from the decision making process (UNEP, 1999). Uganda has begun to address the issue of mainstreaming environmental concerns into development plans. With support from the Department for International Development (DFID) of the United

6 Kingdom to NEMA, both the Poverty Eradication Action Plan (PEAP) and the Plan for the Modernization of Agriculture (PMA) addressed environmental concerns explicitly during their formulation process (MFPED, 2000; MFPED/ MAAIF, 2000).

However, despite the significant achievements Uganda has made in addressing environmental problems, the country’s capacity is limited in terms of resources. The majority of Ugandans are poor (MFPED, 1999). Although Uganda has managed to reduce income poverty somewhat, it still remains a major environmental issue.

Poverty

According to MFPED (2000), poverty has many dimensions including low and highly variable levels of income and consumption, physical insecurity, poor health, low levels of education, disempowerment, a heavy burden of work or unemployment, and isolation (both social and geographical).

Poverty and environmental degradation are said to be linked in a vicious circle in which people cannot afford to take proper care of the environment (SARDC, IUCN and SADC, 1994; UNEP, 1999). According to UNEP (1999), poverty has been and remains a major cause and consequence of environmental degradation and resource depletion. The environment’s impact on the poor is twofold, namely: more health problems; and lower productivity. In turn, poverty affects the environment negatively with respect to constrained time horizons; and constrained risk strategies. The very poor, struggling at the edge of subsistence levels of consumption and preoccupied with day-day survival, have limited scope to plan ahead and make natural resource investments (for example soil conservation) that give positive returns only after a number of years (Minsk, 1994). Second, the poor’ s use of natural resources is affected by their facing greater risks, with fewer means to cope (Minsk, 1994).

From the foregoing, therefore, the poor are both agents and victims of environmental degradation (Box 1.2). For example, many of the soils on Uganda’s farms are extensively degraded. Soil erosion accounts for 84% of the costs of environmental degradation in the country. For Uganda’s poor subsistence farmers this means that a unit of land that used to support a family’s livelihood can no longer do so. More area is needed. However, in heavily populated places the option of bringing additional land into production is not there. Yields continue to decrease on the land under cultivation. Food insecurity worsens. For example, the soils in most parts of Buganda can no longer support viable banana crops, having been severely mined, unless fertilizers, both organic and inorganic, are applied to enhance productivity.

Poor agricultural yields due to degraded soils means that households must obtain alternative sources of livelihoods to make up for the shortfall. In rural areas where the majority of the poor live, there are virtually no alternative income generating opportunities. It is no wonder then, that in several pars of the country, many have resorted to charcoal production. In districts such as Nakasongola, Masindi, Kiboga and Mubende, extensive areas of savanna woodlands have been cleared of tree cover to produce charcoal. The levels of deforestation are so worrying that a district like Masindi is considering introducing a charcoal tax for reforesting degraded areas. Deforestation for charcoal exposes the areas to the agents of soil degradation.

7 Another poor people’s coping mechanism for compensating reductions in agricultural yields is the attempt to encroach on ecologically sensitive areas such as wetlands. In the districts of Pallisa, Iganga and Kumi, households have encroached upon wetlands, growing rice as a source of food and income. In other parts of the country, the wetlands are becoming increasingly degraded. Unfortunately, there does not appear to be any noticeable improvements in food security in these areas despite the encroachments on the wetlands.

Fish stocks in many of Uganda’s lakes and rivers have also declined significantly. More effort is now required to harvest reasonable amounts (Table 1.2). Artisan fisher folk communities carry out most of the harvesting of fish in Uganda. Therefore, decreased harvests have a direct bearing on the livelihoods of these communities. Their response has been predictable. Small-sized nets are used in harvesting which leads to catching immature fish and other aquatic fauna, thereby further contributing to reduced fish stocks and loss of biodiversity.

Table 1.2 Fisheries statistics per Boat, Bukungu, Lake Kyoga, 1995, 1996 and 1997 Parameter 1995 1996 1997 Average number of fish 100.0 85.0 51.0 Average weight of fish (kg/fish) 32.0 27.0 18.0 Length of Nile Tilapia (cm) 26.4 25.0 24.6 Length of Nile perch (cm) 13.2 11.1 13.0 Source: FIRI (1996) also in NEMA (1998)

The degraded areas of Karamoja can no longer support the herds of cattle in the area on a sustainable basis. During periods of severe drought and the annual dry seasons the Karimojong migrate to neighbouring districts in search of water and pasture. Conflicts between the Karimojong and the neighbouring districts are a constant reminder of the consequences of environmental degradation.

As Uganda’s policymakers search for ways to promote environmentally sustainable development, it is becoming increasingly clear that certain “win-win” strategies should be harnessed to reverse the downward spiral of worsening poverty and natural resource degradation. According to Minsk (1994) such strategies include: promoting poverty alleviation; addressing misdistribution; reducing risks and tenure insecurities; and strengthening education and public health.

Although the overall level of poverty in sub-Saharan Africa is projected to increase (UNDP, 1997), and the continent is the only place where this scenario is expected to hold (UNDP, 1998), so far Uganda is going against this trend. Absolute (income) poverty has declined from over 50% in 1986 to about 35% by the end of the year 2000. Table 1.3 and Table 1.4 show income poverty has also declined (MFPED, 2000). Although the 1980s were considered a “lost decade” for both economic and environmental improvement in Africa (UNEP, 1991), Uganda has significantly distanced itself from this picture. The country’s economic recovery beginning from mid-1980s has been significant and has focused on the welfare of the poorest segments of society (Box 1.3).

Box 1.2: Contribution of the Poor Towards Environmental Degradation

The poor depend on the environment, especially natural resources for the satisfaction of their basic needs. Fertile land and adequate climatic conditions are a prerequisite for food security. As land deteriorates in quality, the poor become poorer.

Due to population growth, unsustainable resource utilization, increasing urbanization and industrial activities, Uganda’s stock of natural resources has come under increasing threat of degradation or depletion. These pressures on natural resources have resulted in undesirable phenomena such as land fragmentation, overgrazing and soil erosion, among others. The most fragile ecosystems are the highlands and dry lands. Uganda’s highlands occupy 7% of the country’s total land area. The population in the highland areas, as elsewhere in Uganda, consists mainly of poor resource farmers dependent on subsistence agriculture. There is serious degradation of Uganda’s highlands as a result of population pressure. People have been forced to reclaim steeper slopes with the resulting negative consequences of soil erosion, mass wasting and land degradation.

On the other hand, the predominant pre-occupation in dry land areas is livestock production. Although human population is sparse in these areas, the cultural attitudes of people, coupled with survival coping considerations, have resulted in overstocking. Thus, carrying capacities of dry lands are frequently exceeded leading to over grazing and erosion. Desertification in some dry land areas is already pronounced, including Kotido and Moroto districts, Lwampanga, Nabiswera and Wabinyonyi subcounties in Nakasongola district, and Kakuto county in Rakai District.

The impact of a growing population on forest cover has also been observed since 97 per cent of the population uses firewood and charcoal as the main source of energy. The use of traditional three-stone fireplace for cooking is most common throughout Uganda. These fireplaces contribute to indoor air pollution and consequently responsible for respiratory illnesses particularly affecting women and children.

There is prevalence in Uganda of environmental diseases, which include water borne diseases (typhoid fever, cholera, bacillary dysentery, polio and hepatitis); water-washed diseases (scabies and trachoma); water-based diseases (schistosomiasis and guinea worms); and water-anthropoid diseases (malaria, and river blindness).

The linkage between poverty and environment is well understood. The poor generally live off the land from which they realize crops for subsistence and sale, graze their livestock, and derive wood for most of their needs, they tend to use the land intensively, thereby causing deterioration. As land deteriorates in quality, the poor become poorer.

Source: MFPED (1999b)

Table 1.3 Household Consumption Gains by Region Region % of population in % growth in real consumption consumption 1985 1992 1997 1985-1992 1992-1997 Central 61.51 45.51 27.7 29.8 21.4 West 63.0 52.8 42.0 21.2 15.9 East 62.6 59.2 54.3 13.1 11.0 North 83.5 71.3 58.8 20.6 14.4 Source: MFPED (1999b)

Table 1.4: Household Consumption Gains by Economic Sector (1992-1997) Sector of household head Share of Percentage of population population (%) in consumption poverty 1992 1996 1992 1996 Food crop 47.2 44.2 63.7 62.2 Non-food cash crop 23.4 26.7 60.1 43.7 Manufacturing 3.7 3.3 44.8 27.8 Trade 6.7 6.9 25.9 19.4 Government services 6.8 5.5 35.0 28.0 Not working 4.3 4.9 60.2 63.4 Source: MFPED (1999b)

Box 1.3: Improvements in poverty trends

• The proportion of Ugandans in consumption poverty fell from 56% in 1992 to 44% in 1997. • Average real household consumption rose by 17% over the period, and rose in every year. • The expenditures of the bottom 20% rose even more: those of the bottom 10% rose by 29% and those of the next 10% by 23% over the period. • A major factor in the reduction of poverty was the benefit farmers gained from the increase in coffee prices, reflecting the combined effect of the boom in world coffee prices and the liberalization policy, which passed the price increases onto farmers. • There was no systematic trend in inequality in the 1990x. But although inequality is not definitely getting worse in Uganda, it would be desirable to reduce it.

Source: MFPED (2000)

GOU considers that absolute poverty must be eradicated. It has set itself the objective of reducing the headcount of income poverty to 10 percent of the population by 2017 (MFPED, 2000). Other targeted improvements are shown in Table 1.5. This is expected to be achieved through: raising educational achievement of Ugandans; improving the health of the people; implementing further administrative and political reforms to increase poor people’s control over their own lives and the policies and services which affect them (giving voice to poor communities), among others. The Poverty Eradication Action Plan is Uganda’s Comprehensive Development Framework (CDF) established on four major pillars: • creating a framework for economic growth and transformation; • ensuring good governance and security; • directly increasing the ability of the poor to raise their incomes; and • directly increasing the quality of the life of the poor (MFPED, 2000).

The PEAP as a planning framework guides detailed medium term sector plans, district plans, and the budget process (Figure 1.4).

Table 1.5: Selected economic and social welfare Indicators Indicator Status When Economic Indicators GDP growth rate, 1998/99 7.8 7 Inflation rate, 1998/99 5.4 5 Debt service (% of total govt. expend), 1997/98 9.6 _ Real GDP Per capita (US $), 1997/98 300 _ Social Indicators Total population (millions) projected, 1999 21 _ Population annual growth rate, (%) 1999 2.9 _ Dependency ratio, 1997 120.3 Population living in absolute poverty (%), 1997 44 10* Number of people internally displaced (estimate) 400000 0 1998 Number of people abducted , (1998) 18649 0 Health Indicators Infant mortality rate per 1000 live births, 1995 97 78** Under-5 mortality rate per 1000 live births, 1995 147 118** Total fertility rate, 1995 6.9 6.5** Maternal mortality rate per (100000), 1995 506 400** Infants (12-23 months) fully immunized. (%), 1995 47 60** Total expenditure on health (% of total govt. 6.7 _ expend.), 1998/99 Life expectancy at birth, (years), 1995 42 _ Estimated number of HIV + persons (millions), 1.9 _ 1995 Stunted children, below 4 years (%), 1995 38 _ Access to safe water (% of rural population), 1998 41 100*** Access to sanitation (% of rural population), 1998 45 100*** Population per Doctor, 1997 18700 _ Birth attended by a trained health personnel (%), 38 _ 1996 Education Indicators Net primary enrolment ratio (estimated), 1998 85 100**** Adult literacy rate (%), 1995 65 _ Total expenditure on education (% of total govt. 23.6 _ expend), 1997/98 *by the year 2017 ** by the year 2002 ***by the year 2015 **** by the year 2003 Source: MFPED (1999)

To eradicate mass poverty and ensure rural transformation, will require the modernization of agriculture and development of competitive rural economies (MFPED, 1999b). Uganda’s Plan for Modernization of Agriculture, among others aims at: developing an efficient land market thus ensuring an optimal utilization of land; strengthening research-extension-farmer linkages; promoting efficient marketing, transport and communication infrastructure and undertaking comprehensive rural electrification to create new economic opportunities; promoting the use of local materials and providing incentives to the private sector to invest in agriculture and agro- processing; and developing and promoting training programs in business skills, farm management, and project analysis and evaluation (MFPED/MAAIF, 1999). Environmental concerns arising from the modernization of agriculture were incorporated into the PMA (Moyini, 2000). Recommendations made include: carrying out a strategic environmental assessment of the PMA; and ensuring that specific activities or projects developed under the PMA are subjected to environmental impact assessments or reviews where necessary. It is further recommended that simple checklists should be developed to guide small investments (e.g. maize mills). Finally, it is 11 recommended that micro credit loans should have environmental eligibility as a conditionality. Environmental concerns have been mainstreamed into both the PEAP and PMA. If implemented well, this should result in the sustainable development of the country. However, these are recent developments. Past actions through neglect and in some cases by design indicate that the present state of Uganda’s environment is still faced with many problems and challenges. Section Two describes the current state of Uganda’s environment.

Figure 1.4: Overview of Planning/Information Flows

VISION 2025

POVERTY ERADICATION ACTION PLAN

Donor DISTRICT Programs SECTOR PLANS PLANS

Results of Participatory NGO Programs monitoring

Local Government 3 Year Medium 3 year Medium Term Term Private Sector Expenditure Expenditure Initiatives Framework Framework

“Budget Speech” & “BTTB” Annual Budget District Budget

Civil Society

Source: MFPED (2000)

References

FAOSTAT. 1997. FAO Statistics Database. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Rome, Italy.

GOU (Government of Uganda). 1996. Wildlife Statute 1996. Government Printer. Kampala, Uganda

GOU (Government of Uganda). 1995a. The Constitution of the Republic of Uganda 1995. Government Printer. Kampala, Uganda.

GOU (Government of Uganda).1995b. The National Environment Statute 1995. Government Printer. Kampala, Uganda.

12 MNR (Ministry of Natural Resources). 1994. State of Environment Report 1994. Kampala, Uganda

MFPED (Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development).2000. Poverty Eradication Action Plan (PEAP). Kampala, Uganda.

Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development(MFPED). 1999a. Vision 2025-A strategic Framework for National Development. Kampala, Uganda.

Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development(MFPED). 1999b. Uganda Poverty Status Report, 1999. Kampala, Uganda

MFPED/MAAIF (Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development/Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries).2000. The Plan for Modernization of Agriculture (PMA). Kampala, Uganda.

Moyini, Y. 2000. Incorporating Environmental Issues in the Plan for Modernization of Agriculture. Thematic Paper on Environment. Prepared for the PMA Steering Committee. Kampala, Uganda.

NEMA (National Environment Management Authority). 1998. State of Environment Report for Uganda 1998. Kampala, Uganda.

SARDC/IUCN/ SADC. 1994. State of the Environment in Southern Africa. Harare, Zimbabwe.

Slade, G. and Weitz, K. 1991. Uganda Environmental Issues and Options. A Masters Dissertation. Unpublished.

Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS), 2000: Statistical Abstract. June 2000.

UPRS (Uganda Poverty Status Report), 1999. The challenges of implementing the Poverty Eradication Action Plan.

UNDP (United Nations Development Program). 1998a. Human Development Report 1998. Oxford University Press, Yew York.

UNDP (United Nations Development Program). 1998b. Combating Poverty. New York.

UNDP (United Nations Development Program). 1997. Human Development Report 1997. Oxford University Press, New York.

UNEP (United Nations Environment Program). 1999. Global Environment Outlook 2000. UNEP’s millennium Report on the Environment. Earthscan Publications Ltd, London.

UNEP (United Nations Environment Program). 1991. Regaining the Lost Decade: A guide to Sustainable Development in Africa. UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya.

World Bank, The. 1998. World Development Indicators. Washington D.C., USA.

World Bank, The. 1997. Expanding the Measure of Wealth: Indicators of Environmentally Sustainable Development by the World Bank. Environmentally Sustainable Development Studies and Monograph Series No. 17. The World Bank, Washington D.C., United States.

World Bank, The. 1987. World Tables. Washington, D.C. USA.

PART 2

STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT

Land

Land Resources and Food

The total surface area of Uganda is about 241,500 km2 of which 194,000 km2 is land, and the balance of 47,500 comprises of water bodies and wetlands (Figure 2.1). Uganda is also one of the least urbanized countries in Africa. Close to 84% of Ugandans live in rural areas and are pastoralists or practice subsistence agriculture.

Figure 2.1: Land-use pattern in Uganda as of 1993

Forests/other Cultivated land protected areas 11% 21% Water/wetlands 14%

Pasture/arable 54%

Source: World Bank (1993)

Considering normal conditions and when compared to the rest of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), Uganda is fairly well endowed with one of the most favourable climates for agricultural production. Temperatures over most of the country range between 150C and 350C all year round. Most of the country receives between 1,000-2,000 mm of rainfall annually and this is usually

15 well distributed and largely bimodal. It is, therefore, possible to grow two crops a year under rain fed conditions in most parts of the country. The soils, though weathered tropical soils liable to leaching, are able to support vigorous crop growth (NEMA, 1999).

Despite the favourable climatic conditions, the area under cultivation in the country has fluctuated considerably over the past years for various reasons. There was a sharp rise in the area under cultivation between 1960 and 1979 from around 3.3 to 3.5 million ha. This was followed by a sharp fall between 1979 and 1980 from 5.7 to 3.5 million ha primarily due to the then prevailing civil war. The period 1980-1984 registered a slight increase in cultivated area followed by yet another decline between 1984 and 1985 also as a result of civil war. Since then, there has been a steady increase in the area under cultivation due to improved security, macroeconomic stability and law and order.

Crop production dominates Uganda’s agricultural activities. Almost 70% of farm holdings are engaged in crop production as a principal activity and about 25% engaged in mixed farming. Ugandan farmers grow both food and what are considered traditional cash crops. The main food crops include: cereals (maize, millet and sorghum); legumes (beans, field peas, cow peas and pigeon peas); oilseeds (simsim, groundnuts and soya); and root crops (sweet and irish potatoes, cassava and yams).

Table 2.1 Trends in Food Crop Production (Estimates), 1990-2000 Year Plantains Cereals Root Crops Pulses Oil Seeds Hectare Tonnes Hectare Tonnes Hectare Tonnes Hectare Tonnes Hectare Tonnes (000s) (000s) (000s) (000s) (000s) (000s) (000s) (000s) (000s) (000s) 1970 7,657 1,633 4,148 231.8 264 1971 7,557 1,419 3,842 317.8 281.9 1972 7,634 1,513 3,874 361.5 262.8 1973 8,126 1,451 3,364 260 242.7 1974 8,879 1,389 4,302 292.2 230.9 1975 9,106 1,749 5,166 419.8 233.1 1976 8,137 1,681 5,185 420 210.3 1977 8,531 1,522 4,918 337 937 1978 8,844 1,545 4,009 379 233 1979 6,090 1,270 3,513 203 123 1980 5,699 1,078 3,485 183 93 1981 5,900 1,165 4,475 293 110 1982 6,600 1,348 5,096 361 124 1983 6,875 1,562 5,710 387 148 1984 1985 1986 1987 1,271 7,039 855 1,220 769 4,960 497 374 232 1998 1999 1990 1,388 7,842 1,055 1,580 857 5,337 630 498 347 1991 1,430 8,080 1,099 1,576 849 5,268 643 488 364 1992 1,459 7,806 1,139 1,743 841 5,069 673 509 386 1993 1,488 8,222 1,220 1,880 869 5,417 694 540 402 1994 1,500 8,500 1,295 1,936 837 4,577 722 495 415 1995 1,512 9,012 1,292 2,030 876 4,849 752 509 430 1996 1,524 9,144 1,318 1,588 904 4,111 771 356 443 1997 1,538 9,303 1,334 1,625 927 4,545 790 346 445 1998 1,553 9,318 1,366 2,085 960 5,764 810 517 459 1999 1,570 8,949 1,333 2,188 978 7,678 835 558 466 2000* 1,598 9,533 1,372 2,414 1,204 8,183 870 721 499 Note: * - Projections

16 Source: MFPED Statistical Abstract, 1998-for 1987 to 1994; Uganda Bureau of Standards: Statistical Abstract, 2000-for 1995 to 2000; Bank of Uganda: Annual Report, 1983.

Table 2.1 shows historical trend in the production of the main food crops. Uganda’s traditional cash crops are: coffee (robusta and arabica), cotton, tea and tobacco. Except for tea, which is largely grown on large plantations, subsistence producers grow the rest of the cash crops. Another large-scale plantation agriculture is sugar-cane production grown for manufacture of sugar. As Uganda’s exports are becoming increasingly diversified, due to trade liberalization policies of the Government, the distinction between food and cash crops is becoming less defined. Some traditional food crops such as simsim and maize have become major cash crops.

Ugandan farmers also keep a diversity of livestock on their smallholdings. Pastoralists in the ‘cattle corridor’ are the ones who are exclusively involved in cattle keeping.

Figure 2.2 Trends in Livestock Numbers (mill.) 1970 - 1997

4 No. of animals (x1000,000) 3

0 1971 1973 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 Period (years)

Cattle Sheep Goats Pigs Source: MFPED (1997)

The main land-related environmental issues facing Uganda are twofold-land degradation and land tenure arrangements.

Land Degradation

Land degradation is simply the physical, chemical or biological impairment (Lal, 1987) of the attributes of land. And it is a serious problem not only in Uganda, but the whole of Africa. According to Scotney and Dijkhuis (1989), in a continent where too many people are already malnourished, crop yields could be cut in half within 40 years if the degradation of cultivated lands were to continue at present rates. The problem becomes more significant when one realizes that the agricultural sector in Uganda accounts for almost half the gross domestic product of this country and employs over 80% of the people. The magnitude of land degradation varies from one part of the country to another depending on the farming practice, population pressure, vulnerability of the soils to erosion, and the general relief of the area (NEMA, 1999). For 17 Uganda, the key issues related to land degradation are: escalating soil erosion; decreasing soil fertility; agrochemical pollution; and desertification.

Although some parts of Uganda remain relatively under-cultivated and not experiencing significant degradation problems (e.g. Gulu, Lira, Apac, Katakwi and Kitgum districts), the rest face serious land degradation problems. These are: (a) over-utilized areas (Kotido and Moroto districts; and Isingiro, Nyabushozi and Kazo counties of Mbarara District); and (b) the heavily utilized areas of Okoro and Padyere counties in Nebbi District, Kabula County in Rakai District, Bukoto County in Masaka District, Bulamogi, Busiki and Kigulu counties in Iganga District, and Bunyaruguru County in Bushenyi District. The main causes of land degradation are: high population growth rates; poor methods of cultivation, deforestation, bush burning, and overgrazing. Theses factors have had a negative impact on food production and hence food security. Per capita food production (tonnes/year) reached a record high of around 1.47 in 1978 and then hit a low of about 0.83 in 1980. Despite increases from 1986 onwards, Per capita food production is less now than in the 1970s. Government has come up with the Plan for Modernization of Agriculture (PMA) to address these deficiencies and expand upon agricultural production (MFPED/ MAAIF, 2000).

Population Based on estimated land area of 194,000 sq. km and population census data, land is becoming increasingly scarce as the country’s population continues to increase at the high rate of 2.5% per annum. In 1931, population density on land was a paltry 18 persons/km2. The density has since then risen to 49 persons/km2 in 1969, and an estimated 113 persons/km2 for the year 2000. A 528% increase over 70 years or a 7.5% increase per annum over the same period.

Close to 84% of Uganda’s households live in rural areas. Of the rural households, 62% own farms which are less than one hectare, while 23% have farms which are between one and two hectares each. The average landholding per household differs from one region to another. The average for the country during 1989-90 was 1.36ha per household, while similar figures for eastern, western, northern and central regions were 0.98ha, 1.72ha, 1.1ha and 1.35ha, respectively. With the ever-increasing population, land fragmentation is inevitable as is already being experienced in districts like Kabale. Figure 2.3 shows the decline of arable land Per capita from 1931 to projected population levels for 2015.

Figure 2.3 Arable land per capita for the period 1931 - 2015

7 6 5.2 5

Per capita 4 arable land 3 1.9 2 1.1 0.8 0.6 1 0 1931 1969 1991 2000 2015 Year

Source: … 18

When population densities were low, it was possible to practice traditional conservation measures, characterized by shifting cultivation and bush fallow system (Jameson, 1966) including the use of complex cropping patterns like intercropping or mixed cropping and sequential planting (Willey and Osiru, 1972; and Osiru and Willey, 1972) and the use of mixtures of tree crops and annual crops (Nye and Greenland, 1960), now commonly referred to as agroforestry. IITA (1990) suggested that vegetative fallows were able to sustain the productivity of traditional agricultural systems in various ways. In many parts of the country now, vegetative fallowing has been largely abandoned. This is the case in districts like Kabale, Mbale and Tororo where population densities are high. However, even in areas with low population, land degradation occurs because farmers lack sufficient labour to open new areas which may have been fallow and thus continue to use the land currently under cultivation without rest. Government has put in place a number of interventions (family planning, universal primary education and PMA), which are expected to relieve population pressure on arable land.

Overgrazing Overgrazing by traditional herders (pastoralists) is also contributing to land degradation. The pastoralists practice communal grazing, depend entirely on natural pasture, and keep as many animals as they are capable of handling often out of step with the carrying capacity of the area. The pastoralists do not practice proper pasture management, which results in overgrazing of the rangelands and their subsequent invasion by unpalatable grass species such as Cymbopogon afronardus and thorny bushes of Acacia hockii.

Uganda’s rangelands occupy about 84,000 km2, situated in what is described as the ‘cattle corridor’ extending from the Ugandan-Tanzania border in the southwest through Mbarara, Mubende, Kiboga, Nakasongola and onto Kotido and Moroto districts. The combination of increased human population growth, traditional nomadic sentiments of over-stocking and invasion by agricultural settlers has resulted in the over-utilization and irreversible damage of parts of Kotido, Moroto, Nakasongola, Nyabushozi and Kazo counties in Mbarara and Kabula and Kakuto counties in Rakai districts. Extensive degradation of the rangelands occurs along livestock routes, watering points and hilltops mainly. These sites experience high concentrations of livestock during most parts of the year resulting in overgrazing and trampling of vegetation rendering the surfaces of these areas bare. The adverse effects of overgrazing are illustrated in Box 2.1. Table 2.2 shows a list of over-grazed subcounties in the various districts of Uganda.

Apart from pastoralists, Government encouraged the development of commercial ranches within the cattle corridor. The ranches were Government or privately owned. In so doing, Government had to first deal with the problem of tsetse flies, quite rampant in the cattle corridor. This meant extensive areas of ‘bush land’ had to be cleared and sprayed. Beginning from 1962, cattle production in Government owned ranches increased from 4,652 to a high of about 100,000 in 1978 and then declined to around 53,526 by 1989 (Figure 2.4). These ranches have since been restructured or are in the process of privatization. As of 1990, there were about 237 privately owned ranches holding about 276,850 head of cattle. The size of individual holdings within the officially recognized ranching schemes has since then been reduced. Where original ownerships were about 1280 ha per owner, these have in many cases been reduced to about 256 ha. Management of these ranches, both Government and private, did not perform as well as expected. Part of the reason was the presence of squatters both outside and within the ranches. By 1990, there were 8,100 families of squatters (a population of 74,063 people), grazing an estimated 435,527 head of cattle within and around the ranches.

19 Table 2.2 Overgrazed Counties and Subcounties at District Level District Subcounties (Sc) and District Subcounties (Sc) and Counties (C) Counties (C) 1. Kamuli Budiope (C) 20. Kampala Nil Bulamogi (C) 2. Kapchorwa Tingey (C) 21. Lira Kioga 3. Karamoja Central and Eastern Parts 22. Kumi 4. Kasese Nyakutonzi 23. Mbale Bulambuli (C) Busunga Bungokho (C) Muhokya 5. Kibale Buyaga (C) 24. Mbarara Rwampara (C) Bugangaizi (C) 6. Kiboga Bukomero (C) 25. Masaka Bukoto East (C) Masodde (C) Bukoto West (C) Lwamata (C) Kalungu (C) Butemba (C) Mawogola (C) Lwemyaga (C) 7. Ntungamo Rushenyi (C) 26. Masindi Buruli (C) • Rubaare (Sc) Parts of Kibanda (C) • Ngoma (Sc) • Bujenje Ruhama (C) • Buliisa • Ntungamo (Sc) Parts of Kijunjubwa Rwakiniro (Sc) • Kimengo • Masindi Port 8. Kitgum Agago (C) 27. Moyo Metu (Sc) Aswa (C) 9. Kotido Labwor-Jie (Sc) 28. Mubende Kasanda Dodoth (C) • Lolelia (Sc) • Karenga (Sc) • Kaabong (Sc) Kanawat (C) 10. Arua Vurra 29. Rukungiri Ruhunda (Sc) Rujumbwa (C) 11. Bundibugyo 30. Kalangala Nil 12. Bushenyi Sheema (C) 31. Pallisa Nil 13. Busia Lumino (Sc) 32. Nebbi Agwok Bulumbi (Sc) Okoro 14. Gulu 33. Kisoro Nil 15. Iganga Busiki (C) 34. Mukono Bbale (C) • Bukooli (Sc) • Luuka (Sc) • Kigulu (Sc) 16. Hoima Nil 35. Mpigi Gomba (C) 17. Jinja Nil 36. Soroti 18. Kabale Kamwezi (Sc) 37. Tororo West Budama Bunyole Samia Bugwe 19. Rakai Kakuto (C) 38. Apac Loro– Balla Kyotera (C) Balla - Chawenta Source: NEAP, 1992

Bush Burning As a result of custom, culture or social habits, Ugandans living in predominantly rangeland areas engage in annual bushfires. The fires are set to encourage new growth for pasture. Fire can be an 20 effective management tool if applied right, and early enough. Otherwise, the fires tend to encourage the emergence of fire-resistant or fire-tolerant species which themselves may not be suitable for pasture. Box 2.2 shows the effects of fire on rangeland ecosystems.

Figure 2.4 Cattle production in government sponsored ranches

120,000

100,000

80,000

Number 60,000 of cattle

40,000

20,000

0 1962 1968 1970 1974 1978 1982 1984 1988 1989 Period (years)

Source: NEAP Secretariat 1992

Box 2.1: Effects of overgrazing in parts of Kotido, Moroto, Nakasongola and Rakai

Overgrazing is an important factor, disrupting the natural balance between the vegetation cover and the pasture and soil (UNEP, 1982). Before cattle grazing becomes excessive, the distributed balance can be restored; the composition of the vegetation cover changes but soils normally do not degrade. As the number of animals per unit area becomes excessive, many grasses, often for forage production, cannot withstand the grazing pressure and as a result they die off. The vegetation cover thins out, and the soil, which is unprotected against sunlight and wind begins to degrade and erode. The intensive trampling of grazing lands by cattle, particularly at watering places causes the disappearance of vegetation, soil compaction and loss of structure. Gully erosion is common in these areas. It starts with tiny springs pouring from the soil devoid of vegetation. The spring rapidly deepens, widens and starts growing, its source constantly moves up the slope. Separate springs join into a stream running along the floor of the gully, which may be several hundred meters wide and up to 350-400m deep. Gullies can be easily stopped at an early stage; however, after their development, it requires a lot of effort and expense to arrest them.

Source: UNEP, 1992

Box 2.2: Effects of fire on the rangeland ecosystem

Frequent burning affects the development of species and the composition of the vegetation.

Plants: Fire damage to plants depend upon the heat generated and the growth stage of the plant at the time of burning. A dry mature grass plant burns more readily and at a higher temperature than a green plant. Burning usually damages a green plant more severely and new meristematic tissues will be killed if temperatures go above 600C Heat from the fire may kill seeds that have not fallen or those on a littered surface. However, buried seeds and those lying on bare soil, can withstand quite high temperatures and usually survive the fire. Much controlled burning is for the express purpose of destroying bush that has invaded rangelands so that grasses can grow. There is a decrease in size of some perennial grass plans in the tropics following a fire, but at the same time they flower more heavily than usually and produce an abundance of seeds. Fire opens up bush land and changes the species of plants and animals that live on those plants. In the case of less frequent fires, tall grass vegetation could give way to shrubs and thus limit the production of accessible and palatable forage.

Animals: These react to fire in various ways. There is little attention to fire from large herbivores and carnivores that inhabit grassland; they always escape. Rodents and other small animals escape all the hottest fires by hiding in burrows. Their habitats may be temporarily damaged by fire because they depend on certain foods and cover what the fires may have destroyed. Birds that nest on the ground may be severely affected by fire, their nests burn and food destroyed. However some bird species increase in number where there is light burning because of the increase in grasses that produce seeds, which they later feed on. Usually new growth following a fire attracts grazing animals. Effects of burning soon disappear and the grassland returns to its usual composition and nutrient qualities, this takes roughly two growing seasons or by the end of one or two growing seasons.

Soils: Most evidence shows that grassland fire has little effect on soil. Often immediately after a fire, grasses and forbes grow very quickly possibly because burning increases the temperature of the soil The ashes left on the soil contain potassium, calcium, magnesium and phosphorus, which provide nutrients that are more quickly available to plants than before the fires. Nitrogen and sulphur may be lost as gases if the fire is hot enough to leave white ash but these losses are not serious. The first plants to grow after fires are likely to be nitrogen-fixing legumes. Soil moisture may either decrease or increase after burning. A decrease is so from higher evaporation rates because of higher soil temperatures, which encourage greater run-off because of diminishing ground cover. The effects of a burn vary according to whether the burn is early in the dry season or late. Early burns are often partial and less hot whereas a late dry season burn is more thorough, hotter and more damaging. The risk of erosion increases immediately after a fire and if rain falls in heavy storms, erosion may be extreme. Greatest erosion occurs on steep slopes but it is seldom a problem on the rangelands areas. When plant cover is established the risk of erosion diminishes or disappears completely.

Source: …

Agrochemicals Another cause of land degradation is pollution through the use of agrochemicals. To date, Uganda’s agriculture is generally low-input low-yield technology. Nonetheless, as Ugandans move towards modern agriculture and the growing of high value crops, the use of agrochemicals 22 is expected to increase. According to NICU (1990), during the period 1971 to 1975, on average, Ugandans used about 1,600 metric tonnes of fungicides, herbicides and insecticides/year. Also, close to 12,000 metric tonnes per year of fertilizers (ammonium sulphate, urea, nitrogenous fertilizers and potassium fertilizers) were also used over the same period. As agriculture modernizes, these quantities of agrochemical inputs are likely to be exceeded as illustrated for floriculture in Box 2.3.

Box 2.3: Floriculture-An agrochemicals intensive agriculture

Floriculture and especially production of roses makes very extensive use of chemicals including fertilizers, fungicides, insecticides and herbicides, which are routinely applied to ensure good quality product.

Soil conditioning and amendment are necessary during flower growing. Therefore, the following are some of the chemicals that are added during planting: Single Super phosphate (SP) Mono-Ammonia Phosphate (MAP Urea Calcium nitrate Magnesium nitrate Potassium sulphate

Floriculture is a heavy user of chemicals both fertilizers and pesticides/fungicides and is one of the most polluting forms of agriculture.

The exact quantities of chemicals being applied in floriculture in Uganda are not known. The reason being that except for initial fertilizer application after preparation of flowerbeds, chemicals are applied at an irregular basis and in a mixture form depending on: changes in soils and appearance of plants followed by leaf tests advice from European markets after receiving some products appearance of pests and diseases in growth chambers

However, estimates given by the firms gives some indication of the most commonly used as follows: 1,500kgs of NPK (20:20:20) fertilizer per ha per year 5,000kgs of Calcium nitrate per ha per year are required.

Source: BOU (1990)

Soil erosion The principal manifestation of land degradation in Uganda is soil erosion, caused by surface runoff or wind where vegetation cover has been removed through clearing of land for agriculture, poor cultivation practices, and overgrazing. Soil erosion accounts for over 80% of the total cost of environmental degradation in Uganda, conservatively estimated at 4-12% of gross national product (Slade and Weitz, 1991). Table 2.3 shows the extent of soil erosion in selected districts of Uganda. Estimated proportions of areas having significant soil erosion as of 1993 in each district ranged from 20% to 90% of total area. Kabale, Kisoro and Mbale are the worst affected districts. The uncontrolled runoff of excessive rainwater from the mountains and hilly slopes in the three districts causes sheet erosion and leads eventually to gully erosion. In its most severe form, it causes gullies and landslides, with equally attendant consequences on soil productivity. Evidence of rill and sheet erosion is all over the country, particularly in areas which are densely populated and where continuous cultivation is practiced (e.g. Mbale, Kabale, Kisoro and Tororo). Examples of gully erosion are also numerous, particularly on the slopes of the various mountains and hills.

23 Table 2.3 Estimates of the Proposition of Land Area Affected by Soil Erosion in Selected Districts of Uganda District Total land Estimated area Population Main causes of soil erosion area (ha) affected by soil density erosion (Pple/ km2) (Ha) (%) Kabale 165,300 148,770 90 250 Slopes, population pressure, deforestation, poor farming, vulnerable soil Kisoro 66,200 56,270 85 279 Slopes, population pressure, deforestation, poor farming, vulnerable soil Mbale 250,400 200,320 80 282 Slopes, population pressure, deforestation, poor farming, vulnerable soil Rakai 388,900 311,120 80 98 vulnerable soils, poor farming, overgrazing Kotido 1,320,800 990,600 75 14 Overgrazing, bush burning, vulnerable soil Kasese 272,400 163,440 60 126 Slopes, vulnerable soils, population pressure, overgrazing, poor farming, Nebbi 278,100 166,860 60 114 Slopes, vulnerable soils, deforestation, population pressure Moroto 1,411,300 846,780 60 12 Overgrazing, bush burning, vulnerable soils Masaka 551,800 275,900 50 151 Slopes, population pressure vulnerable soils, poor farming, Mbarara 1,058,700 529,350 50 88 Deforestation, bush burning, overgrazing, poor farming, vulnerable soils Bundibugyo 209,700 83,880 40 55 Slopes, population pressure, deforestation, poor farming, vulnerable soils Luwero 853,900 341,560 40 53 overgrazing, bush burning, vulnerable soils Rukungiri 258,400 77,520 30 150 Slopes, population pressure, deforestation, vulnerable soils Kapchorwa 173,800 52,140 30 67 Slopes, deforestation, poor farming Mpigi 448,600 112,150 25 204 Overgrazing, bush burning, vulnerable soils Arua 759,500 151,900 20 82 Slopes, vulnerable soils, population pressure, overgrazing, poor farming Bushenyi 490,600 98,120 20 149 Slopes, vulnerable soils, deforestation, population pressure, overgrazing Kabarole 810,900 162,180 20 91 Overgrazing, vulnerable soils, poor farming, deforestation Masindi 845,200 169,090 20 33 bush burning, vulnerable (Rift Valley) soils Source: MAAIF

24 While there is some general appreciation of the magnitude of the soil erosion problem, unfortunately, existing policies and legislation are highly inadequate to address the problem at hand. More to that, there is insufficient institutional capacity and lack of coordination and networking among the few existing institutions whose work relate to soil management and productivity thus contributing further to degradation. The lack of awareness (among major land users) of appropriate soil management techniques, combined with poverty and demographic conditions that have characterized Uganda for the last three decades have also contributed to soil degradation. It is for the above reasons that Government has prepared a draft National Soils Policy for Uganda (NEMA, 1999). The draft policy seeks to: • promote awareness on the current state of the country’s soils, and the need for their rehabilitation and sustainable utilization; • transform existing mechanisms to establish a national framework with the mandate to ensure wise use and conservation of the soils for the benefit of present and future generations; • promote optimal land use without necessarily compromising the environment through the use of soils; • establish a structure for continuous monitoring and assessment of Uganda’s potential in terms of its soil properties and weather, soil degradation and then undertaking technical measures required to control it; • promote coordinated institutional approach to resource (soil) management and policy implementation; and • promote a participatory approach in resource conservation and policy implementation.

Recognizing the cost of soil erosion at about US $ 132-396 million (Slade and Weitz, 1991), the draft policy has recommended the following priority actions: create a national soils research institute; develop district soil profiles; revise and update related and relevant policies; develop a land use policy; and establish monitoring mechanisms to assess policy impact and attitudinal change towards sustainable utilization. One of the recommended priority actions, namely, the development of a land use policy is already being implemented. A land use policy is being developed and the Department of Physical Planning of the Ministry of Water, Lands and Environment (MWLE) is its Secretariat (NEMA, 2000).

Land Tenure

The management and control of land is one factor that can minimize land degradation and enhance the productivity of land. During the colonial period, various policies and laws relating to the ownership and management of land tended to favour individualization (Kisamba-Mugerwa, 1995) as shown in Table 2.4 but without alienating the need for customary tenure. Details of the provisions of the colonial era land laws are presented in Box 2.4 and Box 2.5.

Perhaps the most radical change in tenure was introduced in the Land Reform Decree No.3 of 1975. The law repealed all previous tenure systems except for leasehold. With a stroke of a pen, individuals lost title to their freeholds and long-term security, unless they opted for leaseholds (for up to 99 years instead of perpetuity). Not only were the landed class affected but also all communal areas became public lands, potentially available for lease by any interested party. As a result of the Land Reform Decree, several areas originally gazetted forest or wildlife-protected areas, were degazetted. Furthermore, the law also undermined people’s confidence in ownership security and hence there was a tendency to indulge in short-term profit maximizing investments while neglecting long-term, environmentally sound investments.

25 In 1998, the Land Reform Decree was replaced by the Land Act 1998. The Act recognizes four tenure systems: customary, freehold, mailo and leasehold. According to the Act: • customary tenure means a system of land tenure regulated by customary rules which are limited in their operation to a particular description or class of persons; • freehold land tenure means the holding of registered land in perpetuity subject to statutory and common law qualifications; • mailo land tenure means the holding of registered land in perpetuity and having roots in the allotment of land pursuant to the 1900 Uganda Agreement and subject to statutory qualifications; and • leasehold land tenure means the holding of land for a given period from a specified date of commencement, on such terms and conditions as may be agreed upon by the lessor and the lessee.

The Land Act 1998 has several provisions to protect the environment. In particular, Section 44 of the Act requires the person who owns or occupies any piece of land in Uganda to manage and utilize it in accordance with the National Environment Statute 1995 and other environment- related sectoral laws. Section 45, which provides for the control of environmentally sensitive areas, further strengthens this position. Furthermore, the Act has provisions for the decentralized management of land through the establishment of District Land Boards. Among others, these district level land boards are empowered to hold and allocate land in the district, which is not owned, by any person or authority. Together with decentralized environmental management Section 45 ensures that environmental issues can or should be handled at the local level.

Most of the land in Uganda is under customary tenure, usually meaning communal utilization. In some areas, particularly within the rangelands there often is open access in which no control is exercised in determining where, when or who utilizes grazing resources (Kisamba-Mugerwa, 1992). These open accesses have been the ones where land degradation has occurred most. In this respect, the Land Act 1998 is an improvement to the extent that it allows for the formation of Community Land Associations for purposes of communal ownership and management of land. The Act also provides for the issuance of certificates of customary ownerships. Such certificate confirms and is conclusive evidence of the customary rights and interests specified in it.

Through the Land Act 1998, Government has improved the ownership and management of land in the country. What is now left is enforcement of the provisions of the law. Although quite progressive, the hurried enactment of the law meant that some issues were overlooked and should be redressed. First, the law was formulated without an accompanying landuse policy. Therefore, as Uganda is in the process of formulating a landuse policy, some aspects of the Land Act 1998 may have to be revised. Second, the law is weak in its provisions for equitable sharing of benefits of land ownership amongst family members. Hence the gender aspects of the law may also have to be revisited.

26 Table 2.4 Evolution of Land Ownership and Management Policies in Uganda, 1994-1998

Colonial 1894-1962 • encouraged freeholds • mailo • 1953-1955 recommendations - land tenure policy should seek the individualization of land ownership - transactions of land should be so facilitated to enable easier access to land for economic use - land tenure should not be allowed to develop spontaneously, rather government should guide its development to meet the needs of a modern economy - existing property rights in land should be maintained and customary land rights must be ascertained and accommodated before exclusive individual rights are sanctioned - registration should not promote subdivision and fragmentation - land tenure reform should accommodate local circumstances and be pursued only with local support • Envujjo and Busuulu Law 1927 (see box 2.4) • Ankole Landhold and Tenant Law 1937 (see box 2.5) • Soil Conservation Act of 1958-applicable to non-Africans only (see box 2.5) Post- 1964, 1969 • Town and Country Planning Act 1964 relates to orderly planning of urban Independence and rural landuse • Public Land Act 1969 provides for the protection of customary land rights 1975 Land Reform Decree 1975 No. 3 • Declared all land in Uganda to be public land vested in the Uganda Land Commission • Abolished freehold interests in land except where such interests were vested in the Commission: as a result, all freehold land including mailo ownership were converted into leaseholds 1998 • The Land Act 1998 • All land in Uganda vested in the citizens of Uganda and owned in accordance with four tenure systems: customary, freehold, mailo, and leasehold • Provides for utilization of land according to various statutes, specifically: Forest Act, Mining Act, National Environment Statute 1995, Wildlife Statute 1996 • Provides for the Government or a local government to hold in trust for the people and protect natural lakes, rivers, ground water, natural ponds, natural streams, wetlands, forest reserves, national parks and any other land reserved for ecological and tourist purposes for the common good of the citizens of Uganda

Colonial Post-Independence 1894-1962 1964, 1969 1975 1998 • encouraged freeholds • Town Land Reform Decree The Land Act 1998 • mailo and 1975 No. 3 • all land in Uganda • 1953-1955 recommendations Countr • declared all land vested in the - land tenure policy should y in Uganda to be citizens of Uganda seek the individualization Plannin public land vested and owned in of land ownership g Act in the Uganda accordance with - transactions of land should 1964 Land four tenure systems: be so facilitated to enable relates Commission customary, freehold, easier access to land for to • abolished mailo, and leasehold economic use orderly freehold interests • provides for - land tenure should not be plannin in land except utilization of land 27 allowed to develop g of where such according to various spontaneously, rather urban interests were statutes, government should guide and vested in the specifically: Forest its development to meet the rural Commission: as a Act, Mining Act, needs of a modern economy landuse result, all freehold National - existing property rights in • Public land including Environment Statute land should be maintained Land mailo ownership 1995, Wildlife and customary land rights Act were converted Statute 1996 must be ascertained and 1969 into leaseholds • provides for the accommodated before provide Government or a exclusive individual rights s for local government to are sanctioned the hold in trust for the - registration should not protecti people and protect promote subdivision and on of natural lakes, rivers, fragmentation custom ground water, - land tenure reform should ary natural ponds, accommodate local land natural streams, circumstances and be rights wetlands, forest pursued only with local reserves, national support parks and any other land reserved for • Envujjo and Busuulu Law 1927 ecological and (see box 2.1.4) touristic purposes • Ankole Landhold and Tenant for the common Law 1937 (see box 2.1.5) good of the citizens • Soil Conservation Act of 1958- of Uganda. applicable to non-Africans only (see box 2.1.5) Source: Kisamba-Mugerwa (1992)

Box 2.4: Provisions of Busuulu and Envujjo Law 1928

The Busuulu (rent ) and Envujjo (tribute) Law of 1928, had the following provisions:

i. Every mukopi (tenant, pl. bakopi) was required to pay Shs. 10 per year to the ‘mailo owner’ on whose land he resided or worked for one month in lieu thereof as busuulu (rent). ii. Bakopi were required to pay busuulu after paying the poll and graduated taxes. iii. Failure to pay busuulu for three consecutive years could lead to eviction. iv. Busuulu entitled the mukopi to cultivate the land as he wishes for himself and his family to grow food and all other kinds of produce except cotton, more than ten trees and no more than 0.4 ha of coffee or maize. The mukopi had also to render the envujjo (tribute), which has a GOUrd of beer containing 18 litres, on every occasion of brewing or Shs. 4 in lieu thereof and/ or at least one bark cloth for every five bark-cloth trees on the mukopi’s landholding (ekibanja). v. A mukopi cultivating more than 0.4 ha of coffee, cotton or other ‘economic’ crop was required to pay envujjo of Shs. 4 for the first parcel of up to 1.2 ha for each crop. Where the area in question was in excess of 1.2 ha the matter of envujjo was left to the mailo owner and the mukopi. vi. Residence on mailo land had to be with consent of the landlord, except for the mukopi’s family members or a person who succeeds to a kibanja in accordance with custom upon death. vii. The kibanja could not be sub-let or transferred to any person. viii. The bakopi were allowed free access to pasture, saltlicks, firewood and timber for domestic use. ix. The bakopi could cut and sell for profit any trees that they themselves had planted but they were not allowed to ‘plant for profit’ trees that could ‘spoil’ the bananas and other crops except in ‘a special area’ after consulting the landlord. x. Bakopi could not be evicted except for public purposes or by court. xi. Landlords could seek court orders to evict bakopi that left the land derelict for more than four months. xii. The evicted mukopi could seek compensation for improvements on the kibanja, e.g. trees, buildings, etc. from the landlord or the in-coming fellow mukopi. xiii. Bakopi were allowed perpetual succession of their kibanja. xiv. The mukopi’s rights were not to be affected by any changes in the ownership of the mailo. xv. The court could, after being satisfied that there was no alternative area, evict and cause mukopi to leave the area, if his kibanja was needed for occupation by a new landlord. xvi. The mailo owner could exempt his bakopi from paying part or all busuulu or envujjo at his discretion.

Legislation regarding land ownership in Buganda Kingdom as outlined above, had a number of very basic provisions, which have enhanced the streamlining of land ownership in Uganda. Among other aspects, these laws: a) created a stratified structure within the population of the Buganda Kingdom by resting this important factor of production, land and concentrating its ownership in the hands of an extremely small section of the Kingdom’s population; b) disenfranchised the majority of the people from land ownership and through the busuulu and envujjo, established a privileged class of landlords that was deeply entrenched in the political administration of the Kingdom; c) created a deadlock where the de jure owner of the land (the landlord) could not easily evict the de facto owner (the mukopi) yet the latter was subjected to many provisos on the use of the land. This impassee has survived for very many years-where none of the parties had real security of tenure, except perhaps on paper; d) did not explicitly define the term mailo.

Source: .,..

Box 2.5: Provisions of Ankole Landlord and Soil Conservation Laws

• Ankole Landlord and Tenant Law, 1937

As regards the landlord-tenant relationship under the Ankole (and Toro) freehold laws of 1937, where the radical (original) title lay with the colonial power, the provisions were similar in all the four kingdoms (that is, Buganda, Ankole, Toro, and Bunyoro).

The only difference lay with Buganda, where over 45% of all land was put in private ownership under mailo system, and these provisions appear to have been implemented with more intensity than was envisaged.

Thus, the socio-economic impact of these provisions, particularly between Ankole and Buganda, is significantly different.

• Soil Conservation (Non-African Land) Act, 1958

This Act makes provisions for conservation of soil and land owned by or leased to non-Africans. It imposes a general duty on every owner and occupier of land to use, cultivate and manage it in a manner that prevents soil erosion.

Furthermore, to facilitate due performance of this duty, soil conservation committees (SCC) can be created in any area with the powers to make conservation orders with respect to any land specifying reasonably practicable measures to be taken by the landholder to prevent soil erosion. Contraventions under the Act are punishable with fines.

Source:Jones R. Kamugisha (1993) Management of Natural Resources and Environment IN Uganda – Policy and Legislation Landmarks, 1890-1990.

References

Bank of Uganda (BOU)/Agricultural Secretariat, 1990. NICU Report on Agricultural Inputs Situation in Uganda. November 1990.

IITA (International Institute of Tropical Agriculture). 1990. Research activities and achievements: A Conceptual Framework. A document prepared for internal review process. Ibadan, Nigeria.

Jameson, D.J. 1966. Agriculture in Uganda.

Kamugisha, Jones R. (1993). Management of Natural Resources and Environment In Uganda – Policy and Legislation Landmarks, 1890-1990. Published by SIDAs Regional Soil Conservation Unit, RSCU, 1993.

Kisamba-Mugerwa, W. 1995. The Impact of Individualization on Common Grazing land Resources in Uganda. PhD Dissertation. Makerere University. Kampala, Uganda.

Kisamba-Mugerwa, W 1992. Rangeland Tenure and Resource management: An Overview of Pastoralism in Uganda. Makerere University. Kampala, Uganda.

Lal, R. 1987. Tropical Ecology and Physical Edaphology. John Wiley & Sons Ltd

MFPED/ MAAIF (Ministry of Finance, Planning and Development/ Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries). 2000. Plan for the Modernization of Agriculture. Kampala, Uganda.

NEAP Secretariat. 1992. Land Tenure and Land Management in Uganda. Report of the Taskforce on Land Management. Ministry of Natural Resources. Kampala, Uganda.

NEMA(National Environment Management Authority). 2000. Report of the First Stakeholders Workshop on Landuse Policy for Uganda. Ministry of Water, Lands and Environment. Kampala, Uganda.

NEMA (National Environment Management Authority). 1999. The Draft National Soils Policy for Uganda. Kampala, Uganda.

NICU (National Input Coordination Unit). 1990. A Report on Agricultural Input Situation in Uganda. Agricultural Secretariat. Bank of Uganda. Kampala, Uganda.

Nye, P.H. and Greenland, J.J. 1960. The Soils Under Shifting Cultivation. Commonwealth Bulletin. Soils Technical Communication 51; CAB Farm Roy, U.K.

Osiru, D.S.O. and Willey, R.W. 1972. Studies on mixtures of dwarf sorghum and beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) with particular reference to plant production. Journal of Agricultural Science, Cambridge vol. 29(3) : 531-540.

Scotney, D.M. and Dijkhuis, F.H. 1989. Recent Changes in the Fertility Status of South African Soils. Soil and Irrigation Research Institute. Pretoria, South Africa.

Slade, G and Weitz, K. 1991. Uganda environmental issues and options. A Masters Dissertation. Unpublished. Duke University, North Carolina, USA.

Willey, R.W. and Osiru, D.S.O. 1972. Studies on mixture of maize and beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) with particular reference to plant population. Journal of Agricultural Science, Cambridge. Vol. 29 (3): 517-530.

World Bank, 1993. Uganda Agricultural Sector Memorandum Volume II. Washington, D.C., USA.

Forests and Woodlands

Forests, trees and woodlands are important resources and play multiple ecological, economic, social and cultural roles (UN, 1992). A forest is a type of vegetation dominated by trees, many species of which are tall at maturity and have straight trunks. The canopy is typically deep, being composed of several layers of foliage, and the herbaceous vegetation is generally open and lacks the tussock-forming grasses which are so characteristic of many types of savanna (Hamilton, 1984). In this context, forests are treated together with woodlands. The major difference between forests and woodlands is that in the case of the latter, trees are characteristically shorter than in forests and canopy is less dense.

Table 3.1 Forest Areas by Ownership/Management Status (Km2) Forest category Gazetted Non-gazetted National Total % Total forests forests parks area area Tropical high/montane 4,170 1,467 3,210 8,847 17.9 forest Plantations (broad leaf) 186 3 - 189 0.4 Plantations (Coniferous) 120 16 20 156 0.4 Savanna Woodland 7,200 33,078 - 40,278 81.4 Total Area 11,676 34,564 3,230 49,470 % Total Area 23.6 69.9 6.5 Source: National Biomass Study (1995)

32 Figure 3.1 Land use pattern as of 1993

33 Table 3.2 Distribution of Forest Types by Districts in Km2 Region and district Plantations THF Woodland Broadleaved Conifer Fully stocked Degraded Central Kalangala 0.0 0.0 221.5 6.2 47.6 Kampala 0.3 0.0 0.0 4.9 0.3 Kiboga 0.0 4.9 31.5 38.3 1612.1 Luwero 0.8 0.3 1.4 55.7 2316.4 Sembabule 0.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 157.5 Masaka 12.6 0.1 60.1 96.0 51.2 Mpigi 4.8 0.2 276.6 411.0 407.9 Mubende 7.0 1.4 49.2 239.5 944.5 Mukono 10.9 3.6 556.9 454.3 205.6 Nakasongola 0.0 17.1 0.0 0.0 1270.5 Rakai 7.1 0.0 182.9 32.1 141.0 Sub-total 43.9 27.5 1378.3 1332.2 7154.5 Eastern Bugiri 0.0 0.0 14.3 21.6 230.9 Busia 0.1 0.2 4.3 18.6 76.1 Iganga 2.9 1.4 18.6 138.8 118.0 Jinja 32.6 1.9 0.3 2.6 2.6 Kamuli 2.9 0.2 0.0 0.0 276.0 Kapchorwa 0.1 14.9 193.7 139.9 277.3 Katakwi 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 133.6 Kumi 1.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 80.6 Mbale 6.3 0.0 68.6 166.3 271.6 Pallisa 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 9.3 Soroti 0.1 2.9 0.0 0.0 283.9 Tororo 2.1 0.0 0.0 0.4 28.5 Sub-total 48.7 21.4 299.9 488.2 1788.3 Northern Adjumani 0.0 0.0 12.7 0.0 1498.5 Apac 1.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 689.1 Arua 19.1 4.0 0.0 0.0 3151.2 Gulu 2.7 4.8 0.0 0.0 4686.3 Kitgum 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 7280.0 Kotido 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2321.2 Lira 0.8 3.0 0.0 0.0 684.1 Moroto 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1142.2 Moyo 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.1 706.9 Nebbi 1.6 20.6 1.9 0.0 243.6 Sub-total 26.4 32.4 14.6 0.1 22403.1 Western Bundibugyo 0.0 0.0 375.4 19.9 346.3 Bushenyi 11.0 0.2 678.0 32.6 173.0 Hoima 0.5 4.3 484.4 267.0 848.9 Kabale 18.6 18.7 81.4 3.4 4.7 Kabarole 10.8 27.8 999.2 193.4 1269.5 Kasese 2.0 0.0 394.4 22.5 668.7 Kibaale 0.3 0.0 796.7 344.3 729.1 Kisoro 2.1 0.0 102.9 2.9 0.0 Masindi 2.8 1.1 509.7 19.8 3934.2 Mbarara 10.6 12.3 37.0 1.7 178.4 Ntungamo 3.0 3.3 0.0 0.0 19.3 Rukungiri 8.1 14.9 359.3 3.3 226.7 Sub-total 69.9 82.6 4818.3 910.1 8398.7 Grand Total 188.9 163.8 6511.1 2730.6 39744.7 0.08% 0.07% 2.70% 1.13% 16.45% Source: Forest Department/National Biomass Study, 1998

Currently Uganda has about 49,500 km2 of forests consisting of tropical high forests and savanna woodlands (99%) and plantations (1%). The western region of the country, Kibale, Kabarole and 34 Bundibugyo districts have more than 60% of the country’s closed forests, while the central region has a little more than 20%. The forests and woodland resources of Uganda are found both in and outside protected areas. In the early 1990’s the conservation status of six major forests (Mgahinga, Bwindi, Rwenzori, Semliki, Kibale and Mount Elgon) were changed from gazetted forest reserves to national parks based on their exceptional biodiversity values of global significance or importance as water catchment areas. More than 50% of the forests and woodlands in Uganda lie outside protected areas with no legal or institutional framework for their management. Apart from few large blocks of intact forests, the rest of the forest and woodland estate consists of many small, scattered patches and therefore difficult to manage centrally. The Government is currently in the process of rationalizing the management of these small patches of forests under the Uganda Forest Sector Umbrella Program (UFSUP). The distribution of forest areas by ownership or management status is presented in Table 3.1; while Table 3.2 shows the distribution of forest types by districts.

The forests and woodlands of Uganda make substantial contributions to the country’s economic development and well being, although the extent of this is not fully recognized. The ranges of contributions are highlighted in Box 3.1.

Box 3.1: Forestry in the Wider Economy

Forestry already makes a substantial contribution to the nation’s economic development and well-being, although the extent of this is not fully recognized. This suggests that there are many opportunities for poverty alleviation, for economic development and for environmental improvement through forest sector development.

Gross Domestic Product: The contribution of forestry to the nation’s GDP was about 6% in 1999. The current annual turnover of business in forestry is about U.Shs 356 billion, with a further estimated annual value of U.Shs 112 billion attributed to environmental services.

Forest Products: over 90% of the national energy demand is met from wood fuels. About 18 million tonnes of firewood are consumed annually, and nearly 500,000 tonnes of charcoal. Large volumes of timber are also used for construction, furniture- making and other manufacture, estimated at 800,000m3 per year. A further 875,000 m3 of poles are produced each year. The value of non-timber products derived from forests such as medicines, craft materials and food are also known to be significant.

Employment: The forest sector creates significant employment, probably the equivalent of nearly one million jobs. Of these, perhaps 100,000 are in the formal sector, the majority in fuelwood and charcoal production. In the informal sector, the majority of activity is in household fuelwood production, but a significant amount of employment is found in commercial and industrial fuelwood production.

Subsistence needs and agricultural production: A large proportion of the rural population of Uganda depends on forest resources for basic subsistence needs, whether from farm forestry or from natural forests and woodlands. These needs are for wood and non- wood forest products, food security, agricultural productivity and cultural and spiritual values that depend on trees and environmental services from forests and woodlands.

Environmental services and biodiversity: A significant contribution of the forest sector to the economy of Uganda is the range of ecological services and biodiversity values the forests provide. Although these services and values are not easily quantified, they are recognized as integral to agricultural productivity, climate regulation, soil and water conservation and nutrient recycling. Forests are also reservoirs of the country’s biodiversity, including its unique genetic resources and diverse ecosystems.

Tourism: Much tourism in Uganda is based on forests, woodlands and their constituent wildlife and natural beauty. Although as yet poorly developed, tourism contributes to economic and social development, and to resource conservation. The Uganda Wildlife Authority revenues from tourism are approximately U.Shs 2.7 billion annually. Over one third of this is derived from forest-based mountain gorilla tourism.

Key Issues: how to capitalize on the economic, social and environmental opportunities in forestry without undermining the resource base.

Source: MWLE, 2000

The main environmental issue confronting the forests and woodlands of Uganda is deforestation.

Deforestation Deforestation is the main environmental issue confronting Uganda’s forests, savanna woodlands and bush land. The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has estimated that in 1890 approximately 45% of Uganda was covered by forests and woodlands representing about 10.8million ha (108,000km2). This estate has now declined to only 20%of the total land area. Tropical High Forest (THF) cover declined from 12.7% of total land area in 1900 to about 3% by 1987 (Figure 3.2). FAO further estimates that Uganda is losing about 50,000 ha (0.8%) of its forestlands each year through deforestation most of which occurs in woodlands outside the protected areas. However, determining forest area, rates of deforestation and the existing resource base is made difficult by lack of reliable data (UFSCS, 2000). Official estimates of conversion of forestland in 1994 ranged from 70000 ha (Ministry of Agriculture, World Bank) to 200,000 ha (Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic development) but the reason for this variation is unknown (MWLE, 1998). The major factors contributing to deforestation are: encroachment, land conversion to agriculture, unsustainable harvesting, urbanization and industrialization, and institutional failures (policies and laws).

Impacts of deforestation include destruction of habitats, reduction in water catchment potential of some of the forests, soil erosion, landslides, siltation of water bodies, forest degradation, reduced agricultural production, and loss of other environmental functions and government revenue. The annual cost of deforestation, as a component of overall environmental degradation in Uganda has been conservatively estimated at $3.8-5.7 million (Slade and Weitz, 1991).

Figure 3.2 Estimated loss of forest cover in Uganda (1900 to 2000)

16 14 12 % 10 forest 8 cover 6 4 2 0 1900 1926 1958 2000 Period (years)

Source: NBDP (2000)

Encroachment Encroachment, which involves conversion of gazetted forestland mainly into farmland, proliferated in the 1970s and early 1980s as a result of civil strife and a breakdown in law and order. Forest reserves bordering high population density areas were the most affected (Figure 3.3).

36 Figure 3.3: Forest Cover and Surrounding Population Densities

By 1990, in Mabira Forest Reserve, approximately 10,000 ha had been slashed and burnt (Box 3.2). Close to 31,00 ha of the then Mt. Elgon Forest Reserve was converted into farmland; while 6,000 ha of natural forest in South Busoga Forest Reserve was destroyed altogether. Nationwide, around 100,000 ha of forest reserves had been encroached upon in total by the end of 1990. The equivalent area encroached upon outside officially gazetted forest reserves was thought to be about three times that of the reserves.

Measures to address encroachment included the formulation of a new forest policy in 1988, which placed more emphasis on forest conservation, research, agro forestry, and extension services. This policy is again being revised and a draft new policy is now in place (MWLE, 2000). In 1991, Government evicted all encroachers from gazetted forests and cancelled all land titles, which had been issued for lands within the forest reserves between 1971 and 1986. Forest boundaries were re-surveyed and opened.

Box 3.2: Encroachment in Mabira and other Forest Reserves in Uganda

In Mabira Forest Reserve, agricultural encroachment heightened in 1975. This massive destruction was brought about by a group of people called Kanani Cooperative Farmers Society. They entered Compartment 173. The district administration perceived them as a self-help project rather than encroachers, hence supported their activities. The Forest Department recognized this group by giving cultivation permits to 115 of its members individually but the permits specified the following: • no more forested land would be cleared • valuable timber tree species would not be destroyed • no buildings would be erected in the reserve

The situation was probably made worse by the Land Reform Order SI number 27 of 1976. The order stated inter alia that “land which is not under lease or occupation by customary tenure, … is hereby specified to be land that may be occupied by free temporary license.” People might have interpreted this to mean that any Ugandan is free to settle anywhere provided such land is not occupied by someone else already. By the end of 1977, 200 more encroachers had entered the reserve and the number grew to over 1800 by 1981. They degraded over 7241ha of the reserve.

In Mt. Elgon National Park, agricultural encroachment in 1970 through 1980s, laid bare over 25,000ha of what initially was a virgin forest. In Kibale National Park, over 10,000ha of the forest were cleared by encroachers (Okonya, O.J, 1995). Other forest reserves which were affected greatly incrlude Luung, Mubuku and Kisangi Forest Reserves in Kasese district and Kasyoha-Kitomi Forest Reserve in Bushenyi district (FD undated).

Source: Kiwanuka, Karani, Sizomu-Kagolo, 1997

Land Conversion for Agriculture Outside Protected Areas The opening up of new agricultural land to cope with increasing demand for food as a result of population increases has contributed to deforestation of largely woodlands and a few forest patches on public and private lands. The need for more agricultural land is the direct consequence of the high rate of population growth, estimated at 2.5% per annum and commercialization of agriculture. By 1969, Uganda’s arable land area supported 53 persons per km2. This number increased to 88 persons per square kilometer in 1994 and is now well over one hundred. The promotion of non-traditional agricultural export (NTAE) crops has also contributed to opening up of more land for agriculture.

38 Government policies such as the double crop production campaigns of the 1970s also contributed to large scale clearing of woodlands, and so were the Government’s efforts at promoting the livestock industry through the establishment of commercial ranches. The newly introduced Plan for the Modernization of Agriculture (PMA), however, aims at among others the improvement of the efficiency of the rural farmer (MFPED/MAAIF, 2000). This is likely to reduce the rate at which new land is opened for agriculture as productivity is improved on existing farms.

Unsustainable Harvesting Uganda’s population, is largely dependent on woody biomass for energy with daily Per capita consumption of about 4kg (Aluma, 1989). As of 1994, Uganda’s Per capita energy consumption was estimated at 0.19 tonnes of oil equivalent (toe) for the year, of which 95% was woodfuel.

The National Biomass Study revealed that in areas with high population density, fuelwood harvesting was the main cause of deforestation (Forest Department, 1993).

In 1985, fuelwood demand in the country was estimated at 18.3 million m3 while sustainable production in the same year was 15.6 million m3 registering harvest in excess of increment by 2.9 million m3. A more recent analysis (MWLE, 1998) however projects a negative balance sheet of woodfuel supply and demand occurring in the year 2014 if no remedial actions are taken (Figure 3.4). As Ugandans become increasingly affluent, the demand for charcoal is also expected to increase, partly because of its cheapness in relation to other forms of energy. In 1970 charcoal consumption was estimated at 100,000 to 150,000 metric tonnes. By 2000, the consumption of charcoal increased fourfold to 561,021 metric tonnes. Charcoal production alone was estimated to cause land clearance of about 140,000 to 550,000 ha in 2000.

Figure 3.4: Actual and Projected Closing Balance of Woodfuel for Uganda 1995-2014

300 250 200 Woodfuel closing 150 balance (millon metric tonnes) 100 50 0 -50 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 Year

Source: MWLE (1998)

Table 3.3 shows the historical trend of round wood removals. The poor pricing mechanisms for forest produce has further encouraged the unsustainable harvesting of woody biomass. High value timber species such as “mvule” (Melicia excelsa) and mahogany Khaya anthotheca) harvested largely from public and private lands since the restriction on logging in natural forest reserves, have been heavily cut to supply the ever increasing domestic market, especially the booming construction industry.

39 Government’s policy of encouraging private investors in the forestation program in Forest Reserves on long term leases of up to 50 years, and the training of those involved in saw-milling and charcoal production regarding efficiency in conversion methods are among the interventions being implemented to increase the forest acreage and reduce wastage. The establishment of both coniferous and eucalyptus plantations (Table 3.4) has to some extent eased the pressure on natural forests.

Table 3.3 Trends In Roundwood Removals From Natural Forests 1970-1997 (m3) Year For industrial For fuelwood Year For industrial For fuelwood purposes and charcoal purposes and charcoal 1970 170000 NA 1986 1753000 11381000 1973 116894 NA 1987 1801000 11805000 1974 98974 NA 1988 1867000 12246000 1975 71351 NA 1989 1936000 12704000 1976 66002 NA 1990 1936000 13187000 1977 50764 NA 1991 2007000 13689000 1980 1385000 9201000 1992 NA NA 1981 1426000 9524000 1993 1949000 12937000 1982 1476000 9863000 1994 2013000 13386000 1983 1526000 10217000 1995 2074000 13814000 1984 1635000 10588000 1996 2131000 14215000 1985 1693000 10979000 1997 2185000 14589000 Source: Forest Department (1997),.

Table 3.4 Area of Coniferous and Eucalyptus Plantation 1972-1997 (Hectares) Year Area planted Year Area planted (ha) (ha) 1972 1232 1991 377.8 1973 1462.7 1992 535.1 1974 1487.4 1993 618.3 1975 1202.9 1994 526.8 1976 1934.3 1995 NA 1977 721.4 1996 NA 1989 132.0 1997 648.45 1990 164.8 2000 649.65 Source: Forest Department Records, 2000.

Urbanization and Industrialization The number of urban centers in Uganda has increased from 28 in 1969 to 150 by 1995, with corresponding populations of 620,000 and 3,142,000, respectively (Nuwagaba, 1997). Urbanization contributes to deforestation through increased demand for charcoal and firewood, and construction timber.

Through urbanization, a number of forest plantations near urban centers such as Kalangala, Soroti, Mbale, Nebbi and Ntungamo are also threatened with degazettement for urban settlements.

Government policy of industrialization has further contributed to deforestation through degazettement of forests to create industrial parks. These include forests such as Namanve in Mpigi District (1,000 ha) and Wabisi Wajala in Nakasongola District (8,744 ha). The expansion of urban centres and industrial development has, therefore, resulted in the permanent loss of a

40 sizeable portion of the forest estate. The loss, however, concerns plantation forests and attempts are being made to replace them by planting alternative sites.

Institutional failures The Forests Act 1964 Cap 246 which provides for the management of forests is outdated and cannot adequately address recent developments in decentralized governance and environmental management, among others. In its current form for instance, it is ineffective in dealing with forestry related offences. The existing fines stipulated in the Act for forest offences are not deterrent enough to discourage many of the illegal activities. Under the existing Forest Act, the mandate of the Forestry Department as the lead agency in the forestry sector is confined to gazetted forests only. There is no comprehensive law governing utilization of forests on public and private lands on which much of the deforestation is taking place. Furthermore, the Forests Act does not address tenure of trees outside gazetted forests. This has acted as a disincentive to their protection. Up to the late 1980s, the issues of reserved tree species like “mvule” and mahogany belonging to Government has been a disincentive to their being grown by individual Ugandans.

Both the Forest Policy 1988 and the Forests Act 1964 Cap 246 are being revised to make them more effective in the management of the forest resources in Uganda. Government has also enacted a number of laws, which have an impact on the management, and conservation of the country’s forests. These include the National Environment Statute, 1995; the Local Governments Act 1997; the Uganda Wildlife Statute 1996; and the Land Act 1998. In addition, the Forests Act 1964 Cap 246 is being revised to incorporate aspects of collaborative forest management to encourage positive participation by local communities in the management of forests in their locality. The emerging policy and legislation are expected to give effect to private sector investment in the growing of industrial forest plantations. It will, in addition, be harmonized with other recent laws to make it more effective. Finally, both the policy and law advocate for a change in the way the country’s forest resources will be managed. It is proposed to establish a National Forest Authority (NFA) as a semi-autonomous institution instead of the current line ministry department, the Forestry Department.

A number of projects and programs have also been implemented to enhance capacity in forest management. These include the Forest Rehabilitation Project and the Natural Forest Conservation and Management Project. The Forest Rehabilitation Project (FRP) 1988-1995 was a World Bank led consortium of donors who injected US $34.69 million into the management of the forest resources of Uganda. Under the European Union (EU) EDF funded component of the Natural Forest Conservation and Management Project (NFMCP) forest boundaries have been opened and demarcated to restore their status after the eviction of encroachers. By 1994, boundary demarcation in natural forests and savanna woodland had covered 3,997km and 2,494km, respectively. Out of the area which had been encroached upon, 6,126ha were planted up using the local species found in the forests, while enrichment planting covered 4,912ha. The revision of forest management plans for all the natural forests which had expired in the 1970s was also undertaken to enable their management on a sound scientific basis (FD 1996).

The rehabilitation of peri-urban plantations near eight urban centers of Kampala, Jinja, Mbale, Mbarara, Kasese, Arua, and Tororo was funded by the NORAD Component of the Peri-Urban Plantations Project. The Forest Department and Pilot Wood Farmers participated in this activity.

41 Under the IDA Credit of US $13.46 million Component of the FRP, silvicultural activities were carried out in coniferous plantations throughout the country. Re-planting of clear-felled areas was carried out at Mafuga, Katugo and Bugamba softwood plantations in Kabale, Nakasongola and Mbarara districts, respectively. Rehabilitation of Forest Department infrastructure as well as provision of logistics to the Department were also achieved under the same credit (FD, 1996).

Perhaps the most comprehensive effort Government has directed to the forestry sector is the Uganda Forestry Umbrella Sector Program a multi-donor supported initiative with a Steering Committee made up of all key stakeholders. The Program is supporting the formulation of a new forest policy, drafting of a new forest act, development of a comprehensive forest master plan, and creation of a forest authority to replace the current line ministry department. The program is also focusing on greater involvement of the private sector, civil society, local governments, and communities in forest management.

References Aluma, J.R.N. 1987. Uganda’s Energy Crisis: A case Study of Fuel and Charcoal Consumptions. Kampala, Uganda.

FAO (United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization). 19--.

Forest Department. 1993. Uganda National Biomass Study Report.

F.D. 1996-FRP Progress Reports 1989 - 1995 Hamilton, A.C. 1984. Deforestation in Uganda.

Slade, G. and K. Weitz. 1991. Uganda Environmental Issues and Options. A masters Dissertation (unpublished).

MNR (Ministry of Natural Resources). 1993. Sources and Sinks of Greenhouse Gases in Uganda. UNEP/GEF Sponsored Project.

MFPED/MAIIF (Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development/Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries). 2000. The Plan for the Modernization of Agriculture (PMA).

Nuwagaba, 1997. Rapid Urbanization in Uganda: an overview of land management and housing development. A paper submitted to HABITAT International for Publication.

(MWLE (Ministry of Water, Lands and Environment).2000. Draft Forest Policy.

UN (United Nations). 1992. Agenda 21: Program of Action for Sustainable Development.

MWLE (Ministry of Water, Lands and Environment). 1978. Uganda Forestry Sector Policy and Strategy-Project Memorandum. Documentation of the Government of Uganda and the Department for International Development (DFID), East Africa.

Wetlands Resources

Wetlands cover about 30,105km2, representing 13% of the total area of Uganda. The area under permanent wetlands is currently estimated at 7,296km2, and seasonal wetlands, 22,809km2. At least 69% of the total area under wetlands comprises impeded drainage, while swamps constitute 30% and swamp forest, 1% (NWCMP, 1991). There are two broad categories of wetlands, namely, those which are associated with lakes (lacustrine) and rivers (riverine), respectively. The lacustrine types include: the Kyoga/Kwania Complex; Lakes George, Edward, and Albert; Bunyonyi Lake/Swamp Complex; Bisina and Opeta; Wamala; and other minor lakes. The riverine swamps include: the Okele, and Kafu Systems. The wetlands can further be differentiated based on altitudinal variations, as follows: • above 3,000m: swamps, bogs, and mires of mountainous areas like Rwenzori and Elgon mountains; • 1,900-3,000m: valley swamps (peat) of Kabale, as well as upland swamps in Bwindi forest, papyrus swamps, sedge-dominated (including Pycreus swamps, and Syzygium swamp forest; • permanent swamps: Cyperus papyrus, sedges, Typha, swamp grasses, and swamp forest; • seasonal wetlands and temporary pools.

Wetlands in Uganda have been put under many uses since time immemorial, including: hunting and fishing; shifting cultivation including rice growing; grazing; brick-making; and harvesting raw material for building houses. Other related primary roles and functions of wetlands include: sediment, nutrient and toxin retention; stabilization of the hydrological cycle and micro-climate (for example, Kiruruma valley in Kabale district, and the montane bogs of Rwenzori Mountains); biological diversity (habitat) and species richness; and biomass production (papyrus/reeds) (Table 4.1). Box 4.1 shows values and functions of wetlands. Table 4.2 shows the total wetland area in the districts of Uganda and percentages of each district, which has been converted to various uses.

Table 4.1 Categorization of wetlands by functions Function Example of Wetlands Ground water recharge/discharge Kiruruma valley, Kabale, Rwenzori montane bogs Sediment and toxins retention Lake George, Bushenyi and Masaka wetlands Nutrient (Effluent) retention Nakivubo and Luzira swamps, Kampala Biomass export Lake Victoria, lake George, Lake Kyoga swamps Micro climate stabilization Kabale district valley swamps Water transport Effluent arms of Lake Kyoga Recreation and tourism Lake George wetland Source: Wetlands and Water birds of E. Africa

Table 4.2 Total wetland area (km2) and area converted by district, Uganda District Total Present Present Total Converted as % District Wetland as % Area of Total Area Original % Total Contribution to of total district District District Converted Wetland Original Converted area Wetland per District Area in the District Wetland Area in Area District Wetland Area Uganda (i) Central Region Kalangala 9,067 40 0 40 0.0 0.0 0.4 Kampala 197 33 8 41 19.7 0.34 16.5 Kiboga 4,046 844 11 855 1.3 0.47 20.9 Luwero/Nakasongola 9,204 2,422 28 2,445 1.1 1.17 26.3 Masaka/Sembabule 7,010 1,425 12 1,436 0.8 0.50 20.3 Mpigi 6,414 1,053 15 1,068 1.4 0.62 16.4 Mubende 6,198 758 25 783 3.2 1.05 12.2 Mukono 14,309 987 109 1,096 10.0 4.60 6.9 Rakai 4,909 1,278 44 1,322 3.3 1.84 26.0 Regional Total 61,354 8,840 252 9,086 2.7 10.59 14.4 (ii) Eastern Region Iganga/Bugiri 12,792 1,215 591 1,806 32.7 24.91 9.5 Jinja 768 100 76 176 43.2 3.2 13.0 Kamuli 4,302 1,080 316 1,396 22.6 13.32 25.1 Kapchorwa 1,732 105 1 106 0.8 0.03 6.1 Kumi 2,848 989 61 1,050 5.8 2.56 34.7 Mbale 2,467 356 68 423 16.0 2.85 14.4 Pallisa 1,992 711 258 969 26.6 10.86 35.7 Soroti/Katakwi 10,016 3,206 9 3,215 0.3 0.39 32.0 Tororo/Busia 2,609 787 375 1,160 32.2 15.73 30.1 Regional Total 39,526 8,547 1,752 10,299 17.0 73.8 21.6 (iii) Northern Region Apac 6,541 1,147 13 1,161 1.2 0.56 17.5 Arua 7,879 216 0 216 0.0 0.0 2.7 Gulu 11,716 610 0 610 0.0 0.0 5.2 Kitgum 16,564 592 0 592 0.0 0.0 3.6 Kotido 13,245 845 0 845 0.0 0.0 6.4 Lira 7,201 1,091 37 1,128 3.3 1.57 15.2 Moroto 14,352 2,219 120 2,339 5.1 5.07 15.5 Moyo/Adjumani 4,978 234 0 234 0.0 0.0 4.7 Nebbi 2,917 111 1 112 0.9 0.04 3.8 Regional Total 85,393 7,065 172 7,237 2.4 7.25 8.3 (iv) Western Region Bundibugyo 2,262 912 11 922 1.2 0.45 40.3 Bushenyi 4,293 183 7 190 3.8 0.31 4.3 Hoima 5,933 183 0 183 0.0 0.0 3.1 Kabale 1,730 111 64 175 36.6 2.70 6.4 Kabarole 8,318 946 16 962 1.6 0.66 11.4 Kasese 3,390 407 0 407 0.0 0.0 12.0 Kibaale 4,246 535 11 546 2.1 0.47 12.6 Kisoro 730 33 23 56 40.3 0.95 4.6 Masindi 9,443 983 8 991 0.8 0.35 10.4 Mbarara 10,021 1,109 15 1,124 1.4 0.64 11.1 Ntungamo 2,056 108 1 109 0.9 0.04 5.2 Rukungiri 2,860 146 45 191 23.7 1.90 5.1 Regional Total 55,282 5,654 201 5,856 3.4 8.47 10.2 GRAND TOTAL 241,55 30,105 2,376 32,481 7,32 100 12.5 Source: Uganda Bureau of Statistics: Statistical Abstract, 1999

Box 4.1: The major functions and values of wetlands in Uganda

• Goods/products Water, food, forage and grazing resources, land for farming, fuel wood, building and craft materials, sand, gravel and clay and medicines.

• Services/functions Flood impact reduction, flow regulation and drought alleviation, ground-water recharge, water quality protection and purification, drinking water supply and storage, erosion and sediment control, wastewater treatment, carbon retention, climate modification, wildlife and habitat function, biomass export, recreation and eco-tourism and transport.

• Attributes Biodiversity, genetic resources conservation, landscape aesthetics and cultural heritage.

Source: (adapted from) National Wetlands Conservation Program/NEMA: Key points on wetlands management and conservation. Brochure supplement for World Wetlands Day, February 2000.

Table 4.3 shows the value of the wetlands of Uganda arranged according to categories. It is not easy to attach monetary figures to these values. However, attempts are being made to provide these values. For instance, the value of the services provided by Nakivubo wetlands in Kampala is estimated at US$ 1.7 million per year. In rural areas, households engaged in papyrus harvesting are estimated to be deriving as much as US$ 200 per year each from their wetlands activities. Also, at commercial prices for water in rural areas, the role that wetlands play in water supply has been estimated at US$ 25 million per year.

Table 4.3 Categories of Values of Wetlands Resources Direct values Indirect values Option values Non-use values production and Ecosystems functions Premium placed on consumption goods and and services possible future uses and services applications

such as… such as… such as… in terms of… • fish • water quality • pharmaceutical • cultural value • fuel wood • water flow • agricultural • aesthetic value • building poles • water storage • Industrial • heritage value • sand, gravel, clay • water purification • leisure • bequest value • thatch • water recharge • water use • existence value • water • flood control • wild foods • storm protection • medicines • nutrient retention • Agriculture/cultivation • micro-climate • pasture/grazing regulation • recreation • shore stabilization Source: MWLE (2000)

Although Uganda’s wetlands are protected by the National Environment Statute (1995), most of them are still being reclaimed and degraded, especially those outside protected areas. The following are some of the known forms of encroachment and/or destructive uses of wetlands are: • Conversion/drainage of wetlands for agricultural purposes Wetlands, particularly those with shallower water, have been put under intensive cultivation for crops such as sugarcane, sweet

45 potatoes, yams, eucalyptus, among others. Quite often these wetlands have been poorly managed. Extensive areas of wetlands in Iganga and Pallisa districts have been affected by agricultural encroachment. • Excavation in form of sand-mining and extraction of clay for brick-making The unfilled pits accumulate stagnant water, which has created habitats for disease carrying vectors such as mosquitoes and snails. Pockets of water hyacinth have been sighted in water pools in some of these abandoned excavation pits like in Kyetinda wetlands in Kampala. These activities are closely linked with developments in urban centers where there is high demand for bricks as a result of the current construction boom. • Dumping of waste (solid garbage) Some isolated wetlands, some of which are close to water bodies as is the case at Gaba market and at dumping-site near Luzira Prisons; all of which are suburbs of Kampala City. Masese swamp in Jinja and Walugogo valley in Iganga town are other examples of wetlands affected by illegal dumping of garbage. • Deforestation of swamp forests This is done for wood and other crafts products. It is particularly a serious problem in the wetlands of Mukono, Mpigi, and Masaka districts, and Sango Bay in Rakai district. • Rampant swamp fires While the consequences of wetlands burning are not exactly known, this pauses a threat to the biodiversity in these areas, some of which may not be fire tolerant, and also triggers succession changes leading to replacement of natural wetlands vegetation. Swamp fires are common in Mpigi, Apac and Lira districts where they are mainly started deliberately by hunters or to encourage regeneration of new papyrus.

The wetlands of Jinja district are the most degraded in Uganda. Most of the encroached areas were originally allocated to private developers and have since been reclaimed for industrial development. The loss of wetlands in the district is beginning to have a significant environmental cost. The reclamation by Kakira Sugar Works of the Mutai swamp forest from where River Kiko originates, for purposes of growing sugarcane, has led to the loss of the wetlands capacity to clean the waste-water (contaminated) originating from the Kakira sugar processing plant. The reclamation of Walukuba-Babu Patel wetlands in Jinja has led to siltation of streams in Walukuba, Makenke and Magamaga.

In Iganga and Pallisa districts, an extensive area of the seasonal wetlands, are also under intensive cultivation. It is estimated that 64% of the total seasonal wetlands in Iganga and 68% in Pallisa have been reclaimed for rice growing. Some of the reclaimed wetlands have become unproductive and abandoned within two years. The impact of massive reclamation of wetlands in the two districts has been a reduction in the number of permanent streams, disappearance of permanent springs and a low ground water yield in the wells.

Another indication of the negative impact of drainage of wetlands is the case of Kabale district where the prevailing higher than average temperatures, has increased the incidence of malaria. In Iganga, there has been a shift from the growing of perennial crops such as bananas, to annual crops such as maize and rice.

Rice growing does not necessarily destroy the wetlands, but it does change the natural form to a managed ecosystem, which is generally artificial. In some areas it has been observed that, although many bird species associated with wetlands may not be affected by changes in the wetlands ecosystem, others like the Crested Crane, the national bird require natural swamps for breeding. Other birds are particularly attracted to rice growing areas. Bird communities appear to act as a sensitive indicator of habitat change. Major wetlands are indicated in Figure 4.1. 46 Figure 4.1: Major Wetlands of Uganda

In general, the most outstanding environmental issue concerning wetlands is the increasing level of degradation. Related to this are pressures, which include: ownership of wetlands as common property, and government and institutional policies as depicted in Box 4.2. Other threats to the stability of wetlands are: agricultural conversion; industrial pollution; drainage activities; and, over-harvesting of wetlands resources.

Box 4.2: Encroachment on Kampala City Wetlands

A number of factors have contributed to encroachment on the wetlands of Kampala. These are: • Wetlands are the last `free’ areas in Kampala for which ownership is either not very clear or not seriously pursued. In particular, the poorer section of the population moves into such areas, where they can put up structures more or less free of charge. • Where individuals own wetlands, plots in them are usually sold `cheaply’ compared to upland areas. The low price reflects the high cost and the risks involved in developing wetlands as compared to upland plots. Mitigation against flooding, however, is either difficult or developers do not take the necessary measures to protect their property from the impact of flooding, resulting in heavy damages and economic losses. • Lack of coordination and planning in the allocation and development of plots. The various players like KCC, UIA, UMA and individuals allocate or develop plots in wetlands in disregard of any infrastructure plan, including works for drainage. Often culverts and underground sewage systems collapse or get blocked. • Lack of enforcement mechanisms. According to KCC the various laws and regulations in place to plan the City and manage the wetlands may be contradictory, vague and lack the necessary statutory instruments for implementation. As a consequence, it is often impossible to charge developers without running the risk of conflict with the affected parties. Hence, many cases are not pursued. • Wetlands lease procedures that are concluded now were started long before the coming into place of the National Environment Statute and other pieces of legislation on wetlands. Although no new leases in wetlands are supposed to be given, the issuing of leases continues for those which were already being considered. Therefore, many of the developments which are emerging presently are a result of bureaucratic procedures started years ago. Such developments, although dangerous, cannot easily be stopped. • Political interference. In many cases of wetlands abuse in Kampala, the offenders are prominent individuals. In many cases where enforcement agents did try to stop a development activity, such individuals helped to over-rule the decision and thus, the development activity continues. • The enforcement capacity amongst the various institutions charged with environmental management planning of the City is very limited. The Wetland Inspection Division has limited staffing required to cover the whole country. Similarly, NEMA’s monitoring department is small and also has a countrywide mandate. The only institution, which has in principle, the human resources to monitor wetlands abuse in Kampala, is KCC. • Lack of knowledge and understanding amongst wetlands users, law enforcement officers, and legislators about the functions of the wetlands, the laws and regulations in place, and the mechanisms for law enforcement.

Source: (Adapted from) National Wetlands Conservation Program: Background Paper for Wetlands Coordination Meeting, September 2000.

Wetlands Degradation

Draining of Wetlands Until recently, the official/government policy encouraged the drainage of swamps, by way of reclaiming them for agricultural and other activities. For instance, by 1964, an estimated 1,620ha (16.2km2) of swamp areas had been reclaimed through drainage (Kamugisha, 1993). Although draining techniques were well designed at that time, current swamp reclamation methods are no longer based on recommended procedures that ensured a reserve of water at the vicinity of affected sites in order to maintain the water table.

According to earlier work, the Water Resources Survey of Uganda (1954/1955), it was also concluded that the probable area of swamp land suitable for reclamation was 4,328ha (43.28km2) of peat swamp in Kigezi, and 86,000ha (860 km2) of predominantly clay swamps in the rest of Uganda (UNEP, 1988). In Kabale, vast stretches of wetlands were leased to dairy farmers who drained them and replaced the natural vegetation with pasture for dairy operations.

The association of wetlands with diseases like malaria and Schistosomiasis is another factor, which has contributed to degradation of wetlands. Many swamps around urban areas in Uganda were drained in the 1950s at least in part as a malaria-eradication measure (MISR, 1998). Large- scale drainage for agricultural and industrial activities, however, was realized in the 1970s.

Currently, an estimated 2,376.4km2 of wetlands area have been reclaimed; which represents a 99.3% increase in area reclaimed since the 1960s (rate of about 2.9% per annum). That is, by 1964, only about 0.05% of the total area under wetlands had been reclaimed compared to 7.9% by the late 1990s.

The situation of wetlands drainage has reached critical level in eastern Uganda, where the region ranks highest with about 20% of wetlands destroyed, compared to 2.8%, 2.4%, and, 3.6% in the central, northern and western regions, respectively. The districts of Jinja, Iganga, and Pallisa are the most affected in terms of wetlands reclamation as already seen in Table 4.2.

Currently, Nakivubo swamp is also under intense pressure for cultivation purposes, house construction and brick-making. Agricultural encroachment for mainly sugarcane, yams, sweet potato, and bananas in the upper Murchison bay, has already claimed more than 60% of the original swamp area (MNR/LVEMP, 1995).

Nakayiga wetlands, which receives effluent from Masaka town and is meant to purify this effluent, is part of the tributary system, which feeds into River Katonga that drains into Lake Victoria. Currently, however, over 90% of the upstream portion of this wetlands up to Masaka- Kampala road, has been drained for growing a variety of crops and eucalyptus trees in some parts (MNR /LVEMP, 1995).

In general, the natural fertility of most wetlands soils is classified as low to medium and, hence, crop production is unlikely to be good or sustainable for more than a few harvests. Studies have shown that over 72% of wetlands area if drained, would provide poor soil fertility, while only 3% would provide medium to high soil fertility. The remainder of twenty five percent would be in the low to nil soil productivity range (MNR/LVEMP, 1995).

49 Vegetation Depletion and Changing Land-Use A notable example of vegetation depletion is the Ishasha Valley extending from Hamurwa northwards, which contained one of the few remaining Syzygium swamp forests in Uganda. By the late 1980s, an extensive area of the forest had already been cleared for cultivation purposes. Non-palatable swamp sedges such as Cyperus latifolius have already invaded the cleared areas, and in other areas the few remaining trees are interspersed with Cyperus papyrus swamp. The most common type of wetlands in Uganda is that which is dominated by Cyperus papyrus. These occur on the edges of lakes Victoria and Kyoga, along rivers Katonga and Albert Nile and in areas of impeded drainage.

Deforestation of other swamp forests for wood and other crafts is also rampant in the wetlands of Mukono, Masaka and Sango Bay. These forests play a vital role in protecting Lake Victoria waters from land-based sources of pollution. In addition, rampant fire in the district of Mpigi have evidently triggered off succession changes leading to replacement of natural swamp vegetation.

Industrial Pollution One of the outstanding forms of wetlands pollution is nutrient enrichment, originating from agricultural land, urban sewage, and industries.

Pollution of wetlands has largely been observed in the mining sector, the breweries, and tanneries. Waste from Kilembe mines was deposited in heaps on the sides of the hills during the 1960s and 1970s, adjacent to River Nyambwamba. Water samples taken from the affected areas show that the water in the River is enriched with heavy metals (Table 4.4), and devoid of algae (copper being a potent algicide). The trail of copper tailings ending in Lake George is also devoid of vegetation and the surrounding area consists of stunted plants.

Usually copper concentrations of normal fresh waters are about 1µg dm-3, while concentration of about 10µg dm-3 is toxic. Currently, significant amounts of heavy metal may be entering the aquatic system of Lake George, and the extent and distribution of the copper element in the surrounding areas is still unknown (UNEP, 1988). This has serious implications on the health of the human and animal populations in these areas.

Table 4.4: Concentration of Metals (parts per million) in Waters, Sediments and Plant Tissue Near Kilembe Mines Metal Nyambwamba Effluent from the Plant tissue river water processing plant Water sediment Copper 0.08 158.0 1,270 35.4 Zinc 0.01 2.6 19,7 6.8 Iron 0.16 32,000 9,135 658 Cadmium <0.01 <0.01 <0.6 <0.6 Manganese <0.02 11,783 197 42.1 Sulphate 9.61 2.2 - - pH 6.5 2.2 - - Source: UNEP, 1988: Strategic Resource Planning in Uganda-Wetlands. Volume IX.

In the case of Lake Katwe Salt Works when it was still operational, the effluent discharged from it was found to be very toxic. This posed a big threat to the biodiversity endowment in the nearby crater lake, Lake Munyanyange, which is a site frequented by the Lesser and Greater 50 Flamingos. This lake is also the most important site for Avocets, which are known to be palearctic migrants, and are not found anywhere else in Uganda. The vegetation at the crater lake is predominantly Cyperus laevigatus, which occurs in pure stands. The quantities and impact of waste discharged from the salt factory is yet to be determined.

It has also been observed that the heavy pollution loads from domestic and industrial sewerage discharge, are likely to alter the quality of water in Lake Victoria. Earlier studies undertaken by World Health Organization (WHO), Murchison Bay Resource Group during the 1968–1974 period, concluded that Nakivubo swamp had the ability to strip the water of excess ions and other impurities. The current industrial development and effluent from domestic sources in Kampala City, is likely to undermine the capacity of the swamp to pre-clean wastewaters. Only about 10% of effluent and industrial waste is treated and the remainder is discharged untreated into the Nakivubo channel, which drains into the Nakivubo wetlands before entering Murchison Bay. In addition, the nutrient concentrations and flows in Kampala industrial wastewater shows that, its contribution to the total load of nutrients in the inner Murchison Bay is about 25% as of the mid-1990s period. It has also been revealed that about 75% of the nitrogen and 85% of the phosphorus load entering the Murchison bay comes from Nakivubo Channel. The impact of this nutrient load shows higher levels of eutrophication than those described in earlier years. In 1997, it was established by NWSC that the phosphorus levels (at 143.6kg/day) were twice those of 1969. These statistics disprove the notion that Nakivubo swamp wetlands have ably and effectively purified wastewater before final discharge into Lake Victoria over the past 30 years. Records also show that of the total amount of nitrogen and phosphorus, which entered the inner Murchison Bay in 1997, Nakivubo channel contributed 73% of nitrogen and 78% of phosphorus load per day. With such a trend, it is understood that the water at Gaba will either be a health risk or a great deal of money will have to be spent by NWSC on treating it to safe levels.

Past economic valuation of Nakivubo wetlands, for example, has revealed that the function of these wetlands in treating effluent from Kampala area is estimated at US$ 10 million. Nutrient enrichment is one of the key forms of wetlands pollution in Uganda. Many wetlands receive excessive quantities of nitrogen and phosphorus from urban sewage and run-off from agricultural land. The heavy pollution loads from domestic and industrial sewerage discharge are likely to change the quality of water in Lake Victoria.

Policies, Laws and Treaties

Policies and Laws Wetlands management is still in its infant stages in Uganda. The challenges that have been identified in the recent past, pertaining to conservation of wetlands in Uganda have been tagged to the aspect of transforming the various national and international laws, into national laws (Ntambirweki, 1992). These include the implementation of the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat, (1971), and the Convention Concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972). Wetlands in Uganda are mainly flowing water systems, implying that any developments, which take place up-stream, have an impact on systems/resources downstream, and vice versa.

Wetlands are effective bio-filters only under low nutrient loading and abundant swamp vegetation. Pollution load in the water bodies could in future be controlled through constructed wetlands, as is currently being experimented at Kirinya swamp in Jinja Municipality and by

51 Kasese Cobalt Company in Kasese. This is all attributed to the fact that wetlands are being utilized for discharging wastewater.

Initially, in 1986, Government undertook a major step to protect the wetlands of Uganda, by declaring a ban on large-scale drainage of wetlands; and in 1989, a National Wetlands Conservation Program (1989) was established. Other complementary achievements besides the pieces of legislation mentioned above have been: the Wetlands Inventory (1996) for selected districts (Bushenyi, Iganga, Kabale, Kampala, Masaka, Mpigi, Pallisa, and Tororo); and ratification of the international conventions relating to wetlands (Ramsar Convention, in 1987). Whereas other wetlands are virtually not protected, Lake George was designated as a Ramsar Site in 1988, covering about 20,650ha.

Pieces of legislation which are in place presently, aimed at addressing issues pertaining to ownership and access to wetlands, include the following: (a) the Constitution of Uganda 1995; (b) the National Environment Statute 1995; (c) the Local Governments Act 1997; (d) the Water Statute 1995; (e) the Land Act 1998; and, (f) the Wetlands Policy, 1995, and Guidelines for Wetlands Resource Developers 1995. The National Environment (Wetlands, River Banks, Lake- shores Management) Regulations, 2000, came into force in January 2000.

All of the above are aimed at enhancing sustainable utilization and management of wetlands resources in Uganda, while the overall objective of the Wetlands Policy is to enhance equitable distribution of wetlands benefits to all stakeholders. There are also procedures in place for initiating development projects in wetlands areas, and dealing with wetlands conversion/abuse by different entities.

The Wetlands Phase-III Program initiated in 1996 addresses issues pertaining to wetlands management, conservation, research and policy implementation in including institutional strengthening and inter-sectoral coordination. Wetlands resource assessment was also initiated in 12 districts, and 5 wetlands sites identified for purposes of testing community-based wetlands conservation and management methodologies, in a participatory manner. Public awareness programs are on-going at all levels of governance.

In addition, a national wetlands information system to provide readily accessible and relevant sources of information in Uganda for all stakeholders was inaugurated in July 1998. Under the Wetlands Program, three project sites have been established, namely Kitanga, Kyojja and Limoto, to develop and extend methodologies for sustainable wetlands resource management by local communities. The main focus for these areas is to promote ecotourism.

Tenurial Arrangements For a very long time, ownership of wetlands has been vaguely defined. The seemingly unwritten policy since the 1950s encouraged more or less controlled swamp drainage for pasture and growing of crops. It has been realized that ownership of wetlands is the most important factor affecting the management of wetlands; and this has been influenced by the prevailing land tenure systems (customary, mailo, freehold, and leasehold).

During the colonial period these wetlands like any other natural resource, were designated as reserves and placed under the central government. Much as the wetlands legally belonged to the government, the traditional institutions at that time also had in place the machinery and authority to protect them. With political changes since independence, the powers of traditional institutions 52 were reduced; and as a result, they lost direct control over these resources. Consequently, the local communities lost the sense of attachment to these resources, and eventually it became difficult to understand the definite tenure and property arrangements operating where wetlands still exist (Box 4.3).

Box 4.3: Individualization of Communal Wetlands in Uganda Igogero Wetland in Iganga District

Igogero wetlands are a long stretch of permanent wetlands. It crosses Buvuna, Buyanga and Nabukalu subcounties, and 20km east of Iganga town. It forms part of the network of the wetlands which drain through the districts of Iganga, Kamuli and Tororo into Lake Kyoga Basin. A portion of the wetlands, 3km long and 2km wide was selected for study; and this portion is exploited by the local communities of Butaba and Nakawa villages.

Findings of the Study The dominant ethnic group is Basoga, out of which about 74% are natives of this area and 26% are immigrants. Most immigration occurred in the 1950s to 1970s period. In the beginning, there was a tendency of settling migrants in the periphery of the wetlands in order to use them as a shield against vermin from the wetlands. In the 1950s to 1960s period, cotton was the major crop grown in this area; but in the early 1970s, the cotton industry collapsed and was replaced by coffee as a major cash crop. By 1980, coffee growing became non-profitable due to low prices. During these periods there was rapid population growth, resulting in decrease in size of farm-holdings and decline in soil fertility. Thus, there was an urgent need to identify high value crops to improve household income.

Rice cultivation had earlier been introduced in Kibimba wetlands. The local communities at Igogero picked interest in rice growing on commercial basis. As a result the value of land increased dramatically and led to changes in use of wetlands. New rules of access to the wetlands emerged, and the farmland boundaries, were extended by individual households to include parts of the wetlands. Hence, the wetlands changed from the original “common property” regime to private property.

These wetlands resources are still harvested by the local communities on an “open access” basis; however, ownership of a parcel of the wetlands for cultivation can be acquired by purchase, inheritance, hire or borrowing. People own parcels of sizes ranging from 1.3ha or less. Of the total respondents interviewed: 24% indicated that wetlands parcels could be sold to outsiders; 64% stated that they do not require approval to transact transfer of ownership of parcels; and, about 88% would consult family members and to a lesser extent (13%) would consult local council authorities of the area.

Lessons/Outcome Some members of the community have lost control and free access to the wetlands resources. Those whose land border the wetlands have become new landlords; and the collective responsibility over the wetland has been modified. While cultivation is carried out by individual owners, the other resources are still harvested by all the community. In such a dual tenure arrangement, it is difficult to implement common strategies for sustainable management of the wetlands resources. Conflicts within the community have intensified following the privatization trend, and rice growing is considered the most important occupation in Igogero wetlands to-date. The commercialization of the wetlands has thus resulted in the degradation of this resource. Individual members who have exhausted their parcels are tempted to use chemical fertilizers to restore soil fertility. These chemicals are likely to cause serious effects on the micro and macro fauna of the wetlands and make the water unsuitable for domestic use.

Source: (Adapted from) M. K. C, Kizito and E. N. B, Nsubuga: Individualization of Communal Wetlands in Uganda: A Case of Igogero Wetlands, March 1996.

53 The RAMSAR Convention The Ramsar Convention to which Uganda became a signatory in 1987 addresses the issues of the loss and degradation of wetlands by designating sites of international importance and making wise use of them. The Convention is being made effective to address wetlands issues both at national policy level; and, at the level of individual Ramsar Sites (eg Lake George) through the National Wetlands Policy. Already, a national wetlands inventory has been conducted, and a national wetlands database established and being up-dated periodically. The main objective of this is to enhance monitoring of changes in the status of the country’s wetlands resources.

Some of the wetlands proposed for protection as conservation areas with limited human use involving mainly controlled harvesting of resources are outlined below. • Kachindo wetlands (Lutembe bay) with its abundant bird life. Its association with Lutembe beach makes it an important tourist attraction. It is also a site that offers potential research opportunities on natural wetlands and their associated faunal and floral endowment. • Nabajuzi wetlands (in Masaka municipality) for its water supply functions as well as its important role as habitat to wildlife, in particular the Sitatunga. • Nakivubo and Kirinya swamps for their effluent water purification roles. • the Sango Bay system which is the only extensive area of swamp forest in Uganda and has a diverse mosaic of wetlands vegetation. It provides a wide range of habitats for birds and mammals (including elephants); and, opportunities for sustainable use of resources by the local people such as grazing, cutting of grass, fishing, and timber extraction. • the narrow strip of wetlands fringing the lakes to act as a buffer between the adjacent land activities and the lakes. • riverine wetlands whose waters feed directly into Lake Victoria and whose waters receive effluent from urban areas. Another example is the Kooki Lakes Complex that receives effluent from Mbarara town via the River Rwizi.

Overall, effective conservation of wetlands will depend on acceptance and application of specific obligations under sub-national, national, and international law accompanied by increased sensitization of the local communities.

References

Jones, R. Kamugisha (1993): Management of Natural Resources and Environment in Uganda: Policy and Legislation Landmarks, 1890-1990. Published by SIDA’s Regional Soil Conservation Unit, RSCU, Nairobi,1993.

MISR (Makerere Institute of Social Research). 1998: Common Property Resources Management in East Africa. Proceedings of the Regional Symposium on Common Property Resources Management in East Africa, held in Kampala, March, 1998.

MNR/LVEMP (Ministry of Natural Resources (1995)/Lake Victoria Environment Management Program). 1995. Report of the National Working Group No. 2 on Management of Water Quality and Land-use Including Wetlands, Uganda. June, 1995.

MNR/NWCMP (Ministry of Natural Resources/National Wetlands Conservation and Management Program). 1999: The Wetlands Resource Book. August, 1999.

Ntambirweki, J. (1992): Environment Legislation in Uganda: Review of Existing Legislation and Formulation of an appropriate Legal Framework for Present and Future Environmental Management. A Consultancy Report-Under the Auspices of the National Environment Action Plan (NEAP), Uganda, 1992.

54 Tukahirwa, E. M. (1992): Environment and Natural Resources Management Policy and Law: Issues and Options. Published by the Institute of Environment and Natural Resources, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda; in association with World Resources Institute (WRI), Washington, D,C., 1993.

UNEP (United Nations Environment Program). 1988: Strategic Resources Planning in Uganda: Wetlands Volume IX.

Freshwater Resources

Water is becoming one of the most critical natural resource issues (Johns Hopkins, 1998); and Africa is one of the two regions in the world facing serious water shortages. The other is the Middle East.

In contrast in general, Uganda is considered to be well endowed with freshwater resources including lakes (e.g. Victoria, Kyoga, Bisinia, Kwania, Wamala, Edward, George, Albert and Bunyonyi) and many rivers, streams and dams (e.g. Nile, Ishasha, Aswa, Manafa and Rwizi). Open water bodies constitute 15% of the area of Uganda (36,280 km2). The largest water body in Uganda is Lake Victoria which is the second largest freshwater lake in the world; while the River Nile is the biggest river. Tables 5.1 and 5.2 show the major lakes and rivers in Uganda respectively. Although Uganda is considered to have abundant freshwater resources, there are great disparities in availability and use within the country because the water resources are so unevenly distributed. In some areas human settlements are removed from the source of the water. Other factors are inadequacies of assessment, the underdevelopment of water resources, relatively weak technical and institutional infrastructures at sub-national levels as well as meager investments in water resource development, as is also common in other African countries (Johns Hopkins, 1998).

Table 5.1 Major Lakes of Uganda Lakes Total Area Height above Depth area (m2) sea level (m) Victoria 68,457 28,655 1,134 82 Mobutu Albert 5,335 2,913 621 51 Edward 2,203 645 913 117 Kyoga and Kwania 2,047 2,047 1,033 7 Salisbury (Bisinia) 308 308 1,047 - George 246 246 914 3 Source: NEAP Secretariat Task Force No. 4 Nov. 1992

Most freshwater comes from seasonal rains. The rainfall pattern greatly influences the local landuse pattern and management, and this in turn influences population distribution. The average

56 annual rainfall in Uganda varies from about 700 mm in the semi-arid areas of Kotido District to about 2,000 mm on the islands of Kalangala District in Lake Victoria. The seasonal and spatial variability of rainfall causes specific problems. There are not only differences between distinct wet and dry years, but there are also considerable variations in the timing of the onset of seasons and in the amount of rainfall and stream flow (MNR, 1995). Table 5.2 shows water balance at selected stations in Uganda.

Table 5.2 Statistics on Selected Major Rivers Name of river Length Mean flow Period of (km) (m3/sec) record Victoria Nile 426 808 1900-1972 Aswa 357 37.5 1949-2968 Dopeth Okok 314 Pager 232 Albert Nile 257 900 1905-1977 Mayanja Kato 182 Katonga 175 0.62 1965-1980 Mpologoma 173 19.50 1949-1979 Kyoga Nile 787 1912-1972 Kagera 185 1958-1968 Semliki 135 1940-1968 Kafu 32.72 1962-1968 Mutano 13.60 1958-1968 Rwizi 8.61 1954-1979 Nyamugasani 8.35 1954-1967 Kibale 6.14 1958-1960 Nkusi 5.07 1970-1978 Muzizi 5.02 1956-1980 Mpanga 4.52 1955-1981 Tochi 3.44 1970-1978 Sebwe 2.05 1953-1968 Namalu 0.376 1959-1976 Source: Strategic resources planning in Uganda, Vol. IV, water resources, UNEP, 1987; NEAP Secretariat, Task Force, No. 4, November 1992.

Table 5.3 Water Balance Station Annual Annual Annual Annual Moisture Humidity precipitation water water water index index (cm) needed surplus deficit (cm) (cm) (cm) Fort Portal 150.0 184.0 0 34.0 -99 0 Mbarara 91.1 141.4 0 50.3 -21.4 0 Mbale 113.0 174.7 0 61.7 -21.1 - Arua 146.7 174.9 8.2 36.4 -20.8 4.0 Lira 141.6 181.5 5.5 45.4 -11.9 3.0 Source: After P.S. Pant et. al., 1975

The second source of freshwater is groundwater resources. The groundwater resources of Uganda comprise five aquifer systems. The Gneiss Complex which has a depth zone of 50-60 meters, the Granite which has a depth zone of 50-60m, the Toro with 30-50m, Karagwe Ankole with 50-60m, and Bunyoro with 110-135m. Except for the Toro where the system’s static water level is much deeper, the rest of the aquifer systems are 8-15m deep. The yield of aquifer systems range from 0.4-2.0 m3 per hour. The fact that Uganda lies on the basement complex of the pre-Cambrian rocks consisting of schist, marble, granite, gneisses and quartzites means that 57 its underground water resources are in general poor and occur in limited areas along fissures, cracks and joints of the granite-gneiss formation (UNEP, 1987).

There are also an estimated 9,000 natural springs in Uganda, of which 2,300 are protected and have potential of becoming significant sources of water, particularly in the rural areas. However, an estimated 20,000 more boreholes will be required if the projected future demands are to be met. Additionally, there are 17 thermal and mineral springs in areas associated with volcanic activity.

Supply and Demand Water is needed in all aspects of life-for human consumption, agriculture (livestock and irrigation), and industrial activities. Table 5.4 shows potential water demand and resource availability for Uganda. At the international level, close to 78% of the total flow of the Nile at the Uganda/Sudan border is comprised of direct rainfall over the equatorial lakes, while the rest comes from surface runoff from the land catchments (MNR, 1995). It has been observed that if the maximum potential demands are utilized the flow of the Nile at Jinja and the Sudanese border is likely to be significantly reduced (MNR, 1995). Based on projections by Johns Hopkins (1998) for Africa, one could argue that although Uganda may now have a reasonably high level of available water Per capita, it is expected to experience water stress (1,700 m3 or less per person annually) by the year 2025, compared to many African countries who are estimated to experience water scarcity (1000 m3 or less per person annually).

Table 5.4 Projected Water Demands for Consumptive Use and Resource Availability Sector/Resource Lake Ugandan Victoria catchments Resource demand Water Supply Demands Jinja and Kampala 1.8 m3/sec - Medium/Small Urban - 1.4 m3/sec Rural Domestic - 6.9 m3/sec Livestock - 7.1 m3/sec Irrigation Demands 410,000 ha (FAO) or - 126 m3/sec 247,000 ha (HYDROMET) - 78 m3/sec 186,800 ha (Halcrow) - 57 m3/sec Resource availability 914 m3/sec 220 m3/sec Source: MNR (1995)

Rising demand for increasingly scarce water resources is leading to growing concerns about future access to water, particularly where water resources are shared by two or more countries (Johns Hopkins, 1998).

The environmental problems as far as the freshwater resources of Uganda are concerned are the issues of access and quality. There is uneven access to freshwater resources in the country. The main threats to quality of Uganda’s freshwater resources include: eutrophication, pollution and the proliferation of invasive aquatic plants such as the water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes).

58 Access Water supply and sanitation in Uganda fall under the general responsibility of the Ministry of Water, Lands and Environment (MWLE). The Directorate of Water Development (DWD), a division within MWLE has the responsibility for: • rural water development, • urban and institutional water development, • water resources management, and • inspection and support services.

Presently, there is very limited involvement of the private sector in water supply in Uganda, other than in individual self-supply by some domestic/agricultural users and in the supply of support services.

The National Water and Sewerage Corporation (NWSC), a statutory corporation, is the Water Authority responsible for the provision of water supply and sanitation services to 11 urban centers in Uganda including Kampala, Entebbe and Jinja. The others are Mbale, Tororo, Masaka, Mbarara, Lira, Gulu, Fort Portal and Kasese with Kabale lined up for transfer to NWSC soon. The 1991 Census recorded the eleven towns as having a population of 1.2 million of which Kampala accounted for about 774,000. A broad estimate of the impact of the effect of continuing urbanization since 1991 suggests that population coverage by NWSC is currently in the order of 1.6 million, or about 8% of Uganda’s total population and roughly 50% of the estimated total urban population. Based on a recent review by NWSC, its services reach 58% of the population in these towns. The majority (approx. 80%) of the connections are recorded as being metered.

Lake Victoria is the source of water supply for the towns of Entebbe, Jinja and Kampala. Although these towns have a significant water demand (currently 27.5 million m3/year) and an anticipated future demand totaling 56 million m3/year, the current usage is only 0.2% of the average outflow from the Lake.

Water supply and the installed capacity of some of the urban centers served by NWSC is shown in Table 5.5.

Table 5.5 Water Production, Installed Capacity and Population Served in Selected Urban Areas, December 2001 Urban center Population Water production Installed Capacity served (no) per month (m3) capacity (m3) utilization (%) Fort Portal 44000 35000 66000 53 Kasese 26000 36700 72000 50 Mbarara 129000 194000 66 Masaka 44000 64000 310000 20 Entebbe 80200 190000 204600 92 Jinja 361000 620000 58 Tororo 44000 62000 179800 34 Mbale 169000 438000 38 Lira 40000 45000 261000 17 Gulu 38200 48000 79 Source: NWSC (2000)

The Directorate of Water Development has the responsibility for the development of water supply and sanitation for the remainder (over 90%) of Uganda’s population. Ownership and

59 operational arrangements within these areas depend on the status of the relevant management body and are currently in a state of transition as sector reforms are introduced.

Ownership of water facilities currently rests in part with the districts and gazetted towns (those with a population of over 10,000) and in part with the DWD itself. Management/operational responsibility in relation to larger systems is under districts and gazetted town councils. For small towns and growth centers (typically with a population in the range of 5,000-10,000), responsibility for management/operations rests with local water user groups or associations, which are formed from a number of water user groups in cases where piped water systems are installed. These voluntary bodies are not legally empowered to own property and the systems. Development in these areas continues to rest with DWD. Currently, 40% of the population of these small towns is served with clean water. This was projected to rise to 80% by the year 2000. This did not happen largely due to inadequate funding and how institutional capacity to implement the expanded water supply program.

Per capita sales of water in the NWSC towns are low, resulting in high unit costs. This makes NWSC unable to meet its liabilities in terms of loan interests and repayments and cannot generate surpluses to finance system expansion or improvements, despite the fact that tariffs in Uganda are among the highest in the region for water services. Overall, unit costs (excluding interest charges) are high, currently in excess of Ushs.1100 (US$0.73) per m3.

There is substantial under-utilization of installed capacity and over-provision in a number of the urban areas that fall under the responsibility of NWSC. For example, in Lira town, capacity utilization is about 17%. Water is usually pumped only twice a week from the treatment facility (over 40 km from the town). NWSC has inherited these schemes and has not itself been responsible for the under-utilization. In general, the origins of this type of over-ambitious scheme can be traced back to political interference in the planning process. The consequences of political interference include not only examples of significant over-provision but also distortions in the pattern of service provision whereby investment resources are diverted from larger towns in great need of water supply/sanitation to smaller towns where the demand is quite low to justify the level of capital investment.

Due to the poor coverage (service level) in the rural areas and urban centers, Government with donor assistance has embarked on a number of rural water and sanitation projects. The ultimate goal is to raise the service level of rural water supply to 75% by the year 2005 with a rural household receiving 20-25 liters/ household/day and 100% by the year 2015. The target for urban population is 100% service level by the year 2005, with the average household receiving 50 liters/household/day. A presentation of domestic water demand from some important water catchment areas in 1991 and projections for the year 2010 is given in Table 5.6. The data show that with the population almost doubling between 1991 and 2010 in both rural and urban areas, the demand for water will likewise at least double which will ultimately necessitate an increase in service delivery.

Table 5.6 Domestic Water Demand (‘000m3/year) by Catchment Basin Population (‘000) Water demand (000m3/year) 1991 2010 1991 2010 Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban Lake Victoria 3,522 580 6,006 1,205 32,138 15,877 54,805 32,987 Lake Kyoga 4,658 660 7,289 1,182 42,504 18,067 66,512 32,357 Kyoga Nile 1,449 347 2,370 772 13,222 9,499 21,626 21,133 Lakes 2,214 119 3,649 190 20,203 3,258 33,297 5,201 Edward/George Lake Albert 858 39 1,409 62 7,829 1,068 12,857 1,697 River Aswa 745 43 1,092 58 6,798 1,177 9,964 1,588 Albert Nile 1,075 73 2,009 133 9,809 1,998 19,332 3,641 Kidepo Valley 49 1 59 3 447 27 538 82 Other 274 14 242 13 2,505 385 1,859 1,399 Total 14,844 1,876 24,125 3,618 135,455 51,356 219,791 100,086 Source: MNR (1995)

An estimated 30% of the population in rural areas has access to potable water supply. Ground water exploitation represents the main source of rural water supply through boreholes, springs, gravity flow schemes and shallow wells. Table 5.7 shows the investments required to achieve 75% coverage in rural areas by the year 2015 for the four regions of the country.

Table 5.7: Showing Rural Water Supply Investments to Attain 75% Coverage by the Year 2015 Region Population District Total national Total (%) Per capita (millions) contribution ($) investment ($) investment ($)

Northern 4.90 10,137,484 91,237,389 101,374,873 20.68 Eastern 5.92 18,561,969 167,057,768 185,619,737 34.24 Western 5.94 12,803,255 115,229,371 128,032,626 21.55 Central 6.24 13,796,174 124,165,617 26,212,691 4.2 Source: Wardrop Engineering Inc. et al. (1999)

Water for Livestock Water for livestock constitutes a significant form of water use especially in the semi-arid and pastoral areas where surface water sources are scarce and long dry periods are common. The present livestock population of cattle, sheep and goats is 4.5 million with an estimated water demand of about 81 million m3/year with projections of up to 255 million m3/year by the year 2010 (Table 5.8).

Most of the total 425 medium-sized dams and valley tanks as well as several small valley tanks which were constructed in the semi-arid areas of Nakasongola, Mbarara, Kotido and Moroto districts have silted up due to lack of maintenance, poor animal watering methods and soil erosion as a result of overstocking. Provision of water for livestock is under the Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries (MAAIF), which plans to construct 230 communal valley tanks and 135 private dams for ranches. Constructing dams to provide water for livestock has some negative environmental impacts which have to be evaluated in light of other options. The question of their sustainability is also becoming an important issue of debate in the water sector (Box 5.1).

61 Table 5.8 Past and Future Livestock Water Demand by District District Livestock equivalent Livestock equivalent Water demand Water demand 2010 1989 (‘000) 2010 (‘000) 1989 (‘000 m3/year) (‘000 m3/year) Kalangala 5 25 89 464 Kampala 185 781 3,370 14,254 Kiboga 31 50 558 934 Luwero 97 181 1,775 3,309 Masaka 180 493 3,293 8,999 Mpigi 203 590 3,706 10,768 Mubende 106 295 1,962 5,386 Mukono 181 458 3,309 8,351 Rakai 79 230 1,442 4,195 Bundibugyo 40 68 730 1,241 Bushenyi 257 763 4,692 13,917 Hoima 112 195 1,496 3,564 Kabale 162 392 2,953 7,151 Kabarole 303 934 5,527 17,046 Kasese 126 295 2,308 5,388 Kibaale 91 288 1,663 5,250 Kisoro 80 258 1,457 4,708 Masindi 99 231 1,814 4,217 Mbarara 338 943 6,169 17,198 Rukungiri 141 369 2,567 6,738 Apac 97 350 1,767 6,396 Arua 103 299 1,873 5,463 Gulu 68 180 1,245 3,276 Kitgum 70 155 1,278 2,821 Kotido 33 58 600 1,052 Lira 110 325 2,003 5,930 Moroto 34 59 629 1083 Moyo 36 162 650 2,951 Nebbi 58 178 1,060 3,248 Iganga 236 756 4,299 13,789 Jinja 77 183 3,408 3,337 Kamuli 122 348 2,228 6,359 Kapchorwa 29 107 521 1,945 Kumi 57 87 1,037 1,591 Mbale 196 484 3,574 8,838 Pallisa 82 233 1,488 4,258 Soroti 132 147 2,045 2,682 Tororo 344 427 2,628 7,786 Total 4,450 12,376 81,217 255,862 Source: DWD (1995)

Box 5.1: Effects of dams in Karamoja

Construction of dams encourages settlement around the site. The kraals (awi) are usually sited near to the dam and they stay longer. The over concentration of kraals around the dams cause problems of disease transfer, reduction in available grazing land, destruction of wildlife and overall environmental degradation. According to a study by Jane Nimpamya (1998), vegetation within a distance of 0.65 km2 is completely destroyed due to over concentration of livestock around dams in Karamoja. It is also evident that provision of water to the Karimojong through dam construction is not very sustainable. In addition to the environmental degradation, siltation is also a major problem. The siltation rate of new dams in Karamoja is estimated at 30cm of mud level increment per rainy season and 5cm mud level increment per dry season. The average maximum depth of the deepest point of a dam is 2m. This implies that after 6 years, the dam will silt up completely and will no longer hold water.

The average cost of constructing a valley dam is US $300,000. Desilting it, costs up to 30% of the construction cost. Other alternatives to valley dams in Karamoja therefore have to be seriously considered. This includes windmills and boreholes. A windmill that can pump up to 20m3 of water per day only costs US $16,000.

Source: Nimpamya, Jane M.Sc study report, MUK.

Water for Irrigation There has been little irrigation in the past mainly on some few state-run irrigation schemes. However, within the framework of the Plan for Modernization of Agriculture small-scale irrigation schemes are being planned. Currently, it is estimated that about 207million m3 of water is used annually for irrigation. There is great potential for increased agricultural production using irrigation water amounting to about 247,230ha with an estimated ultimate water use of 2472.6 million m3 per year.

Quality

The quality of surface water in Uganda has been deteriorating overtime during the last two decades. Water in Lake Victoria has been heavily polluted by both domestic and industrial discharge and by agricultural run-off from upstream riparian countries. Leading polluting industries are breweries, textile mills, sugar factories, soft drink factories, dairy, oil, soap, food processing, and leather tanning industries most of which are concentrated around the shores of lakes and rivers. It is estimated that these industries discharge more than 2,300 m3/day of wastewater with a pollution load of about 2,000kg/day biological oxygen demand (BOD) and 1,100 kg/day of suspended solids into Lake Victoria.

In some areas groundwater is facing pollution from on-site siltation, waste disposal, and mineral wastes. Prone areas for this type of pollution are some parts of Kampala, Iganga, Wobulenzi and Kasese.

According to Wardrop Engineering Inc. et al (1999), water quality for potable water should ideally meet WHO minimum standards. However, it is noted that in some instances, achieving these standards will put the cost or availability of acceptable quality water beyond the reach of rural residents. Wardrop Engineering Inc., therefore, proposed water quality standards for Uganda presented in Table 5.9.

Table 5.9 Proposed Water Quality Standards Parameter WHO Guideline Project Maximum Remarks Permissible Min. pH 6.5 6.0 Corrosion Max. pH 8.5 9.5 Total dissolved solids 1000 mg/l 3000 mg/l Taste and user acceptance Total hardness 500 mg/l 600 mg/l Taste and user acceptance Chlorides 250 mg/l 800 mg/l Taste and user acceptance Sulphate 400 mg/l 600 mg/l Teeth staining & bone damage Flouride 1.5 mg/l 8.0 mg/l Taste and user acceptance Iron 0.3 mg/l 5.0 mg/l Taste and user acceptance Manganese 0.5 mg/l 0.5 mg/l Taste and user acceptance Arsenic 0.05 mg/l 0.05 mg/l Health Cadmium 0.005 mg/l 0.05 mg/l Health Cyanide 0.1 mg/l 0.2 mg/l Health Mercury 0.001 mg/l 0.001 mg/l Health Lead 0.05 mg/l 0.1 mg/l Health Nitrate 10 mg/l 100 mg/l Health Faecal coliforms 0/100 ml 10/100 ml Health Source: NEMA, 2000

Institutional Framework

The Water Action Plan (WAP, 1995) lays down the process and actions, which ensure sustainable management of water resources. The WAP, 1995 prioritized functions for immediate and later consideration and placed some of these at the national level while others are to be decentralized to the district level. The National Water Policy (1996) among others provides for village water user groups which are mandated to manage, operate and maintain point water sources through village level operation and management and to protect such sources to ensure safe and clean water.

Under the Rural Water and Sanitation Project (RUWASA) in the south-eastern and eastern Uganda every water source developed by the RUWASA Project has a Water Management Committee. Also within 100 meters of any water source, a safe protection zone is established for a borehole and the up-stream catchment of the spring.

The Water Statute (1995) incorporates legislation for both water resources and for water supply and sanitation. Under the Water Statute (1995) at national level, there is a Water Policy Committee (WPC) which has the overall responsibility for setting national policies, standards and priorities, including coordinating revision to legislation and regulations and sector ministry plans and projects which affect water resources. It also coordinates the formulation of an international water resources policy.

The National Water Policy, 1995 sets out water supply and sanitation policies and sustainable provision of accessible clean safe water and hygienic sanitation facilities to 75% of the rural population by the year 2000 and to 100% by the year 2015, and to 100% of the urban population by the year 2000, and includes the efficient and effective use of financial and human resources. The Policy seeks among others to involve beneficiaries and the private sector in managing water at the lowest level possible; to promote awareness of water management and development issues 64 and creation of the necessary capacity for the sector players at different levels; promoting viable management options for provision of water supply at all levels and developing management responsibility and ownership of domestic water supply to the users.

References

DWD (Directorate of Water Development). 1995. Rapid Water Resources Assessment. Document 007. Uganda Water Action Plan. Ministry of Natural Resources-Kampala, Uganda.

Johns Hopkins. 1998. Solutions for a Water-Short World. Population Report Vol. XXVI, No. 1, September 1998. Johns Hopkins Population Information Program, Baltimore, Maryland, United States.

MNR (Ministry of Natural Resources). 1995. The National Water Policy.

MNR (Ministry of Natural Resources). 1995. Uganda Water Action Plan.

Nimpamya, Jane. Investigation of the impact caused by valley dams on water, wildlife, livestock and vegetation of Karamoja. An MSc study report. Makerere University, Kampala.

NEAP Secretariat Task Force No. 4. 1992. Issue Paper on Wetlands, Water Resources, Fisheries, Aquatic Biodiversity and Irrigated Agriculture.

NWSC. 2001. Water Provision Database (Pers. Comm.). Kampala, Uganda

UNEP (United Nations Environment Program). 1987. Strategic Resources Planning in Uganda. Vol. IV-Water Resources.

Wardrop Engineering Inc. et al. (1999). Water Sector Reform, Rural Water and Sanitation Component. Investment Plan and Strategy 2000-2015. Final Draft Report. Ministry of Water, Lands and Environment. Directorate of Water Development.

Biodiversity

Biodiversity is the variability of life expressed at the ecosystem, species and genetic levels (Figure 6.1). This variability is the essence of life and the basis of existence of all life forms. The native plants and animals can be used in a variety of ways. Through domestication and direct harvesting from the wild, Ugandans derive food, medicines and a wealth of raw materials. The diverse wildlife of Uganda has recreational and aesthetic values, while the introduced plants and animals constitute the basis of Uganda's agriculture. Therefore, the importance of biodiversity is not confined to natural ecosystems. Agricultural biodiversity, in predominantly altered or human-made ecosystems, is also of great interest for Uganda. Agriculture is the main engine of economic growth of the country. Uganda is reported to have the world’s largest germplasm of bananas, a staple of close to two thirds of the country’s population. As described in the State of Environment Report 1996, Uganda is rich in biodiversity. According to White (1983), there are seven major bio-geographic regions in Uganda, each with its own distinct fauna and flora. The country is also privileged because of its hypothetical pleistocene forest refugium of eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), known as the Albertine Rift Area of Regional Endemism (NBU, 1992).

Most of Uganda’s biodiversity can be found in the natural forests, but a considerable amount is found in open waters, wetlands, and dry/moist savanna. The easiest place for measuring biodiversity richness is at the ecosystem level. Box 6.1 shows the range of Uganda’s ecosystem biodiversity; while Box 6.2 shows some of the country’s biodiversity hotspots. In 1992, Uganda carried out a country study on costs, benefits and unmet needs of biological diversity conservation. The study concluded that for its size, Uganda, possibly has the highest biological diversity (NBU, 1992). For birds, for example, Uganda has more than 11% of the world’s species, despite having only 2.0% of the world’s area.

66 Figure 6.1

Box 6.1: Major biodiversity ecosystems in Uganda

Natural Ecosystems • Forests – high altitude moorland and heath, high altitude, forests, medium altitude forests, savanna mosaics and woodland savanna • Woodlands – Combretaceious and Vitex (Butyrospermum) woodlands • Savanna – composed of thickets, and dominate the drier areas of the country • Wetlands – areas with impeded drainage, swamp, forests, papyrus and grass swamps • Aquatic – five major lakes, 160 minor lakes and extensive river system

Modified ecosystems • Agro-systems – including sugar cane, tea and coffee plantations, and agro-pastoral systems • Forest plantations – of indigenous and exotic species • Urban systems – of various urban centers • Irrigation schemes – such as Kibimba, Doho and Olweny rice scheme

Box 6.2: Biodiversity hot spots in Uganda

• Mgahinga gorilla national park and Bwindi impenetrable national park – the mountain gorilla (Gorilla gorilla berengei) and other regionally and globally endemic species • Rwenzori mountain national park – bay duiker (Ceplahophus leucogaster) • Sango bay wetlands and forest ecosystem – biodiversity of global significance • Kibale national park – globally and regionally endemic species, primate species richness • Dry mountains of Karamoja (Napak, Morungole, Kadam, Timu and Moroto) – regional and global endemics • Lake Victoria – cichlid and nile perch species (alien species invasion) • Papyrus swamps of Lake Edward, George, and Bunyonyi, there occurs the endemic papyrus (Chloropeta gracilirostris)

Of global significance, Uganda is home to more than half of the world’s population of mountain gorillas (Gorilla gorilla berengei) found in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (BINP) and Mgahinga Gorilla National Park (MGNP). The global community is supporting the conservation of the mountain gorilla through the Mgahinga Bwindi Impenetrable Forest Conservation Trust (MBIFCT), a GEF-funded trust fund; the International Gorilla Conservation Program (IGCP) of a consortium of NGOs, CARE Development Through Conservation Project, among others.

The Sango Bay ecosystem of wetlands and forests has 14% of the fish species of Uganda and 41% of its birds. It has endemic fish (such as Oreochromis esculentus and O. variabilis), dragon flies (Macromia bispina) and butterflies (Tametheira orientalis, Elymnias bammakoo ratrayi, Charaxes imperialis ugandicus). The dry montane forests of Karamoja contain a number of butterflies (Papilio nobilis, Charaxes smaragdilis elgonae). A regional GEF-funded project is carrying out activities to reduce biodiversity loss at cross-border sites which includes Sango Bay and the dry mountain forests of Karamoja.

68 The biodiversity resources of Uganda have great economic significance. The presence of indigenous biological resources and their diversity provide a wide range of direct benefits because they generate products which are used for subsistence income and employment purposes. According to NEMA (2000), the direct economic benefit of Uganda’s biodiversity is conservatively estimated to be more than U.Shs. 823 billion (or US $550 million). Table 6.1 illustrates the range of known medicinal values of Uganda’s biodiversity. Also Uganda’s ecosystems, their component species and diversity generate a wide range of benefits outside direct utilization. Not withstanding difficulties of valuation, the value of the services have also been reported (NEMA,2000) to be at the conservative level of U.Shs. 300 billion (or US $200 million) per year.

Uganda’s economic structure, activities and policies have direct links with biodiversity. As shown in Box 6.3, these links are the result of direct on-site effects of economic activities and growth.

Box 6.3: Relationship between biodiversity and Uganda’s economy

Uganda’s economic structure, activities and policies have direct links with biodiversity (Biodiversity and richness). These links are a result of direct on side effects of economic activities. Uganda has undergone increase in economic growth over the past decade and therefore could lead to the following implications for biodiversity conservation.

Direct implications: • Over-exploitation or depletion of some of the biodiversity. A case in point is fishing around Lake Victoria whereby levels of fish catch might not be sustainable in the end. • Agricultural modernization results in increased use of agro-chemicals and fertilizers that seriously affect soil biodiversity richness • Promotion of monoculture (tea, sugar, flowers, etc.) has resulted in mono-cultural biodiversity habitats, which create opportunity for specialized categories of biodiversity likely to colonize such habitats. At the same time, reduced natural habitat diversity leads to reduction of species diversity • Introduction and encouragement of new species/varieties that have potential to out-compete indigenous or traditional varieties eg. the Nile perch in Lake Victoria • Pollution as a result of increased industrial, urban or agricultural development, eg. the introduction of cattle spraying in early 1970s that saw the local extinction of ox-pecker in western Uganda.

Indirect implications: • Both macro and micro economic policies have consequences to species diversity and richness because Uganda’s economy heavily depends on biodiversity-impacting activities • (eg. increased agriculture or agricultural modernization and the associated effects, over-harvesting of forest and fishery products, etc) • Inadequate consideration of biodiversity issues in national economic policies, strategies and planning • Gaps and inconsistencies within biodiversity related policies and legal frameworks that tend to favour investment at the expense of conservation.

Table 6.1 Examples of Medicinal Values of Uganda’s Biodiversity Resources Family Taxon Local name Disease Part used Acanthaceae Brillantaisia mahonii Kiremberembe (G) Psychotic Leaves excitement Hygrophia auriculata Musoke G) Palpitations Leaves Justicia angleriana Kinyataba (T) Abnominal pain Leaves Amarylidaceae Scandoxus multiflorus Mayuni-gawanja (G) Leishmaniasis Root Anacardiaceae Rhus vulgaris Omukanja (A) Rabies Roots Araceae Pistia stratiotes Abongo dar (L) Cough Whole plant Asteraceae Aspilia pluriseta Makai (Jap) Malaria Roots Malanthera scandens Ekarwe (A.K) Malaria Leaves Calastraceae Maytenus bushananii Nalingwalimu (G) Headaches Leaves Zingeberaceae Costus afer Kitungulu (G) Helminthiasis Roots Cucurbitaceae Momordica foetida Bomo (L.T) Measles Leaves Mukia maderaspatensis Bukabuka (G) Infertility Roots Cyperaceae Cyperus digitatus Akasaana (G) Cough Leaves Cyperus distaus Katabuteme (G) Restrosternal Leaves Cyperus papyrus Kitoogo (G) Oedema Leaves Mariscus squarrosus Omaara (L) Male impotence Whole Flagellariaceae Flagellaria guineensis Chest pain Leaves Guttiferae Symphonia globulifera Omusaali (G) Cough in children Roots/stem Hydrocharitaceae Ottelia ulvifolia Kizimo cha (Jap; L) Stomach disorders Leaves Leguminosae Alysicarpus rugosus Abebe acel (L) Functional Whole psychosis Cassia didymobotrya Omugabagaba (A) Tapeworm Leaves Macuna pruriens Dukaekibabu (G) Nervousness Leaves Sesbania sesban Omunyeganyenje (A) Gonorrhoea Roots Moraceae Ficus thonningii Ananga (L) Influenza Bark Myricaceae Myrica kandtiana Bowolaba (L) Asthenia malaise Leaves Nymphaeceae Nymphaea capensis Kiryerya (G) Heart palpitations Roots Oxalidaceae Biophytum sensitinum Nyarwehumbaraka Diabetes mellitus Leaves (A;N) Palmae Phoenix reclinata Omukindo (A) Impotence Leaves Passifloraceae Adenia rumicifolia Lubowa (G) Neurotic illness Whole plant Polygonaceae Polygonum pulcheria Omwoganyanja (T.N) Tropical ulcers Roots Polygonum salicifolium Obugoroganja (A.K) Sore throat Whole Polygonum setulosum Ebyoganyanja (A) Abdominal pain Leaves Rumex bequaertii Sirangambi (G) Gastric ulceration Roots Primulaceae Lysimakhia ruhmeriana Omuvuvura (T) Burns Fruits Ranunculaceae Ranunculus multifidus Ekireereetu (G) Emetic Roots Rubiaceae Pentus longiflora Ishagara (A) Fever Leaves Taccaceae Tacca leonetopetaloides Acokilete (T) Headache Tuber Umbeliferae Centella asiatica Ntamunene (G) Peptic ulcers Whole Oenanthe pulustris Kakwerewe (L) Fever Leaves Urticaceae Obetia pinnatifida Kyolanga (L) Cough Leaves Verbebaceae Clerodendrummyricoides Omukazanyana (A.N) Knee Roots Zingiberaceae Aframomum sanguienum Kitungulu (G) Intestinal worms Shoots, seed Key to Vernacular names: L-Lango; G-Ganda; A-Ankole; K-Kiga; T-Teso; N- Nyoro; Jap-Japadhola. Source: Kakudidi E.K. (1996)

Although biodiversity resources in Uganda constitute a great asset, the country risks losing it altogether. Uganda’s biodiversity loss is being experienced at the ecosystem, species and genetic levels. For example, both the northern white and the black rhino have been hunted, for

70 commercial purposes, to extinction. Biodiversity is also being lost through the disappearance or alteration of habitats, and the introduction of alien species.

To promote the conservation of biodiversity, Uganda recently prepared a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan which awaits approval. The vision, goal and objectives of the strategy and action plan are presented in Box 6.4.

Box 6.4: Vision, goals and objectives of the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan

Vision: A rich biodiversity benefiting present and future generations for national development.

Goal: To enhance biodiversity conservation, management and sustainable utilization at all levels.

Objectives: • To develop and strengthen coordination measures and frameworks for biodiversity management in Uganda and implementation of the main objectives of the convention on biological diversity • To facilitate research, information management, exchange and awareness • To reduce and manage negative impacts on biodiversity • To promote the sustainable and equitable sharing of costs and benefits and incorporating property rights in biodiversity management.

Source: NEMA (2000)

Loss of biodiversity

Based on a composite index (1970=100), Uganda’s biodiversity richness declined steeply from the 1960s to the 1990s (Figure 6.2). These losses of biodiversity have been registered for forests and woodlands, wildlife-protected areas, wetlands, and aquatic ecosystems.

Figure 6.2 Indices Reflecting the Loss of Biodiversity since the 1960s

Source: NBDB (2000)

Uganda’s tropical forests are very rich in biodiversity. They contain 427 species of trees, 329 species of birds, 12 species of diurnal primates and 71 butterfly species, among others (NEMA, 2000). Among the key forest biodiversity species 4 primates species, 2 other mammal species, 6 71 bird species, and 2 butterfly species are listed in the IUCN Red Data Book to be globally threatened with extinction (NEMA, 2000). According to the same source, the most seriously threatened animal is the mountain gorilla, which is considered to be endangered; while six species of animals (Chimpanzee, l’Hoest monkey, elephant, leopard, Grauer’s rush warbler and cream-babded swallowtail butterfly) are listed as vulnerable. On the other hand, four species of forest birds (Nahan’s francolin, African green broadbill, flycatcher and forest ground thrush) are classified as rare. The Uganda red colobus monkey and the Kibale Ground Thrush are categorized intermediate species since not enough information is known about them (NEMA, 2000). As discussed in an earlier section of this report, Uganda has lost large areas of forest cover. To try and address the loss of biodiversity in forest and savanna woodlands, government has put in place a comprehensive review and restructuring of the forest sector. Also, six natural forests have had their conservation status changed to national parks. The Forestry Department, the lead agency responsible for the sector, has carried out a biodiversity survey of the major natural forests (Forestry Department, 1996). Under the recently prepared Nature Conservation Master Plan, the Department also intends to designate up to 50% of the area of natural forests as Strict Nature Reserves (SNRs) where no consumptive use will be allowed. A Buffer Zone (BZ) constituting up to 20% of the forests will be created around the SNRs where limited non- destructive uses will be permitted. The remaining 30% of the forests will be designated production zones where sustainable management practices will be undertaken. Collectively, these measures should check the rate at which biodiversity is being lost from forests and savanna woodlands.

Table 6.2 Estimates for populations of larger mammals in Uganda Species 1960 1982/83 1995/98 Present status Antelopes Hartebeest 25000 18000 2600 Population decreasing Topi 15000 6000 600 Population decreasing Impala 12000 12000 4000 Population decreasing Waterbuck 10000 8000 3500 Stable Uganda kob 70000 40000 30000 Stable Bights gazelle 1800 1400 100 Precarious Roan 700 300 8 Very rare, precarious Oryx 2000 200 0 Extirpated Eland 4500 1500 500 Population decreasing Berby’s eland 300 - 0 Extripated Total 141300 87400 41300 Decline % 38 53 71% overall Other large mammals Elephant 25000 2000 1900 Population low but stable Black rhino 400 150 0 Extripated White rhino 200 20 0 Extripated Hippopotamus 26000 13000 4000 Population stable Rothschild’s 2500 350 200 Low but stable giraffe Buffalo 60000 25000 18000 Population stable Total 114100 40500 24100 Declines % 65 40 76% overall Source: NBDB (2000)

The loss of wildlife species has been equally significant. Although wildlife management was relatively efficient up to 1970, thereafter, particularly over the period 1970-1986, the status of wildlife biodiversity was seriously undermined through indiscriminate poaching. This resulted in major reductions in the number of species and wildlife populations as shown in Table 6.2. The 72 results show that there was a dramatic decline of all species. Twenty five percent of the species have become extinct. Between 1960 and 1998, Uganda lost 71% and 76% of its antelope and other large mammals populations, respectively (UWA, 1999).

Both the Uganda Wildlife Statute 1996 and the Draft Wildlife Policy 2000, which is under review, place great emphasis on conservation of wildlife throughout Uganda. The policies and the Wildlife Statute 1996 give due recognition to community participation in wildlife management and provide for the enhancement of benefits derived from wildlife through wildlife use rights and promotion of tourism. Communities in Bigodi (near Kibale National Park), Buhoma (near Bwindi) and those around Mgahinga (Amajembere Iwachu) participate in park management decisions and operate tourism facilities. A Biosphere Reserve (BR) has been created occupying the whole of Queen Elizabeth National Park (QENP).

As described earlier, wetlands are another reservoir of biodiversity. According to the National Wetlands Management Program’s inventory on biodiversity (FAO, 1996), conducted between 1992-95, wetlands support a diversity of plants and animals (Table 6.3). There are 22 species of edible wetlands plants whose consumption levels are generally low, except during times of famine. There are also 35 species of plants with medicinal value. Wetlands provide a variety of fish species. All types of wetlands are important for conservation. Ten of the 271 species of macrophytes are of conservation concern because little is known about them; 8 species of haplochromines are listed in the IUCN Red Data book as endangered; 35 species of birds of conservation concern include five globally threatened species (Madagascar Squacco Heron, Shoebill, Lesser Flamingo, Papyrus Yellow Warbler and the Basra Reed Warbler); while two species of plants are endemic to Uganda (NEMA 2000). This wetlands biodiversity is now threatened.

A third phase of the National Wetlands Program started in 1996. During the phase, institutional structures for wetlands management are to be strengthened. Wetlands resource assessment is also taking place. Already twelve districts have been inventoried. Also, five sites have been established for developing and testing community-based participatory wetlands conservation and management methodologies.

Table 6.3 Wetlands Biodiversity in Uganda Type No of species Macrophytes 271 Birds 159 Fish 52 Amphibians 48 Dragon flies 43 Mammals 14 Molluscs 9 Source: FAO (1996)

Finally, Uganda’s aquatic biodiversity has also experienced significant losses. Decline in fish species is probably the most documented loss of biodiversity due to human interventions on an ecosystem. Work done by Witte et al (1991) indicates that up to 200 species that were originally endemic to Lake Victoria have disappeared.

The main causes of loss of biodiversity in Uganda are habitat loss, over harvesting and introduction of alien species.

Habitat Loss At the ecosystem level, human settlements are encroaching on protected areas such as national parks, forest reserves and wetlands. Uganda’s population is growing very fast, at about 2.5% per annum. And this population is largely rural. Increased demand for food for the additional people means new land areas must be opened for agriculture. Hence large tracts of land are deforested annually. The biodiversity- rich areas of the Albertine Rift Refugium area for instance, also happen to have very high human population densities. Scarcity of land for agriculture has, therefore, put tremendous pressure on the biodiversity resources of these areas. Human settlements have also encroached onto protected areas. For example, in the rationalization of Uganda’s wildlife protected areas system, 26 km2 of Bugungu Wildlife Reserve (BWR) has been recommended for excision because of the extensive settlement in the area (UWA, 1999; EPED, 1999). Fortunately, the rationalization process also identified areas, which the people want to conserve, so that on balance there should be a net gain in the size of the area under wildlife protected areas if the recommendations are approved (Table 6.4). Outside protected areas, big areas of woodlands, forests and wetlands have been cleared for agriculture or through charcoal production.

Apart from biodiversity loss per se, habitat loss also generates other negative impacts. Wildlife may be forced to invade settled areas with a potential for cross-breeding. For example, Ethiopia is reported to be witnessing the hybridization of the Ethiopian wolf with domestic dogs. Another adverse impact is the likelihood of transmitting wildlife related diseases to domestic animals. A regional effort covering Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda is addressing livestock, wildlife and human interactions through expert modeling. Also, the general degradation of biodiversity resources both in quality of attraction and services is impacting negatively on tourism, a significant foreign exchange earner for Uganda.

Unsustainable Harvesting During the 1960s and 1970s, the markets for wood products were very selective. High value tree species such as Mvule (Melicea exelsa), the Mahoganies, Elgon olive and Lovoa sp. were “creamed” from the natural forests through selective logging. Large volumes of what at the time were considered “undesirable” or “weed” species were removed using the charcoal refining method or poisoned with aboricides. The logged areas were later enriched with desirable tree species. A lot of biodiversity was lost through this process of exploitation. Uncontrolled harvesting and use of poor harvesting methods during the same period and up to the mid 1980s also contributed to biodiversity loss although estimates of such losses have not been documented.

Within wildlife protected areas, poaching for both subsistence and commercial trade has been responsible for the drastic reduction in wildlife populations. Fines specified for various wildlife offences are insufficient to act as effective deterrents. Even the enforcement of the wildlife protection laws themselves was weak.

With respect to aquatic biodiversity, the use of inappropriate fishing gears by some fishermen has also contributed to the decline of a number of species due to catches of immature fish. The presence of the water hyacinth (although in decline now) and the use of poisonous chemicals to catch fish were other factors, which affected fish populations in the waters of mainly lakes Victoria and Kyoga. Some of these activities culminated in the Government imposing a temporary ban on the sale of fish on the local market. This also affected fish exports to the European market. 74 Table 6.4 Recommendations for Rationalizing Wildlife Protected Areas Region Key Recommendations NORTH- Matheniko and Bokora wildlife reserves should be merged into a single reserve to be managed EASTERN collaboratively with the locals. Mount Elgon NP, A small part of Pian-upe WR within Katakwi district should be excised from the reserve. Matheniko and The encroached part in Namalu in Pian-upe should be excised from the reserve. Bokora WR, Bokora corridor WR be extended into the North Karamoja CHA to include the Toror hills. Kidepo valley, Matheniko WR should be extended into Koten area in Dodoth county to include an area of scenic Pian-upe WR, value. North Karamoja Part of North Karamoja should be degazzetted. CHA, Napak A CHA should be established in Upe county and the remainder of the CHA should be degazzetted. CHA, North and Lipan CHA becomes a Wildlife Reserve with a slight amendment of the boundary. East Teso CHA, Napak CHA should be degazzetted. Sebei CHA. North and East Teso CHAs should be degazzetted and for the latter a conservation committee be established. Negotiations should be continued with local councils to establish part of Sebei CHA as a CWA. NORTH A fish breeding zone should be declared to protect against over fishing and a buffer zone. WESTERN For Bugungu it is recommended that the encroached areas be excised from the reserve. Murchison Falls No boundaries and the status of the Karuma wildlife reserve should be changed. NP, Bugungu WR, The boundaries of Ajai WR should be changed to exclude almost all settlements. Karuma WR, Ajai For East Madi CHA it is proposed that the entire portion of the CHA south of the zoka to WR, East Madi Adjumani be established as a WR and the remainder degazzetted. CHA, West Madi Consultations to continue with locals to establish a wildlife corridor through the Kilak CHA CHA, Kaiso- linking Murchison to East Madi. Tonya CHA, Karuma falls CHA,Buhuka CHA and Dufile wildlife sanctuary should be degazzetted. Karuma Falls Kaiso-Tonya should be upgraded to wildlife Reserve status. CHA, Buhuka Mt. Kei and Otze be re-designed as a wildlife Sanctuaries. CHA, Mt. Kei White rhino , Otze and Dufile Wildlife Sanctuary.

SOUTH Kashaka, Kisenyi, Kahendero, Kayanja, Rwenshema villages be established as wildlife sanctuaries. WESTERN The borders of lake Katwe WS be amended to accommodate minor boundary discrepancies Queen Elizabeth Kashaka village should be excised from Kyambura WR, kashaka lagoon and Sikanki island be NP, Kyambura included inside the PA and the resulting PA is upgraded to NP status included within QENP. WR,Kigezi WR, Kikarara, Kanyabwanga, Kashongorero, Kiyanga, Rwoburungi parishes should be excised from Lake Mburo, Kigezi WR. Bwindi A new boundary description should be prepared and incorporated into a new sanctuary instrument Impenetrable NP, for Lake Mburo NP. Mgahinga Gorilla The status of Bwindi Impenetrable should not be changed. NP, Kibale NP, Minor changes should be made to the boundary of MGNP. Rwenzori NP, No change in status of Rwenzori NP and Semliki NP. Semliki NP, Toro Minor changes should be made to the boundaries of Kibale NP to reflect boundary agreements WR and Semliki 1997 Flats CHA, There should not be any changes on the boundaries of Katonga WR Katonga WR and Katonga CHA should be degazzetted. CHA The wetland area of Semliki Flats should be designated as the Rwangara Community Wildlife Area(CWA). The remainder of the Semliki Flats should/ will be degazzetted. An agreed area of Itojo parish, Ntoroko sub-county should be added to the reserve. An area of encroachment into Toro WR at Kyabandara village, Karugutu parish Ntoroko Sub- county should /will be excised from reserve NP – national park; WR – wildlife reserve; CHA – controlled hunting area; PA – protected area; Source: UWA (1999)

Introduction of Alien Species

There are 180 tree and 55 other plant species, which have been introduced to Uganda over the last few decades, many of which are fruit or ornamental trees. Some species including Tonna ciliate, Cassia spectabilis and Cedrela mexicana have become invasive. Lantana camara which

75 was introduced as an ornamental plant has become a weed and a habitat for tsetse flies. This plant has taken over the habitat of other indigenous shrubs in many parts of the country.

The paper mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera), which was introduced as a raw material for paper production, has invaded a large area of Budongo Forest over the last two decades and suppressed the growth of a number of indigenous species.

The introduction of coniferous and other exotic tree species for industrial and fuelwood production mainly in savanna woodlands and highland areas such as Mt. Elgon, Mafuga, Mwenge hills, among others, has helped to reduce the pressure on natural forests for timber, firewood and building poles. However, their growth in monoculture plantations destroyed the biodiversity of these areas.

The introduction of the predatory Nile Perch (Lates niloticus) in Uganda’s lakes in the 1950s and 1960s has resulted in the disappearance of some 200-250 haplochromine species by 1999. Statistics show that while catches of Nile Perch rose from 620 metric tonnes in 1970 to 92,031 metric tonnes in 1988 the combined weight catches of seven common species in Uganda’s waters declined from 40,950 metric tonnes in 1970 to 12,972 in 1988.

The decline of the haplochromines became more pronounced around the 1980s at the time when increases in Nile Perch became significant. Despite the reduction in the haplochromine and other species the total annual fish catch has been on the increase contributed by the Nile Perch at the expense of the cichlid species.

Some of the ameliorative measures that have been suggested include the reduction of eutrophication and the establishment of “fish parks” in Lake Victoria. Regional efforts such as the Lake Victoria Environment Management Program (LVEMP), funded by the Global Environment Facility (GEF) are contributing to greater conservation of biological resources of the lake.

References

FAO (United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization). 1996.

Forestry Department. 1998. Natural Forest Conservation Master Plan. Kampala, Uganda.

EPED (Environmental Protection and Economic Development) Project. 1999. Significance and Feasibility Analysis of Bugungu Wildlife Reserve (BWR). ACDI/ VOCA.

NEMA (National Environment Management Authority). 2000. Draft Uganda National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Kampala, Uganda.

Kakudidi, E.K. 1996. Report on Medicinal Wetlands Plants. National Wetlands Management Program. Ministry of Natural Resources. Kampala, Uganda

MTWA (Ministry of Tourism Wildlife and Antiquities). 1996. Wildlife Policy 1996.

MTTI (Ministry of Tourism, Trade and Industry). 1999. Draft Wildlife Policy 2000.

NBDB (National Biodiversity Data Bank). 2000. The State of Uganda’s Biodiversity 2000. Makerere University Institute of Environment and Natural Resources (MUIENR).

76 NBU (National Biodiversity Unit). 1992. Uganda Country study on Costs, Benefits and Unmet needs of Biological Diversity Conservation. The Department of Environment Protection. Funded by SIDA under the Auspices of UNDP.

UWA (Uganda Wildlife Authority). 1999. Wildlife Protected Area System Plan for Uganda, draft 2, April 1999.

White, F. 1983. The Vegetation of Africa. UNESCO, Paris.

Witte, et.al. 1991

Urban Areas

The number of urban centers and the human population in them are on the increase and so is the latter’s growth rate which exceeds that of the entire population (MFEPD, 1993). Compared to other parts of the world, one would think that Uganda’s 12% urban population should not be an environmental problem. For Africa as a whole, the urban population was 37% in 1996 and expected to increase to 43% by the year 2010 (UNPD, 1997). Although beginning from a smaller base, environmental degradation in the urban areas in Uganda is already significant and likely to get worse if corrective measures are not put in place. In 1959, Uganda’s urban population stood at about 250,000; and now it is estimated to be more than three million people (Figure 7.1).

This is pitting heavy demands on the environment as the people, on individual basis, generally consume more resources than rural dwellers. Also, the urban centers are poorly planned.

Figure 7.1 Urban Population in Uganda

4000 3500 3000 2500 Population 2000 (thousands) 1500 1000 500 0 1959 1969 1980 1991 1996 2000 Year

(Estimates for years 1996 and 2000) Source: 1991 Population and Housing Census, Nuwagaba (1997)

Rapid urbanization has led to urban sprawl and physical infrastructure deficiencies as well as depletion of natural resources and increased discharge of unprocessed wastes in the environment, which has resulted in severe health problems. The main issues concerning urban areas in Uganda are proliferation of slums and unplanned settlement, water and sanitation and solid waste management.

Figure 7.2 The skyline of the rapidly expanding city of Kampala

Proliferation Of Slums And Unplanned Settlements

Accordingly to the Habitat Agenda, ‘urban settlements properly planned and managed hold the promise for human development and the protection of natural resources through their ability to support large numbers of people while limiting their impact on the natural environment’ (UN, 1992a). Both Agenda 21 (UN 1992b) and the Habitat Agenda agreed on a framework for sustainable development for human settlements.

Urban areas in Uganda, like elsewhere have their own challenges, including: inadequate financial resources, lack of employment; significant levels of poverty and the widening gap between the poor and the rich; growing crime rates; inadequate and deteriorating stock of housing units, services and infrastructure; improper landuse; rising traffic congestion; increasing pollution; lack of green spaces; inadequate water supply; uncoordinated urban development; and increasing vulnerability to disasters (Byaruhanga, 2000).

The challenge for Uganda is the proper management of urban development, including settlements. The linear development of urban centers along highways is wasteful and increases 79 the cost of provision of services. Government is now in the process of drafting a national landuse policy that is expected to be comprehensive and emphasize an integrated approach (NEMA, 2000). In order to have balanced, healthy and sustainable growth of human settlements, it is important to promote landuse patterns that minimize transport demands, save energy, and protect open and green areas. There is a need, therefore, to re-examine national, local and regional policies and develop plans to ensure optimal landuse which would include the protection of agricultural land and land that sustains biodiversity, water quality and ground water recharge, fragile areas, among others. These are the issues being addressed in coming up with a comprehensive landuse policy to be followed by an action plan for Uganda.

Over the years, human settlements have become more complex and the environmental impacts of settlement dynamics coupled with increasing population size and pressure, have become greater. Unplanned settlements have increasingly become an issue of environmental concern especially in urban centers of Uganda as far as their impact on water supply and sanitation, solid waste management, infrastructure development, and social amenities provision are concerned.

According to the Local Government Report (1997) by January 1998 there were 64 urban councils in Uganda. An urban area was defined, by the 1991 Population Census Analytical Report, as being a locality with at least 1,000 people. The 64 urban councils of 1998 comprised of 1 City Council (Kampala), 13 Municipal Councils, and 50 Town Councils. Table 7.1 shows population and growth rates of major urban centers in Uganda.

Table 7.1 Population and Growth Rates of Major Urban Centers 1969 and 1991 Urban Population Population Average Center 1991 1969 Annual Growth Rate Kampala 774541 330700 3.7 Jinja 65169 47872 1.4 Mbale 53987 25544 3.8 Masaka 49585 12987 6.1 Entebbe 42763 21096 3.2 Mbarara 41031 16078 2.6 Soroti 40970 12398 5.4 Gulu 38297 18170 3.4 Fort Portal 36731 8096 6.9 Kabale 29246 8234 5.8 Busia 27586 1146 14.5 Lira 26783 7340 6.0 Tororo 22579 15977 2.3 Mityana 22217 2263 10.5 Arua 26712 10837 3.3 Source: 1991 Population and Housing Census

Among all the above centers, Jinja and Tororo registered lower growth rates most probably due to the decline in industrial activities, which used to attract large numbers of people in search of employment. The high growth rate for Busia is attributed to the coffee smuggling boom of the 1970s and petty trade of the early 1980s while Mityana’s growth can be attributed to the construction of the Mityana-Mubende road linking Kampala to the agriculturally productive Toro area.

80 The emerging rapid increase in the urban population has not been matched with growth and development in basic physical infrastructure, housing, social amenities, management and skills. This has led to over-crowding, a spread of squatter settlements, dilapidated housing (slums) and poor sanitation, which have contributed to increased incidences of water-borne and vector transmitted diseases. Rural to urban migration which has contributed to the development of the urban areas through the provision of needed labour and skills, has also increased the number of urban poor, aggravated the problem of unemployment, the proliferation of slums and increased pressures on existing social services (NEMA, 1998).

Generally, there have been few significant housing development programs both in terms of quality and quantity in the last decade. This may be attributed to factors such as the generally low levels of income for the majority of the population, the high cost of land, the shortage of skilled manpower, the high cost of building materials, and the lack of adequate housing finance for shelter development. This trend is being reversed with construction ‘boom’ occurring in almost all urban centers. Kampala, Lira, Arua, Mbarara and Bushenyi stand out in this regard. Trends in the number of available housing units over the last 3 years indicate a general increase during this period. Records on housing in urban areas between 1970s and 1980s are lacking. Differences between the available housing stock and the levels of housing needs as assessed by the Department of Housing, however, indicate that there is still a significant backlog of about 300,000 units. This is attributed to the high population growth in urban areas. The housing occupancy rate for Kampala, for example, is estimated to be about 1.3, indicating a back-log of about 30%. This implies that for every 130 households, there are only 100 available housing units. Under such circumstances people are forced to live in crowded environments, which in turn creates unhealthy environmental conditions and poses a potential threat to public health and the general social well-being of people (MWTHC, 1998).

The quality of housing in urban areas varies significantly with the various geographical, economic and socio-cultural settings of the area. In Kampala alone for instance, with a total area of about 197 km2 only about 3 km2 are considered to be metropolitan. Many of the housing units in the formal settlements, which account for 49% of the total area of Kampala are not well planned especially those falling outside the metropolitan periphery. The housing units are on small plots, which lead to crowding conditions and overloading of social amenities and utilities. Some settlements have spilled over into wetlands and have contributed significantly to the now common flooding of many residential as well as commercial areas of Kampala during the rainy seasons.

In many urban informal settlements, many of the housing units are in a dilapidated state due to lack of repair and maintenance over the years and are also of poor design. In some of the units, basic services such as water supply, sanitation and other infrastructure are absent or inadequate. The mushrooming unplanned settlements in urban areas have resulted in the drainage of swamps to access clay for the manufacture of sun-dried or kiln baked bricks. The pits left behind during clay excavation create fertile grounds for the breeding of mosquitoes, which has led to rampant increases in incidences of malaria in many urban areas. Failure by most urban areas to follow physical planning has led to haphazard construction that lays down no standards on infrastructures and utilities, sanitation, size of the house or location. In Kampala by 1994, out of 138,068 housing units, 35,485 (25%) were in need of upgrading while 11,510 (83%) needed replacement. The proportion of the housing stock that required replacement reflects the substandard structures in high-density low-income settlements. In other urban areas, during the

81 same period, out of 176,100 units, 51,400 (29.4%) required upgrading and 17,900 (10.0%) needed replacements (NEMA, 1994).

In 1978, a Housing Policy was formulated by the then Ministry of Housing and Public Works. Although it was not published and, therefore, lacked formal enactment, the policy document influenced the upgrading of the Namuwongo Low Cost Housing area (a suburb of Kampala) and the Masese Women Self Help Project (a suburb of Jinja). The same policy document led to the revision of the 1964 sanitary and building rules.

In the 1993 National Shelter Strategy, Government adopted the “enabling” approach as its major strategy. Under the strategy, Government facilitated individual households and private suppliers to play a prominent role in the development of quality housing. Government also put in place complementary policy strategies to improve housing through the rehabilitation of the industries supplying building materials and facilitated home ownership for all Ugandan’s according to their affordability, to efficiently utilize local resources and to protect the environment (NEMA, 1994).

In 1995, Government endorsed a National Population policy whose goal is “to influence future demographic trends and patterns in desirable directions in order to improve the quality of life and standard of living of the people”. The policy has specific objectives relating to personal and family health, children and youth, women and the elderly, environment and development, information policy and research. It also has strategies for education, employment, housing, urbanization, food security and nutrition.

Water and Sanitation

Piped Water Piped water in Uganda was largely installed and expanded in the 1950’s and 1960’s but little investment was carried out in the sector during the 1970’s. NWSC the body charged with the provision of piped water in Uganda was created as a governmental parastatal by decree No. 34 in 1972. Initially, its activities were restricted to the three towns of Kampala, Jinja and Entebbe. In 1999 11 towns had the services of NWSC, with connectivity of 55,198 for domestic, commercial/industrial, government/institutional and public stands compared to 39,287m in 1995. This represents a 40% increase within 4 years. Table 7.2 shows the number of connections by city, year and urban area. The Corporation’s vision is to have more than 75% continuous water production year round of installed capacity in all the systems countrywide, and reduce unaccounted for water to not more than 39% of water produced by the year 2001.

A number of programs have been put in place to improve the piped water sector for a better future. Investment planning since early 1980’s has been determined by the Rehabilitation Program 1982/83-1986/87, which has been revised periodically. Table 7.3 shows ongoing and planned investments in the various urban centers. The main criteria for investments in water supply and sanitation have been: • rehabilitation in preference to new systems; • emphasis on major population centers; • preference for urban centers with administrative status and potential for industrial and commercial development; • disease control in areas where epidemics have occurred; and • alleviation of poverty conditions in peri-urban areas.

82 Table 7.2: Number Of Connections by Urban Area for both Metered And Un-metered Water Connections Area Year Total 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 Kampala 22984 24317 26956 28916 33221 136394 Jinja 4739 4866 5026 5276 5600 25507 Mbale 2707 2786 2815 2844 2947 14099 Tororo 1176 1224 1291 1376 1470 6537 Entebbe 2567 2702 2891 3145 3139 14444 Lira 827 876 858 910 993 4464 Gulu 936 972 960 1017 1101 4986 Masaka 1323 1596 1630 1694 1685 7928 Mbarara 2028 2183 2337 2580 2790 119918 Kasese 0 0 0 981 1054 2035 Fort Portal 0 0 890 1100 1198 3188 Total 39287 41522 46525 49839 55198 232371 Source: NWSC (2000)

Table 7.3 On-going and planned projects by NWSC Town Project activity Estimated Future programs cost US $ Kampala Second Water Supply 70.26 • Funding sought for building 3rd water Project; 1990-1997: treatment plant. • Water kiosks being built in congested and low-income areas. Jinja Small Towns Water and 24.5 When completed will be able to supply water Sanitation Project: to the projected population till 2020 Entebbe Rehabilitation of the 19.7 Ensure that the plant works at 100% capacity Entebbe Water Supply compared to today’s 78%. Expansion of the Scheme. water and sewerage systems is estimated to cost 35.5 million DM. Mbale Uganda Second Water 0.4 Extension of water services to Busia Supply Project. Tororo Uganda Second Water 0.13 Ensure construction of a pipeline between Supply Project. Tororo and Malaba towns. It is estimated to cost Ushs.1.1 billion. Masaka Uganda Second Water 12.5 Ensure that the plant works at 100% capacity Supply Project. compared to the current 20% Mbarara Uganda Second Water 13.39 Ensure that the plant works at 100% capacity Supply Project. compared to the current 56%. Gulu Five Urban Centers Water - To be expanded under Gulu II Water project. and Sewerage Project. Capacity utilization stands at 100% with others not served. It is estimated to cost US$20 million. Lira Five Urban Centers Water - Utilization system to be improved. Current and Sewerage Project. capacity utilization stands at 20%. Kasese Urban Water Supply and 5 Minor extensions to be done in addition to Sanitation Project Western erection stand posts. Uganda. Fort Portal Urban Water Supply and 7 Minor extension to be done in addition to Sanitation Project Western erecting stand posts Uganda. Kabale Kabale Water Supply and 12 The project aims at rehabilitating and Sanitation Project. expanding the water supply and sanitation systems in Kabale. Source: NWSC (1995).

83 Recent steps taken to improve efficiency in operations and build upon achievements so far made include private sector participation, tariff structure review study, service delivery mechanisms, and corporate planning.

Sanitation Improved sanitation has a direct bearing on the health and well being of a community. There are variations in accessibility to sanitation based on spatial distribution and socio-economic strata.

Many urban settings in Uganda do not have access to adequate sewerage facilities. In a Kampala slum, almost a third of the population was reported to be discarding human excreta in polythene bags and throwing them in banana plantations and rubbish pits (Wayira, 1989). Piped sewerage services are currently available to only 10 of the 11 towns covered by NWSC services. Even in these towns, it is only a small proportion of the population (approximately 10%) that has access to this service. Table 7.4 shows sewerage services connectivity.

Table 7.4 Number of Connections by City and Year for both Metered and Un-metered Piped Sewerage Connections Area Year Total 1995 1996 1997 1998 2000 Kampala 6213 5736 5342 5206 6,800 29297 Jinja 2596 2621 2624 2695 3,010 13546 Mbale 1436 1413 1343 1345 1,346 6883 Tororo 194 197 183 193 185 952 Entebbe 175 171 151 62 62 621 Lira 222 222 210 217 215 1086 Gulu 268 275 293 238 337 1411 Masaka 319 333 311 314 309 1586 Mbarara 223 211 209 217 215 1075 Kasese 0 0 0 0 0 0 Fort Portal 0 0 29 30 31 90 Total 11646 11179 10695 10517 12510 56547 Source: NWSC (2000)

Various programs have been put in place to improve the urban sanitation situation in Uganda, including the Second Water Supply Project. The Project was started in 1998 and was involved in the expansion of Kampala Sewerage coverage, and detection and repair of leakages. The Small Towns Water and Sanitation Project initiated in focused on the rehabilitation and expansion of Jinja sewerage system and low-cost sanitation facilities for Njeru Town Council. Also under the Second Water Supply Project, sewerage stabilization ponds were constructed between 1990- 1998 for Masaka Municipality. Gulu and Fort-Portal sewerage systems were worked on under the Five Urban Centers Water and Sewerage Project. Urban Water and Sanitation Project Western Uganda is installing a sewerage system for Kasese Town. After completion, it is envisaged that it will serve the projected town population till year 2005.

Other programs to improve piped water and sanitation include the Water Sector Policy Strategy, the Water Statute of 1995, and the 1998 Water Resources Regulation.

84 Solid Waste Management

Increasing urbanization, rising standards of living and rapid development associated with population growth has resulted in increased solid waste generation by industrial, domestic and other activities. Unfortunately, the increase in solid waste generation in almost all urban areas has not been accompanied by an equivalent increase in the capacity of the relevant urban authorities to deal with this environmental problem. This has as a result become one of the most pressing and challenging environmental problems in the country especially in urban centers. Poor waste management contributes to poor environmental conditions that may threaten the health and quality of life of the urban dwellers (NEMA, 1998).

Solid waste management encompasses generation, storage, collection, transportation and disposal. Urban authorities have the responsibility of ensuring safe, reliable and cost effective removal and disposal of solid waste, which takes up a large proportion of available resources. These resources, in turn, are not adequate to cope with the magnitude of the problem. It is estimated that Kampala City at present spends US $1.53 million per month to remove only 30% of the total waste generated (Ngategize, et. al, 2000).

Figure 7.3 Improper disposal of waste contributes to disease epidemics and land degradation

Currently solid waste management in urban areas is very bad, resulting in careless and indiscriminate open waste-space-dumping, which has created unsanitary conditions on streets and alleys in urban centers. Such nuisance dumps lead to unpleasant odours and are fertile ground as breeding sites for flies and other vectors. They may also result in the pollution of both surface and ground water through the leachate and impairing the permeability of soils as well as blockage of drainage systems (NEMA, 1998).

85 Urban solid waste can be classified into three main categories namely: • municipal wastes which comprise domestic waste, commercial refuse, institutional refuse, and solid wastes collected from streets and public places; • industrial wastes which consist of refuse generated from industrial operations and by the solidification of liquid and gaseous effluent; and • building construction wastes which are mainly inert wastes arising from demolition, excavation, and construction activities.

There are also special wastes generated mainly from hospitals, slaughterhouses and chemical processing plants. These wastes are regarded as hazardous or potentially toxic that requires special handling, treatment and disposal. Several institutions have installed incinerators for safely combusting these hazardous wastes.

In most urban settings in Uganda where much fresh food is prepared and consumed, the waste has high moisture content and comprises mainly of vegetable matter. In a survey carried out in Kampala City in 1990 by Environmental Resources Limited, vegetable matter constituted 73.8% of the total waste generated while non-biodegradable materials accounted for 5.6% of the waste.

Solid waste generation rates vary from one urban area to another due to factors such as economic status of the population, social habits, season of the year as well as the extent of salvage and recycling operations. In Kampala for instance, the average solid waste generation rate is estimated to be about 0.6kg Per capita per day, averaging about 900 tonnes of waste per day (KCC, 2000).

Little documentation was done in the 1970s and 1980s regarding solid waste management. However, according to available data, it is evident that in the 1970s and 1980s garbage pile-ups were not much of a big problem in Uganda as is the case in the 1990s. Whereas much of the food consumed in urban centres comprised mainly of cereals with little if any residues, in recent periods it is estimated that banana peelings, leaves and other forms of organic matter account for 70-80% of waste generated in Kampala (Ngategize, et al, 2000). Figure 7.4 shows the effect of population increase on waste generation in Kampala City between 1969 and for 2000 (KCC, 2000).

Figure 7.4 Estimated Daily Solid Waste Generation Rate for Kampala City 1969 - 2000

1000

800 900 Solid waste 600 generated (metric tonnes/day) . 400

200 368 275 198 0 1969 1980 1991 2000 Year

Source: KCC, 2000.

86 Generated waste from households and commercial facilities is usually stored in storage bins for a day or more before being transferred to communal storage bins or skips which the urban authorities provide. In Kampala City, some private waste collection agencies such as BIN-IT Services Ltd provide waste collection bins to their clients, mostly in the affluent residential areas, at a fee. Communal storage is however the most common storage method used in Kampala and other urban centers which have attained municipality status (Jinja, Mbale, Masaka, Mbarara, Kabale etc.). Garbage bins used in such urban centers have capacities ranging from 4m3 to 15m3. However, only 10% of the urban population in Kampala City enjoys this service and as a result of improper storage, there has been an increase in litter piles and in the cost of collection as well as in threats to public health. Other communal storage facilities that are also used in urban areas include stationary depots, enclosures and fixed storage bins. These are, however, not highly recommended because they enhance breeding of disease vectors due to the open nature of the containers; and they also require manual labour during collection, which brings collectors in direct contact with the disease vectors (KCC, 1994).

The biggest problem in waste management is the absence of the culture of sorting waste by type at the generation points resulting in mixing of biodegradable wastes with plastics and other environmental contaminant materials which are all later disposed of in the same landfills. Vegetable waste can be treated and processed into manure which would save the country a lot of foreign currency used in importing chemical fertilizers. The technology for processing waste into manure is lacking in all urban centers.

Collection of waste essentially involves transfer of solid wastes from the storage receptacle to the point of disposal. Manually operated (wheel carts) and motorized equipment are used in most urban centers in the country. With urban authorities only capable of collecting a small percentage of the generated waste, the remainder is usually disposed of on-site by burning, composting and burying. Collection and transportation operations constitute the biggest organizational challenge and financial burden in municipal solid waste management systems.

Box 7.1: Status of Current Technological Issues for Solid Waste Management in Uganda

The following observations are common to most municipalities in Uganda as far as technological issues for waste management are concerned:

Waste characterization There is no regular update/inventory on quantities of waste generated by source and/or category.

Water collection Collection facilities are inadequate and the few available are improperly used and are not accessible to the “informal settlements”

Water reduction There is no effort at all at waste avoidance and reduction. Although the Uganda Environmental Protection Forum (UEPF), a local NGO has initiated efforts aimed at awareness creation for waste reduction.

Recycling • The mode of disposal (aggregated waste) undermines potential for recycling. The current methods of disposal make it difficult to collect adequate volumes of waste that can justify investment in appropriate technologies. • There is no link between waste generation and potential use economic activities. • Awareness on benefits of recycling is limited, while lack of appropriate technologies limits opportunities for recycling. • Incentives for recycling are limited. • Market for recycled products is limited.

Transportation Characterized by: • Inadequacy of trucks • Irregular and unguaranteed replacements • Lack of budgetary provisions for replacements • Poor road access to peri-urban neighbours. Such areas therefore require different and adapted mode of waste transportation.

• Land filling • There are no landfills but mostly dump sites. • Dumpsites lack management to ensure proper operation. • Dumpsites are poorly sited. • There is limited technical capacity for appropriate landfill citing, design, construction, operation and post operation management. • There has hitherto been limited EIA application and no specific EIA guidelines for landfill development. • Construction of ideal sanitary landfills is expensive and unaffordable to most municipalities.

Incineration • Limited incineration is practiced – mostly by a few major hospitals for incineration of clinical wastes. • Incineration is expensive and not affordable for many municipalities.

Source: NEMA/Uganda Environment Protection Forum/Jinja Municipal Council, 1999 with support from UNIDO and UNEP.

88 Figure 7.5 A clean up session by concerned citizens. Burning of polythene which forms a big part of municipal waste releases dioxins, which are poisonous into the air

Up to late 1970s, dumping of refuse in landfills and covering them with soil to allow for rotting and decomposition was an efficient way of handling solid wastes in most urban centers since the population was still small and the nature of refuse generated which comprised mainly of agricultural-based household waste was biodegradable. The advent of polythene bags as the dominant packaging material coupled with rapid increase of urban populations has, however, rendered the hitherto simple and easy method of garbage disposal inappropriate. With the exception of Kampala City no other urban center in Uganda has an improved garbage disposal ground. Currently, most urban centers dump their waste in open sand/brick mining pits, which are common in the proximity of urban centers. Box 7.1 lists the status of current technology issues for solid waste management in Uganda.

Whereas the Public Health Act 1964 mandates urban authorities with the responsibility of waste management in urban areas, there has been a shift in recent years towards involvement of the private sector in waste management at various levels in order to increase both the efficiency and effective delivery of waste management services. The current privatization process has brought on board eleven private companies dealing with garbage collection within Kampala City as of June 2000. Other urban centers have also contracted private companies in the collection and disposal of waste (KCC, 2000). Table 7.5 shows recorded waste collection from Kampala City for the months of January and June 2000

Table 7.5 Waste collection in Kampala City January-June 2000 Activity January February March April May June Total waste (m3) 19,161 24,691 41,157 27,101 25,275 39,056 Collected (tonnes) 9,851 12,346 20,579 13,551 12,638 19,528 Private sector contribution (%) 10 29 60 45 33 59 Total waste collected,

transported and 41 57 89 60 87 54 disposed (%) Source: KCC (2000)

Private sector services in solid waste management largely involve waste brought to KCC landfill (whether funded by KCC or not) by non-KCC vehicles. On average 29,407 m3 or 14,703 tonnes of waste was collected monthly between January and June 2000. The private sector contribution to waste management has been steadily increasing over the six months, which is a good sign of the potential for privatizing waste management operations in urban centers.

Currently, there is no national waste management policy in place. However, in January, 1999, with support from UNIDO and UNEP, a draft action plan for municipal solid waste management was developed. In December 1999, the National Environment (Waste Management) Regulations, NEMA (1999) were gazetted and became operational. The solid waste management strategic plan for Mpigi and the participatory workshops held during the formulation of the plan have all advocated for a national policy on solid waste management (Ngategize, et al, 2000).

Kampala City Council (KCC), under the First Urban Project funded by the World Bank, improved one of its dumping sites (Kitezi) and also acquired more trucks and skips to enhance the storage, collection and disposal of solid waste in the City. In July 2000, Mpigi District Administration with a grant from World Bank through Municipal Development Program, Harare commissioned a study on solid waste management in the district to enable it develop a strategy on how to turn solid waste into an income generating activity (Ngategize, et al, 2000). Some industries have started to re-cycle plastics and metal. At present, data on their activities is not readily available. However, this is a good start in the handling of some of the non-biodegradable waste being produced in urban centres. Table 7.6 shows policy, legal and institutional provisions relevant to solid waste management and implementation status at municipal level.

Table 7.6 Policy, legal and institutional provisions relevant to waste management and Implementation status by municipalities Policy, Legal, and Institutional Implementation Status at Municipality Level Provisions Policy Issues • Information and up to date data on categories, The existing National Environment quantities and sources of waste not readily available. Policy framework provides for • Appropriate technologies for waste recycling, information, appropriate methods and incineration, and reduction and re-use not readily technologies to be provided to available to every municipality. stakeholders. • No national guidelines, strategy, programs and preparedness for hazardous waste management, as well as for their bulk disposal. • Guidelines, Regulations and standards for waste discharge and landfill development not yet in place.

The National Policy calls for • Most municipalities have no technical capacity for institutional strengthening through waste management and monitoring. capacity building for environment • Capacity for monitoring weak at municipal level. management and monitoring. Institutional Issues • At the municipal level, awareness to perceive solid The current environment management waste management, as a common responsibility is still framework provides for the lacking. participation of all stakeholders on • Whereas most municipalities have a department issues of environment management at responsible for waste, these are not able to fulfill their all levels. responsibilities due to poor resource allocation. • Municipal authorities do still not understand the role of NGOs in solid waste management. • Municipalities have not yet mainstreamed issues of solid waste management in their planning. Legal Issues • There is no definite resource allocation provided for The Local Governments Act 1997 solid waste management. Accounting Regulations provide a • There is limited effort at resource mobilization and framework for resource allocation in prioritization of waste management. other sectors such as health and education, but not for solid waste management • The legal framework mandates • Enforcement of existing laws is weak. municipalities and all generators of waste to be responsible for sound • There is limited awareness about the legal provisions. disposal of waste they generate. • Some of the existing laws are outdated and do not meet • The Local Governments Act 1997 the current challenges for waste management. stipulates that Local Councils are responsible for solid waste collection, while transportation is the responsibility of the Divisions. Source: NEMA/Uganda Environment Protection Forum/Jinja Municipal Council, 1999. With support from UNIDO and UNEP.

References

Byaruhanga, E.M. 2000. A paper on Human Settlements and Landuse Policy. Presented at a workshop on the Formulation of Landuse Policy for Uganda. June 8th, Fairway Hotel.

KCC (Kampala City Council).2000. Waste Collection in Kampala City, Jan-June 2000.

KCC (Kampala City Council).1994. Solid Waste Disposal-Kampala Report 1994. 91

MoFED (Ministry of Finance Planning and Economic Development). 1993. Population and Housing Census. Statistics Department.

NEMA (National Environment Management Authority).1996; 1998. State of Environment Reports for Uganda. 1996 and 1998

NEMA (National Environment Management Authority). 2000. Proceedings of the First Workshop on Landuse Policy for Uganda. Held on June8th, 2000 at Fairway Hotel.

NEMA (National Environment Management Authority). 1999. National Environment (Waste Management Regulations).

NEMA/Uganda Environment Protection Forum/Jinja Municipal Council. 1991. Proposed Action Plan for Municipal Solid Waste Management in Uganda.

NEMA/UEPF/JMC (National Environment Management Authority/Uganda Environmental Protection Forum/Jinja Municipal Council). 1999. Proceedings of workshop on Solid Waste Management. Held in Jinja, Uganda. Kampala, Uganda.

Ngategize, P. et. al. 2001. Draft Strategic Plan for Solid Waste Management for Mpigi District. Environmental Monitoring Associates (EMA) Ltd. Kampala, Uganda.

NWSC (National Water and Sewerage Corporation). 2000. Data Bank , June 2000.

NWSC (National Water and Sewerage Corporation). 1995. Summary of Investment Plan 1995-2005.

NWSC (National Water and Sewerage Corporation). 1982 (?). Rehabilitation Program 1982/83-1986/87.

Nuwagaba, 1997. Rapid Urbanisation in Uganda: An overview of land management and housing development. A paper submitted to HABITAT International for Publication.

UN(United Nations). 1992a. Agenda 21.

UN(United Nations).1992b. Habitat Agenda.

UNCHS (Habitat). 1996. An Urbanizing World, Global Report on Human Settlements.

UNPD (United Nations Population Division). 1997. Annual Populations, 1950-2050 (the 1996 Revision).

Wayira,1989

Atmosphere

The state of the atmosphere governs the viability of agriculture and the health of the human population. Atmospheric issues of concern to Ugandans are: climate change in the long-term; climate variability in the short-term; and pollution, particularly in urban areas.

Climate Change Climate change refers to the long-term change of one or more climatic elements from a previously accepted long-term mean value. One key variable is temperature. On a global scale, the earth’s temperature is rising, contributed by greenhouse gases (GHGs). Global warming is the result of the capacity of certain long-lived industrially and agriculturally generated atmospheric trace gases such as: carbon dioxide, CO2; chlorofluorocarbons, (CFCs); halons; ammonia (NH3); nitrous oxides (NOx), such as nitrogen dioxide (NO2); and tropospheric ozone (O3) which absorbs some of the terrestrial radiation (NEMA, 1996).

Although Uganda is a net sink for greenhouse gases, the country cannot ignore the potential impact of climate change. Atmospheric gases know no national boundaries; their impacts are global. On a global scale, changes in climate are expected to have major impacts on health, socio-economic development and the environment.

According to Ottichilo et al (1991), climate change is expected to have far-reaching impacts on both existing and potential development activities by affecting the bio-productive system on which most economic investments in Africa are based. The impacts of increased temperature and decreased rainfall will cause shifts in vegetation zones (UNEP, 1993) and this will be felt in the various sectors of the economy, particularly in agriculture, tourism, energy, industry and commerce (Ottichilo, et. al., 1991).

The Nairobi Declaration on Climate Change observed that African countries are more vulnerable than the industrialized countries to the effects of climate change since among others, the majority of the people still depend on agriculture for their livelihoods. Agriculture in turn depends a great deal on climatic patterns (ACTS, 1990). Furthermore, the vulnerability of Africa as a region also masks the vulnerability of certain groups within individual countries-the very poor in these 93 countries are more likely to suffer most from the economic effects of climate change. Finally, the situation of currently vulnerable social groups such as women and children is likely to worsen as a result of the economic and ecological effects of climate change. Sestini (1989) observed that many important economic and social decisions being made today are based on the erroneous assumption that past climatic data provide a reliable guide to the future. However, the environmental problems associated with the potential impact of expected climatic changes may prove to be among the major environmental problems facing a country.

Uganda has put in place the Poverty Eradication Action Plan (PEAP), which is a 20-year initiative. The success of PEAP is largely premised upon a radical transformation of the rural sector with agriculture playing a leading role in modernization. Environmental issues have been incorporated in both the PEAP and the Plan for Modernization of Agriculture (PMA). However, both plans have not put in place contingency measures to take care of the likely impacts of climate change.

Climate Variability

Climate variability is the disruption of normal climate patterns that result in either excessive rainfall totals or prolonged drought conditions. It involves sharp, short-term variations of meteorological elements compared to a long-term mean. Temperature and rainfall are the two key variables used to measure climate variability. Climate variability has had a significant impact on Uganda.

Temperatures Table 8.1 gives results of temperature analysis for four stations with reasonably good data between 1961-1999. The mean values are based on the data for the years 1961-93 and departures from this mean are given for the latest four years, that is 1996, 1997, 1998 and 1999. The anomaly series for the maximum and minimum temperature between 1961-93 for these stations indicate a general positive trend with the minimum temperature having a stepper gradient. Kabale indicated the steepest gradients.

The maximum temperature departures indicate clear positive trends for the three stations of Kabale, Mbarara and Entebbe for the years of 1996, 1997, 1998 and 1999. On the other hand all the stations indicate higher positive anomalies for the minimum temperatures for all the years from 1996 to 1999. The fairly big maximum anomalies during the years 1997 and 1998 must have been in part due to the strong El-Nino of 1997/98 while the strong positive anomalies in the minimum temperatures is in line with what is being observed over wide areas of the world.

Table 8.1: Maximum, minimum and average mean temperature and departures for 1997, 1997, 1998 and 1999 Station Maximum Temperature Minimum Temperature Average temperature Mean 1996 1997 1998 1999 Mean 1996 1997 1998 1999 Mean 1996 1997 1998 1999 Kabale 23.8 0.4 0.7 1.0 0.1 10.4 1.1 1.4 1.5 0.7 17.1 0.7 1.1 1.3 0.4 Mbarara 26.6 0.0 0.8 0.4 0.5 13.8 1.2 1.5 1.2 1.4 20.2 0.6 1.1 0.8 1.0 Entebbe 26.2 -0.4 0.8 1.4 -0.1 17.6 0.6 0.7 1.4 0.1 21.9 0.1 0.7 1.4 0.0 Jinja 28.4 -0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.4 15.9 1.0 1.5 1.5 1.4 22.1 0.2 0.5 0.6 0.5 Source: …

Rainfall Although less severe compared to the situation in the other East African countries, of late, Uganda’s rainfall has been irregular in both amount and distribution within each year (FAO, 2000). In the last thirty years, there has been at least one major drought episode each decade. There was been serious droughts in 1973/74, 1984/85, 1987, 1992-1994, and now in 1999/2000. The extent of irregularity also varies from one region to another in the country, Figure 8.1.

The rainfall analysis carried out for the years 1943-99 indicate that all regions of the country experience wide seasonal to inter-annual rainfall variations. Furthermore, the seasonal anomalies are often much wider and quite often anomalies of consecutive seasons tend to be in the opposite directions. This implies that incidences of drought/flood conditions at the seasonal level are more prevalent than on the annual scale. Regionally, incidences of drought conditions are more frequent over the northern and eastern regions and lowest in the central region (Table 8.2). The periodicity of occurrence varies from consecutive years to about 12 years over the northern region and to as long as 35 years in the central region. Furthermore, incidences of flood conditions were also found to be higher over the northern and eastern regions than over the central and western regions. Overall, this implies that rainfall variability is highest over the Northern and Eastern regions. The rainfall trends over the analysis period of 57 years varied from a weak decreasing trend over the western region to a weak increasing trend over the eastern areas. In general, there have been twice as many droughts in the thirty-year period of 1970-2000 as there were in the fifty-year period of 1920-1970 (DOM, 2000). The temperature analysis confirms continued positive temperature anomaly trend especially in the minimum temperature. The positive trends are generally highest over the western region of the country.

Aspects of climate that are of particular concern to Uganda are the amount, incidence and duration of rainfall. In some years, rainfall amounts have been below average leading to drought while in others monthly averages exceeded the long-term average values leading to excessive water supply, resulting in floods, landslides, the washing away of roads and bridges, soil erosion and the silting of dams and reservoirs. While the absolute quantity of rainfall is important of equal concern is the ability of the soils to retain moisture, which is in turn governed by potential evapo-transpiration (PET). Where PET exceeds the amount of rainfall received by an area, the soils experience moisture deficit. This has been the cause of the high incidence of recurrent drought, which has led to severe impacts, particularly in the area known as the “cattle corridor”. In 1994, drought affected 16 out of the then 39 districts in the country as a result of climate variability (NEMA, 1996).

Major impacts of persistent rainfall deficits over parts of the country have continued to be observed in total crop failure. This has led to food relief flowing into some parts of Uganda (DMC, 2000). The droughts have also contributed to increased conflicts as a result of disputes over grazing belts while there is continued death of livestock due to hunger, thirst and disease (FAO, 2000).

The severity and widespread occurrence of desertification was formally recognized for the first time in 1977 at the United Nations Conference on Desertification. The UNCOD meeting conceived the Plan of Action to Combat Desertification (PACD) which was pursed between 1979 and 1991 (DMC, 2000). Uganda is a party to the Convention on Desertification, which emphasizes the importance of action by local people and communities in combating desertification and mitigating the effects of drought. With Uganda’s limited capacity in

95 forecasting and drought assessment, it is difficult to report on any successes so far. Drought is perhaps unique in its impact upon agricultural systems because of its duration. Whereas farmers have to some extent learnt to cope with late rains or with mid-season cessation of the rains, or even with localized flood, the fact that drought often extends over several seasons makes it particularly damaging (FAO, 2000).

Table 8.2 Records of regional dry and wet years between 1943 to 1999

Years South western Central Eastern Central northern 1943 D VD D D 1946 W 1949 D D D D 1951 VW VW VW W 1952 D D 1953 D D D D 1954 D D 1957 D D 1961 W VW VW VW 1963 VW VW VW W 1965 D D D D 1967 W W 1972 W 1973 VD D D 1974 D D 1975 W 1977 W W W 1978 VW W W 1979 D D D D D 1980 D D 1981 VD 1982 W VW 1983 VD 1984 D D D D 1985 D D VD 1986 VD D D VD 1987 VD 1988 VW 1989 D D 1991 VW 1992 D D D D 1993 D D D D 1994 W 1997 W D D 1998 W W 1999 VD Summary D 6489 VD 3222 W 4257 VD 2443

Key: D Dry W Wet VD Very dry VW Very wet

Figure 8.1 Mean Annual Rainfall

97 Apart from the well-known cyclical nature of drought, there is some evidence of increasing climatic instability in Uganda. Above average rainfall periods at certain times are triggered by the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and others by the climatic disturbance associated with La Nina. The very strong ENSO warmth episode in the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean contributed to the 1997 global mean surface temperature anomaly of 0.43oC above the 1961- 1990 base period average (NEMA, 1999). Temperatures in the tropical belt (30oS-30oN) were the second highest in historical record.

During the October to December rainy season of 1997, record rainfall, averaging five to ten times more than normal, was observed resulting in disastrous flooding. This caused displacement of people, loss of life and property, and extensive damage to infrastructure.

The strongest El Niño event occurred in 1982/83. Related events can now be detected and forecast mainly as a result of research conducted under the Tropical Ocean and Global Atmosphere (TOGA) Program of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) which issues monthly statements (El Niño up date) to ensure that the most effective and accurate information is made available in a timely manner to all concerned with a view to reducing the often tragic social and economic impacts that the phenomenon causes.

Monitoring of weather conditions should be an important activity for an agricultural country such as Uganda. Case studies and examples elsewhere have clearly shown how utilization of meteorological forecasts in agriculture and water resource management can ameliorate or mitigate impacts of droughts.

In Uganda, the responsibility of weather forecasting has been given to the Department of Meteorology (DOM). In order to carry out this mandate, DOM operates several types of observing stations including: 12 twenty four hour weather monitoring stations; over 200 rainfall stations and a number of climatologically stations located in various application institutions such as farms, forest stations, hydrological and water stations among others.

Atmospheric Pollution

According to UNEP (1999), atmospheric pollution has emerged as a problem in most African countries only in the past few decades. The impact and severity of atmospheric pollution are still largely unknown, although it is believed that vegetation, soils and water in some areas have been adversely affected. In Uganda, the main sources of atmospheric pollution are bushfires, vehicle emissions, industry and mining. Major industrial sources include diesel power generators, ferro- alloy works, steel works, foundries and cement plants.

According to the World Bank (1992), for Africa, if the projected growth of demand for vehicular transport is to be met with current technologies, emissions from vehicles is expected to increase fivefold by the year 2003. Furthermore, the use of leaded fuel in vehicles is also of major concern (World Bank, 1995). Africa’s ageing vehicles, most of which are more than 15 years old, further aggravate lead pollution. These older vehicles are estimated to emit five times more hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide, and four times more nitrogen oxides than new ones.

Lead is particularly hazardous to human health, and cars that still rely on leaded gasoline account for up to 95% of air borne lead pollution in a city like Kampala (World Resources, 1996). Residents of areas with high levels of traffic generally have a much higher level of Lead in their 98 blood than those exposed to less traffic. Lead can adversely affect blood and the human nervous system (UNEP/GEMS, 1991). The commonly early toxic effect of lead is anemia. Higher levels of lead in blood, due to long-term exposure can lead to brain dysfunctions, acute or chronic encephalopathy, and kidney damage. It causes elevated blood pressure and resulting hypertension, heart attacks, and premature deaths in adults. In children, it impairs brain development. Children are particularly susceptible to the dangers of lead because of their relative higher rates of intake (World Resources, 1998).

In 1971, Uganda had 44,510 vehicles on the road. By 1999, the number of vehicles had increased to 186,244, a fourfold increase in less than 30 years (Figure 8.2). Uganda’s total petroleum consumption on the other hand, decreased from 536,610 m3 in 1970 to 192,269 m3 by 1982 and then increased to 503,083 m3 in 1999 (Figure 8.3). Ugandans still use leaded petrol.

At a national workshop on the incremental costs of Greenhouse Gas Mitigation in Kampala’s transport sector held in 1996, a number of factors were identified as causes of increased fuel consumption due to traffic congestion. The factors were: poor land management policies; lack of awareness; and limited road furniture (traffic and road signs, warnings and signals). Incremental fuel consumption due to congestion was estimated at 10% of total fuel consumption.

Figure 8.2 Number of Registered Vehicles over the period 1971 – 1999

200 180 160 140 120 Total vehicles 100 (thousands) 80 60 40 20 0 1971 1974 1977 1980 1983 1986 1989 1992 1995 1998 Period (years)

Source: Ministry of Works, Housing and Communication

99 600000

500000

400000 Amount 300000 (m3) 200000

100000

0 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 Year

Total consumption Diesel Fuel oil Aviation gas Kerosene Petrol

Figure 8.3 Consumption of Petroleum Products, 1970-1999 Source: MEM, 2000

The main issues related to atmospheric pollution in Uganda are: • inefficient utilization of fuels; • poorly planned modes of transport; • poorly serviced motor vehicles; • inefficient cook-stoves and fireplaces; • rudimentary kilns and stoves in industries; • charcoal production; • widespread bush burning.

While in 1994 an attempt was made to estimate the magnitude of greenhouse gases emitted in Uganda, generally the country does not have adequate atmospheric pollution monitoring stations rendering it impossible to monitor both current and background GHG/CFC emissions. Nonetheless, some positive steps have been taken to address atmospheric pollution, including being a signatory to, and ratifying, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and carrying out some Activity Implemented Jointly (AIJ) projects. Air quality standards have also been formulated. The preliminary recommendation is shown in Table 8.3.

100 101

Table 8.3 Proposed Environmental Air Quality Standards for Uganda Pollutant TWA STEL ppm mgm-3 ppm mgm-3 Ammonia 25 18 35 27

Carbon-dioxide (CO2) 500 900 15000 27000 Carbon-monoxide (CO) 30 200

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) 3 6 5 10

Nitrous oxide (N2O) 25 45

Ozone (O3) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.6

Sulphur dioxide (SO2) 2 5 5 10 Particulates (inert dust) 10 (total) 5 (resp) Particulates (nuisance) 10 (total) 5 (resp) Particulates (respirable) 10 (total) 5 (resp) TWA-Time Weighted Average STEL - Source: NEMA (2000)

References

ACTS (African Center for Technology Studies). 1990. The Nairobi Declaration on Climate Change. International Conference on Global Warming and Climate Change: African Perspectives, May 2-4, 1990. Nairobi, Kenya.

DMC (Drought Monitoring Center). 2000. DEKAD 19 report (1-10 July, 2000) ten-day Bulletin. No. DMCN/01/337/19/07/2000. Nairobi, Kenya.

DOM (Department of Meteorology). 2000. Meteorological Sector in the Poverty Alleviation Fund (PAF). Ministry of Water, Lands and Environment. Kampala, Uganda.

FAO (United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization). 2000. ACC Inter-Agency Taskforce on the UN Response to Long-term Food Security, Agricultural Development and related Aspects in the Horn of Africa. FAO, Rome.

Magezi, S.A.K. 2000. The role of meteorology in environment management. Department of Meteorology, Ministry of Water, Lands and Environment. Kampala, Uganda.

Ministry of Energy and Minerals (MEM) 2000. Ministry Records

MNR (Ministry of Natural Resources). 1994. Sources and Sinks of Greenhouse Gases in Uganda. UNEP/GEF Sponsored Project. Kampala, Uganda.

MNR (Ministry of Natural Resources). 1995. State of the Environment Report for Uganda, 1994. National Environment Information Centre (NEIC). Kampala, Uganda.

NEMA (National Environment management Authority). 1999. State of the Environment Report for Uganda. 1998. Kampala, Uganda.

NEMA (National Environment management Authority). 1997. State of the Environment Report for Uganda 1996. Kampala. Uganda.

Ottichilo, W.K. et al. 1991. Weathering the Storm-Climate Change and Investment in Kenya. ACTS. Nairobi, Kenya.

Sestini, G. et al. 1989. Implications of Expected Climatic Changes in the Mediterranean Region: An Overview. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 103. 102

UNEP (United Nations Environment Program). 1999. Global Environment Outlook 2000. UNEP’s Millenium Report on the Environment. Nairobi, Kenya.

UNEP (United Nations Environment Program). 1993. The Impact of Climate Change. Nairobi, Kenya.

World Bank, (WB). 1995. Middle East and North Africa: Environmental Strategy Towards Sustainable Development. Report No. 13601-MNA. Washington, D.C. USA.

World Bank, (WB). 1992. Development and Environment, World Development Report. Oxford University Press, Oxford, United Kingdom, and New York, USA.

UNEP/GEMS Environment Library, 1991. Urban Air Pollution, Pp. 29-31

World Resources, 1998. A guide to the global environment, Pp. 271

World Resources, 1998. A guide to the global environment, Pp. 22

UNEP, Global Environment Outlook.

103

Human Health and Environment

The environment is a complex system comprising biophysical, economic and social components. With increasing concern for the environment, there is now an acceptance of the strong link between environmental quality and the health status of the human population living in an area. Environmental health is that aspect of public health concerned with all factors, circumstances and conditions in the environment that can exert influence on human health and well-being (MNR, 1995). Poor living and working conditions expose people to physical, chemical and biological pollution, and to adverse psychological and social factors that may harm their health. Also, people through their endeavour to survive do influence the environment, often quite negatively. The survival coping mechanisms then further contribute to the deterioration of environmental quality. Improving the quality of life and human capital of the poor is as important as increasing the incomes they earn and material assets they acquire (MFPED, 2000). As the PEAP recognizes, the provision of basic services to the poor particularly healthcare, safe water supply and education, are basic requirements for poverty eradication (MFPED, 2000). What happens to the environment, finally, is crucial to the sustainability of poverty reduction and the quality of life of future generations.

A number of environmental factors influence the health of Ugandans, which makes it difficult to isolate which of them are responsible for causes of particular illnesses or even death. Compounding the problem is the unreliability of statistics of diseases arising from the failure of many sick people to seek treatment from hospitals.

The main causes of mortality and morbidity are environmental in nature since they are caused by living and non-living agents in the environment, poor sanitation and hygiene, and poor feeding habits. It is, therefore, not surprising that malaria, diarrhoea and malnutrition are among the ten top causes of mortality in Uganda (NEMA, 1994). According to the Uganda Bureau of Statistics, lack of access to health care has been identified as one of the hindrances to good health (UBOS, 2000). The average distance to any heath facility is 5 km. The distance is shortest for clinics (3km) and drug shops (2 km) and longest for hospital (9km) (Table 9.1). There has been a proliferation of health clinics in the country. This may partly explain why those seeking medical

104 care prefer either self-treatment (using drug shops) or visit private clinics (because they are nearest to their The data show that in terms of access, rural areas where the majority of the poor live is disadvantaged. Regional disparities indicate that rural dwellers still travel long distances to health facilities. In all the regions, clinics and drug shops are the most easily accessible sources of assistance in case of an illness or injury.

Table 9.1 Average Distance (Km) to a Health Facility (1999/2000) Locality Total Rural Urban average Total 5 2 3.5 Hospital 10 4 7.0 Clinic 3 1 2.0 Dispensary 4 2 3.0 Health Center 5 4 4.5 Drug shop 2 0.5 1.2 Traditional doctor 4 - Source:UBOS, 2000

The geographical distribution of health personnel, just like the health units, does not reflect actual needs. However, concerted efforts are being made to reverse this situation especially through the involvement of NGOs and other community based organizations (CBOs) (MFEP, 1995). Government provided a significant increase in resources for primary health care by 276% in 1997/98-1998/99 (MFPED, 2000) from U.Shs 1.7 billion to 6.4 billion. Over the same period grants to NGO hospitals increased by 90% (from U.Shs 1.0 billion – 1.9 billion). Despite the fact that it is not easy to determine the impact of such increased funding, more health units, however have been made operational with realization of increased staffing levels and equipping of these units. In spite of this slight improvement low levels of staffing still prevails in the health sector; where by 1998 only 36% of staff positions were filled by qualified staff.

The broadest indicators which measure human health i.e. life expectancy at birth and mortality among children under 5 years and infants under 1 year have registered a lot of improvement following the economic, political and social problems of the 1970s and early 1980s. Incidences of death from the most common immunizable diseases (measles, tetanus, tuberculosis, whooping cough, diphtheria and poliomyelitis) have reduced greatly since the 1980s, due to increased awareness raised by Ministry of Health. Health programs implemented by the government through various institutions, such as the Population Secretariat, UNFPA and Uganda Community-Based Health Care (UCBHC) have registered some positive trends such as a reduction in infant mortality rate from 122 per 1000 in 1987 to 97 per 1,000 in 1995 and an increase in full immunization from 31% in 1987 to 47% in 1995 and 101 in 1998. This was probably due to overall poor turn-up for immunization and a reduction in total fertility rate from 7.3 in 1987 to 6.9 in 1995 to 6.5 in 1998 (World Bank, 2000) and slightly more than 50% by 1990.

Despite these improvements, Ugandans in general are still exposed to a number of environmental factors that influence their health. Disease prevalence is a good indicator of the state of affairs where environmental health in a community (NEMA, 1998).

105 Diseases Prevalence

There have been structural shifts among the top ten causes of in-patient mortality over the last twenty years. Malaria still contributes for the largest number of under-five in-patient deaths at 21.4% followed by measles at 9.9%, diarrhoea at 8.2%, pneumonia at 7.5% and AIDS 5.1%. Other causes accounted for 47.9% of the deaths (NEMA, 1996). In discussing disease prevalence, only those closely linked to environmental conditions are focused upon. These are: diarrhoea, respiratory diseases, cholera, intestinal worms, malaria and malnutrition. Trends in the prevalence of these diseases is shown in Table 9.2.

Table 9.2 Trends in the Number of Recorded Cases of Major Diseases in Uganda 1991-1998 Type of 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1997 1998 1999 2000 disease

Diarrhoea 896,066 749,962 456,459 539,885 367,203 571,436 317,286 388,570 400,510 Lower 606,078 587,910 354,153 1,198,866 828,072 1,122,826 891,109 562,633 545,375 Respiratory

Upper 1,571,471 1,418,113 937,921 526,634 598,452 646,750 426,691 1,239,642 1,269,700 Respiratory Cholera n.a n.a n.a 536 1,784 1,172 15,817 Intestinal 1,005,006 986,297 634,268 735,783 531,054 720,478 588,408 784,708 775,455 worms Malaria 2,708,118 2,446,659 1,470,662 2,230,402 1,444,352 2,254,868 2,157,066 2,923,620 3,314,857 Malnutrition 114,206 123,045 60,651 81,360 66,699 63,302 55,050 Note: 1996 Statistics not available; n.a-not available. Source: MOH (1998, 2000)

Health sector spending has been low and biased towards curative compared to preventive services. Expenditure on health care for rural areas, from both public and private sectors, is only US$ 4.15 Per capita per year, which is about 50% of the bare minimum level (of about US$ 9) necessary for proper care. There is also regional variation in the per capita expenditure as well as between the rural and urban populations as shown in Table 9.3 (NEMA, 1998). Whereas national average per capita expenditure on health care was at US $6.5 in 1996, by 1998 it was at US $14 (World Bank, 2000). The overall average total expenditure during 1990-1998 period was at 4.7% of GDP (World Bank, 2000).

Table 9.3 Average Per capita Expenditure on Health Care Region Average Per capita Expenditure (US $) Rural Urban Western 5.26 7.59 Eastern 3.53 4.38 Central 4.99 10.64 Northern 2.35 5.30 Average 4.15 8.77 Source: MOH (1996)

Malaria is one of the most serious public health and environmental problems in the developing world and it is endemic in 102 countries including Uganda. It is the overall leading cause of death in the country being responsible for 17.9% of all deaths in health units. Up to 30% of all deaths among the 2-4 year old age group in health units are caused by malaria. Among Ugandans, over-diagnosing of malaria and self-medication have led to drug resistant strains of the disease which has compounded the situation. Environmental degradation such as 106 deforestation and draining of swamps in high altitude areas of Uganda has contributed to increases in temperatures and the spread of malaria to areas which were free from it in the 1960s. Unhygienic conditions such as bush and crops grown in compounds, and stagnant water, are fertile breeding places for the mosquitoes, which transmit malaria. All the four species of plasmodia, which are responsible for the transmission of human malaria, have been identified in Uganda. The most prevalent is Plasmodium falciparum, which accounts for more than 90% of malaria infections in the country (NEMA, 1994).

Low levels of awareness, lack of adequate public health services and lack of resources at the household level are contributory factors to the increasing impact of malaria on the Ugandan society. The increasing resistance of malaria parasites to first line drugs, poor vector control, poor case management, and virtual absence of specific malaria control program in the country have also contributed to prevalence of the disease and its spread. The medically treated mosquito nets which are being imported into Uganda are priced at a level far beyond the means of the majority of Ugandans despite a waiver in tax on them instituted by the Government.

Diarrhoea is another of the leading causes of death in infants with the highest rates in the one and two-year age bracket. This is the time when they begin to crawl and walk and have a tendency to put many things in their mouths. Most diarrhoea is caused by bacterial, viral and parasitic infestations transmitted through water, food and contact with feacal matter. Diarrhoea and vomiting are more common in rural villages, possibly due to lower access to safe water and sanitation. The level of literacy of the mothers and, therefore, the ability to understand the causes and management of diarrhoea is a crucial determinant of the occurrence of the disease and its severity. The Ministry of Health has been promoting a number of public awareness programs to bring down the rate of diarrhoea occurrence. These have focused on promotion of good oral hygiene including washing of hands after visiting the toilet and before handling and eating food, provision of good storage of clean drinking water and use of oral rehydration salts (ORS) in managing cases of hydration due to excessive diarrhoea. The long-term strategy, however, lies in the provision of safe water supply, good sanitation and hygiene.

Malnutrition ranks among the top ten killers in Uganda. About 2% of the deaths in children under 5 years of age are due to nutritionally-related causes. The most common malnutrition diseases among the under fives in Uganda are kwashiorkor, marasmus, stunted growth and under weight. Prevalence of child malnutrition among under-5s (weight for age) by 1998 was rated an average of 26% (World Bank, 2000). Malnutrition can lower a child’s immunity, making it more susceptible to diseases such as diarrhoea, measles and respiratory infections.

According to the Uganda Demographic Health Survey (UDHS 1995) carried out in 1995, 43% of children below 5 years of age were found to be stunted as a result of malnutrition the second highest in sub-Saharan Africa. By 1998, however, stunted growth among the under-5s was at an average of 38% (height for age) (World Bank, 2000). Stunting is more prevalent among rural children than urban ones. About 16% of rural children are severely stunted, compared to 8% in urban areas. Stunted growth reflects chronic under-nutrition, while wasting reflects acute under- nutrition, and under-weight reflects either chronic or acute under-nutrition.

There are regional differences in the proportion of chronically undernourished children. The proportion of stunted children is highest in western (43%) and northern (42%) regions and lowest (34%) in central region. Maternal under-nourishment can lead to anemia during pregnancy with its attendant problems, which may include abortion, stillbirth, premature births and low birth 107 rates. Prevalence of anaemia in pregnant mothers in the 1985-1999 period is rated at an average of 30% (World Bank, 2000).

The nutritional status of Ugandans is also affected by cultural practices, lack of knowledge on proper nutrition, large family sizes, low incomes, lack of proper food processing and storage facilities, a poor distribution and marketing system, poor agricultural practices and poor transport systems. The rates of malnutrition countrywide have however, been subject to seasonal variations, falling to the lowest levels prior to the harvest season and improving after harvest. The present consumption in the country shows that the daily average intake of calories is about 2400gm while that for protein and fat is 50 gm and 19gm, respectively. This puts the national calorie intake at 99% of the sub-Saharan African minimum requirements. Protein and fat intake (national averages) are 87% of 94% respectively of the FAO recommended minimum intake levels (NEMA, 1998).

Cholera although not a common disease country wide, has nevertheless become a health hazard as a result of environmental deterioration in some parts of the country. Serious outbreaks of cholera epidemic were recorded in Karamoja (1973-1980); Kasese (1978-84); Kampala (1985); Kasese (1991) and Kampala and other parts of the country following the 1997/98 El Nino rains when many of people died. Cholera’s mode of spread is through contaminated water and food. It spreads rapidly in heavily populated communities with poor sanitation and unsafe drinking water. Children are particularly susceptible to the disease.

Acute Respiratory Infection (ARI) is the third commonest cause of infant death, responsible for approximately 8.2% of all recorded deaths. The main causes of ARI include poor ventilation and overcrowding in homes, smoke and substances, which cause allergies. Combustion of wood fuels in homes emits gases like sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, polyaromatic and hydromatic hydrocarbons all of which have adverse effects on human health including impairment of mental functions, cardiovascular diseases and other lung diseases. These gaseous emissions aggravate respiratory diseases such as asthma, chronic bronchitis and emphysema.

Rural areas and slums in urban areas are the most affected by this disease due to poorly built houses, which lack ventilation. The gases emitted by the burning of wood fuel affects mainly women and children who spend long hours in smoky kitchen conditions during food preparation (NEMA, 1996).

There have been a number of responses aimed at reducing the incidence of these diseases. The National Health Policy was published in 1988 within the framework of the International Primary Health Care (PHC) Alma-Ata declaration of 1978. The PHC strategy seeks to integrate health development into overall national development through equitable access of all individuals to health facilities. The strategy also encourages the participation of individuals and communities in the decision making, planning and implementation of activities aimed at improving their health; participation of all concerned sectoral institutions; and application of appropriate technologies most suitable for the communities. Implementation of this strategy has however been constrained by lack of funding and staffing.

Most of the killer diseases of Ugandan children are preventable. The Ministry of Health has, through the Uganda National Expanded Program for Immunization (UNEPI), carried out immunization of children against the main killer diseases, namely: tuberculosis, polio, measles,

108 whooping cough, tetanus and diphtheria. Table 9.4 shows immunization coverage for children and mothers between 1991-1997.

According to UDHS (1995), 47% of children aged 12-23 months were vaccinated. They received BCG, measles and three doses of DPT and polio. Only 14% of the children were not vaccinated while 39% received incomplete doses.

Table 9.4 Immunization Coverage in Uganda 1991-1997 (percent) Vaccine 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 BCG 100 98 100 98 96 102 87 76 76 DPT3 77 71 73 79 74 72 63 51 50 Polio 3 77 70 74 78 78 71 93 52 51 Measles 74 68 73 79 82 70 61 53 52 TT (Preg.) 99 83 84 76 72 58 47 48 38 TT(non-Preg.) 22 16 16 16 13 10 8 Source: UNEPI (1998), MFPED, 2000

As part of the interventions towards the goal set by the World Health Assembly (1988) to eradicate poliomyelitis, four National Immunization Days (NIDS) have been held annually since 1996 with the main objective of eliminating polio infection among Ugandan children. Out of an estimated 3,994,070 children under five years of age, a total of 3,754,420 (94%) were immunized during the second NIDs held in December 1997, Comparing figures for 1996, 1997 and the first round of 1998 shows a steady increase in most districts except Mbarara, Bushenyi and Mubende which experienced declines in coverage due to sabotage, misinformation and lack of adequate awareness (NEMA, 1998).

Government has prepared a new Health Policy white paper and a National Health Framework for the period 1998-2002. Proposed interventions will focus on malaria control and prevention; childhood immunization; safe water and environmental sanitation; nutrition; safe motherhood and infancy; control of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) including HIV/AIDS; school health programs; and capacity building for Primary Health Care (PHC) delivery. According to the White Paper, the three-year health plan framework objectives include: • consolidating existing services such as rehabilitation and equipping of health facilities, improving manpower both in quantity and quality and improving supplies to health facilities; and • re-orienting towards primary health care to include maternal and child health by increasing accessibility to antenatal care, safe delivery, family planning and immunization of children against the major killer diseases, nutrition, provision of safe water and sanitation, health education and communicable disease control.

Within the health sector, the strategy of the PEAP is to shift resources in favour of rural areas where many of the poor live; to emphasize primary health care (PHC); and to bring the services close to the people (MFPED, 2000). In this context PHC was defined to include: both preventive measures such as vaccination and health education, sanitation measures, control of infectious diseases; research; and basic curative services (MFPED, 2000). Table 9.5 presents health targets for Uganda by the year 2002.

109

Table 9.5 Health Targets by 2002 Indicator Health Target Latest Estimate (1995) Infant mortality 78 per 1000 live births 97 per 1000 live births Under five mortality 118 per 1000 147 per 1000 Maternal mortality rate 400 per 100000 506 per 100000 Infants (12 – 13 months) 60 percent 47 percent fully immunized

Acute malnutrition under 3 percent 5 percent 5 years Contraceptive prevalence 30 percent 15 percent (all methods) 9 rate percent (modern) Total fertility rate 6.5 6.9

Source: MFPED (1999).

References

MFPED (Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development). 2000. Uganda Poverty Status Report 1999. Kampala, Uganda.

______1995. The 1991 Population and Housing Census Analytical Reports Vol. 1, 2 and 3.

MOH (Ministry of Health) 1992. Uganda Health Bulletin. A ministry of Health Journal. Vol. 1 No. 1 July-Sept. 1991 p.16.

MOH (Ministry of Health) 1996. Uganda Health Inventory.

NEMA (National Environment Management Authority) 1994. State of Environment Report for Uganda 1994.

NEMA (National Environment Management Authority) 1996. State of Environment Report for Uganda 1996.

NEMA (National Environment Management Authority) 1998. State of Environment Report for Uganda 1998.

MFPED, 2000. Background to the Budget, 1999/2000.

World Bank, 2000. World Development Indicators.

110

Environmental Disasters

A disaster is an occurrence of a sudden or major misfortune, which disrupts the basic fabric and normal functioning of a society (or community). It also refers to an event or series of events which gives rise to causalities and/or damage or loss of property, infrastructure, essential services or means of livelihood on a scale which is beyond the normal capacity of the affected communities to cope with unaided. Disaster can also be a description of a catastrophic situation in which the normal patterns of life (or ecosystem) have been disrupted and extraordinary, emergency interventions are required to save and preserve human lives and/or the environment (MDPR, 1999). This report looks at some disasters, which have had an impact on the environment during the last three decades. In particular, the section addresses four disasters Uganda has been or is experiencing, namely: wars and conflicts, droughts, floods and landslides, and HIV/AIDS.

Drought

Drought results from climatic changes. Some of these changes such as those which cause deforestation, wetlands reclamation, poor agricultural practices which encourage excessive soil moisture loss and green house gas effects are human induced. As a result, drought, which have contributed to crop failures, famine and food shortages have become frequent events in the north and north-eastern parts of the country. The most recent episode is the 1993/94 famine which affected over 1.8 million people in sixteen districts (MDPR, 1999).

Droughts and the resultant famine situations compound poverty among the peasants, incapacitating the communities from participating in economic development, lowering the nutritional status which results in increased illness and death, and contributing to loss of livestock and even migration. There have been many events of droughts and corresponding famine reported in several regions of Uganda and it is foreseeable that this will be a recurring event in these regions. It is during periods of drought or famine that the natural biological resources of Uganda are most under pressure.

111 Government has undertaken the construction of valley dams and tanks in areas called the cattle corridor to ensure that livestock have adequate water all year round. Under the Uganda Water Action Plan, Government is to increase the coverage of people with access to safe water both in the rural and urban areas and to improve sanitation as well. The Plan for Modernization of Agriculture Pilot Irrigation Schemes are going to be promoted by the National Agricultural Research Organization (NARO) and the Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries (MAAIF). Another initiative is the growing of fast maturing food crop varieties, which do well under the current low rainfall patterns in the affected parts of the country.

Floods and Landslides

In the north and eastern parts of Uganda, and especially along the shores of Lake Kyoga, floods occur during periods of intense rainfall. Floods build up slowly and are usually seasonal. They cause physical damage by washing away structures, crops and even animals. Casualties and death may occur from drowning. Floods are usually followed by outbreaks of water-borne diseases such as malaria, diarrhoea and viral infections. Floods also contaminate wells and ground water leading to the scarcity of clean water and a possible outbreak of cholera (MDPR, 1999).

In equatorial East Africa, during the October to December rainy season of 1997, record rainfall (in many areas averaging 5 to 10 times above normal) was observed. This was linked to the El Nino phenomenon. Throughout the region, repetitive and heavy rainfall resulted in disastrous flooding, causing mass migration of people and considerable destruction of property. In Uganda, out-breaks of water-borne and water-related diseases, in particular cholera and malaria, respectively, led to the death of many people in most districts. An estimated 525 people died and another 11,000 were hospitalized and treated for cholera, triggered by El-Nino induced floods and land slides which occurred between October 1997 and January 1998. About 1,000 people are reported to have died in flood related accidents, while 150,000 were displaced from their homes.

Trunk and rural feeder roads were considerably damaged. Repair and replacement costs were estimated at Ushs. 400 million. Many roads became impassable and 40% of the nationwide 9,600 km trunk road network and various feeder roads were damaged beyond use. In the mountainous districts of Mbale and Kapchorwa, the damage was very high. Land slides caused heavy casualties including burying people alive, destroying crops, schools and the road network. In western Uganda, tea harvesting was made difficult leading to a reduction of tea output by two million kg in 1997/98. The country as a whole suffered a 60% drop in coffee exports in the months of October and November 1997 (NEMA, 1998).

Studies have shown that the major El-Nino events of this century have occurred fairly regularly, with the strongest one in 1982/83. El-Nino events can now be detected and forecast, mainly as a result of research conducted under the Tropical Ocean and Global Atmosphere (TOGA) Program of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Government is also building capacity in the Meteorological Department to enable it to provide accurate information in a timely manner to all Ugandans so as to reduce or avoid the often tragic socio-economic impact of floods. Under the National Disaster Preparedness and Management Policy Framework being prepared by the Ministry of Disaster Preparedness and Refugees, it is proposed that a Flood Detection and Warning System be developed in a participatory manner involving all stakeholder groups. It is

112 also proposed that a Master Plan for Flood Plain Management be developed by the relevant organs (MDPR, 1999).

HIV/AIDS

Uganda is among the first African countries to acknowledge the existence of HIV/AIDS and its socio-economic impact on the development of the country. H.E the President has continued to champion the fight against HVI/AIDS both at local and international for a (Box 10.1). The prevailing high incidence of HIV/AIDS has aggravated morbidity and mortality among adults and children under five years. Currently, it is estimated that over 1.5 million Ugandans are infected with HIV, while 350,000 have full-blown AIDS. There are however marked variations between districts. The central region has the highest number of AIDS cases and prevalence.

Box 10.1: President Yoweri Museveni warns leaders over laxity on AIDS

President Yoweri Museveni while addressing an HIV/AIDS conference in Addis Ababa called on the region’s leaders in Africa to educate their people about the disease and also pool resources to invest in developing and manufacturing drugs to treat AIDS patients. He went on to say that it’s us (Africans) to play the major role in fighting HIV/AIDS, and that this will be effective if efforts are joined (combined).

UN Secretary General, Koffi Annan, in response called for an all out war against the AIDS epidemic in Africa. Continent leaders should or must put this as their first priority. There has generally been a slow response worldwide to the epidemic hence this has killed about 15 million people in the sub-Saharan Africa and infected another 25 million.

Though Uganda is widely seen as one of the most successful countries in fighting AIDS, too many Africans sit back and wait for the outside world to solve their problems. UN Secretary General added, that apart from the enormous cost in lives, AIDS is now seen as a major obstacle in tackling poverty across the developing world and this poses a threat to its political stability. But he insisted that there was still time to halt and even reverse its continued spread.

Source: The New Vision 18 December 2000.

The Uganda AIDS Commission had by December 1997 recorded 490,432 clinical adult cases which was thought to be only about one sixth (approx. 17%) of the actual number of clinical cases due to under-reporting and poor diagnosis. Of these, 260,104 (54%) were female. AIDS is one of the leading causes of death among the adult population in Uganda and it has increased the prevalence of karposis sarcoma, pneumonia and meningitis and exacerbated tuberculosis which had hitherto been controlled (NEMA, 1998).

Government formulated a new Health Policy White Paper and a National Health Plan Framework for the period 1998-2002 to guide interventions by focusing on priority areas including control of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and HIV/AIDS. The formation of Uganda AIDS Commission by Government is a clear indication of its commitment to the control of the AIDS epidemic. A number of non-governmental organizations such as TASO have been started to supplement government efforts in controlling the spread of this pandemic.

The HIV surveillance report from various districts in Uganda indicates a decline in HIV trends since 1992. In the major urban areas where this trend has been observed since 1992, antenatal prevalence rates in Nsambya and Rubaga for example have continued to decline from 13.4% and 113 14.2% in 1998 to 12.4% and 10.5%, respectively in 1999 (Figure 10.1). In Jinja and Mbarara sentinel sites, the rates have remained relatively stable between1998 and 1999 while clear declines were recorded in both Mbale and Tororo sentinel sites. The declines in all these situations continue to be most significant in the young age groups of 15 to 24 years.

In the more rural areas where trends have in the past exhibited a mixed pattern of stabilization and decline, prevalence rates now appear to be in a clear downward trend. Antenatal prevalence rates for example in Matany and Mutolere sentinel sites have steadily declined from 2.8% and 4.2% in 1993 to 0.9% and 2.3%, respectively in 1999. Similar observations were made in Lacor Hospital, Gulu, in northern Uganda where trends have fallen from 27.1% in 1993 to 12.3% in 1999. These declines have again been most notable among the young age cohorts. The overall trend is that HIV infection rates peaked in 1992 and have been in decline ever since. Figure 10.2 further illustrates the decline in HIV infection rates. The cumulative curve is leveling off, while records of new infections are on the decline.

Figure 10.1 HIV Infection Rates among Antenatal Care (ANC) Attendees at Selected Hospitals

20 Rates (%) 15

0 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 Period (Years)

Nsambya Rubaga Mbarara Jinja Tororo Mbale

Source: MOH (2000)

In spite of the observed dent in the HIV/AIDS epidemic, it is important to note that the HIV infection rates are still unacceptably high. Clearly, this points to the need for continued concerted efforts to sustain and improve the existing AIDS prevention and control initiatives. The program needs to sustain the achievements of the high levels of awareness and knowledge and ensure that they transform into higher levels of behavioural change.

114 Figure 10.2: AIDS Cases at Selected Ante-Natal Clinics 1983-99

60,000

50,000

40,000

Cases 30,000

20,000

10,000

0 1983 1985/86 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 Period (year)

Cummulative New cases

Source:MOH (2000)

Wars and Conflicts

Wars and conflicts are classified as “human-made disasters” because the principal, direct cause(s) are identifiable human actions, deliberate or otherwise. Human-made disasters can be of the rapid or slow onset types and in the case of internal conflict, can lead to “complex emergencies” as well.

The civil war of Mengo in 1966 when the Central Government fought with the Kabaka of Buganda falls under this category. Buganda kingdom wanted to secede from the rest of Uganda due to the political differences at the time. Although this war was confined to the central region of the country, its impact spilled over to other regions as a result of mass movement of people from the war zone to other areas where they placed more pressure on the existing infrastructure and natural resources. This war culminated in the abolition of kingdoms in the country and the takeover by central government of assets of the kingdoms, which included Forest Reserves. This placed a lot of pressure on the Forest Department, which was already under-staffed to effectively manage central government forests. Although no documentation of this impact can be traced, the transformation of hitherto Local Forest Reserves into Central Forest Reserves in 1968 affected their management in the initial couple of years. Most of the few illegal activities in the late 1960s and early 1970s were concentrated in the former Local Forest Reserve as their management was being mainstreamed into the Central Government system.

In 1972, the invasion of Uganda by exiled rebels based in Tanzania caused loss of lives and destruction of infrastructure to a number of towns especially in the areas bordering Tanzania. As the rebel activities intensified even within Uganda, Government directed that a distance of up to one hundred meters of forests and woodlands along major roads be cleared including some peri- urban plantations as a means of denying rebels sanctuary. Such clearings did not only lead to the 115 reduction in the vegetation cover of the country, they also contributed to the loss of biodiversity of both fauna and flora (FD, 1980).

The 1979 war to oust Idi Amin is the largest full-scale war to have ever taken place in Uganda. It is a war, which affected the whole country and lasted more than one year. Very many people were displaced and almost all agricultural production activities came to a stand still. Infrastructure in major towns was destroyed and the economy collapsed. A break down of law and order which had characterized the Amin era escalated during the war leading to looting and stripping shops bare, and destroying residential houses and public facilities. Poverty and preventable diseases increased as people moved from place to place looking for safety. Many animals in the National Parks were killed for meat by the different warring factions.

The formation of a new government by the Uganda National Liberation Front (UNLF) and its legislative arm the National Consultative Council (NCC) slowly brought the situation under some form of control in most parts of the country. The new administration was faced with daunting tasks of rebuilding the shattered economy. The fact that the “liberators” came from different fighting groups did not make matters any easier as exemplified by the change in leadership of the country three times in a period of about one year. As the new administration pre-occupied itself with the rehabilitation of basic infrastructure destroyed during the war, environmental concerns were not among the high priority areas. There was an escalation of illegal timber harvesting to meet the high demand for rebuilding the damaged infrastructure. With the new government being cash strapped, allocation to the Forest Department in terms of finances and logistics was too meager to control the situation. A lot of forests and woodlands were degraded through timber harvesting and charcoal burning during this period up to the late 1980s (Hamilton, 1984).

During the period 1981-1986 a civil conflict (the NRA bush war) raged in the Luwero Triangle which is one of the high potential agricultural production areas. It is estimated that over 500,000 people were displaced and another 500,000 lost their lives. Government forces to deny the NRA rebels hiding places destroyed forests. The coffee industry in the area collapsed as people fled their homes and abandoned their coffee plantations. Infrastructure such as roads, schools, health facilities, trading centers and permanent houses were all vandalized. Cattle and other livestock were looted leaving the returnees after the war in 1986 to start life afresh. Their first resort was charcoal burning. The Luwero Triangle has up to now not fully recovered from the ravages of this war.

Between 1986 and 1987 about 300,000 persons who had fled into exile in 1979 following the war that removed Idi Amin returned to West Nile. During their absence the vegetative cover in the area had temporarily increased. At the same time, the war between the Sudan government and rebels of the Sudanese Peoples Liberation Army (SPLA) in southern Sudan has forced thousands of refugees into the West Nile region. These are kept in refugee resettlement camps by a number of relief organizations headed by the UNHCR. The impact of Ugandans returning from exile and Sudanese refugees influx into Uganda on the natural resources especially the woody biomass has been devastating. The previous gains in vegetative cover were wiped out and in its place deforestation in areas where human settlements are concentrated, especially around refugee camps. Other than providing the refugees with food and other basic necessities of life, relief agencies have not invested sufficiently in the production of firewood through tree planting around the settlements (MDPR, 1999). An exception here is the tree nurseries and woodlots

116 established by ACORD, an international NGO on behalf of UNHCR in both Adjumani and Moyo districts.

Around 1986/87, insurgency broke out in the north and northeastern parts of the country covering the districts of Kitgum, Gulu, Apac, Lira, Soroti, Kumi and Pallisa during which an estimated 2.7 million persons were displaced. This caused unnecessary suffering of the local population. It interfered with the production of food and contributed to the economic destabilization of this area, which is the major cereal-producing region of the country.

The insurgency in Teso (Kaberamaido, Katakwi, Soroti, Kumi and Pallisa districts) was largely responsible for the cattle rustling that took place. The removal of about 1 million cattle from Teso totally impoverished the people whose entire livelihood had in the past revolved around livestock. Agricultural production in this area previously known for quality cotton and groundnuts production came to a stand still. The people of Teso traditionally use ox-plough and not hand hoe for cultivation. To restore agricultural production in the area, the Government established a Teso Commission and has embarked on a cattle-restocking program. Some life is now returning to the five districts where the majority of Iteso live.

Since 1998, displacement of people has taken place in parts of West Nile, Kitgum and Gulu in the north of the country as a result of the insurgency by the Lords Resistance Army and the West Nile Rescue Front; and in Kasese, Bundibugyo and Kabarole in the western part of the country as a result of the insurgency by the Allied Democratic Forces (ADF) rebels. These incursions have rendered large populations of people unproductive, which has had disastrous effects on their livelihoods and the national economy. Rebel activities have also contributed to malnutrition, famine and the spread of preventable diseases due to disruption of immunization programs and destruction of health services (MDPR, 1999).

Although at the beginning Government decided to use military means to solve the insurgency problem, a number of initiatives are also underway focusing on diplomacy. Unfortunately, the rebels have not been very receptive. Government went further and passed the Amnesty Law under which all surrendering combatants are pardoned of crimes they committed against the people of Uganda during the insurgency. A relatively small number of the rebels have taken advantage of this Amnesty.

References

F.D. 1980 (Forest Department) 1980, Progress Report 1973-1973-1978 prepared for the Eleventh Commonwealth Forestry Conference.

Hamilton A.C; 1984, Deforestation in Uganda. Oxford University Press.

MDPR, 1999 (Ministry of Disaster Preparedness and Refugees) 1999; The National Disaster Preparedness and Management Policy Framework.

Ministry of Health (MOH), 2000. HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report, June, 2000. STD/AIDS Control Programme (Uganda).

NEMA (National Environment Management Authority) 1998. State of Environment Report for Uganda. 1998.

117

PART 3

POLICY RESPONSES

118

Policy Responses

Introduction

The State of Uganda’s environment was presented in Section 2 of this report. While Uganda has made substantial improvements in environmental management, many challenges still remain and need to be addressed. Ugandans have put in place several policies aimed at improving environmental management in the country. As Ugandans become increasingly aware of environmental issues and their causes, however, the focus of policy questions is beginning to shift towards the policy response itself. That is, what is being done, is it adequate, and what are the alternatives?

In general, Uganda has had a number of policy responses to address environmental issues. Many new policies, strategies and action plans, laws and regulations have been introduced. Uganda is also party to several multilateral and regional environmental agreements. The country has a very progressive Constitution that provides for the right of every citizen to a clean and healthy environment. There is in place a comprehensive national environment management policy that promotes the use of economic instruments, public participation, and environmental information and education. The national dream (Vision 2025), the comprehensive development framework (the Poverty Eradication Action Plan) and the agriculture-based modernization strategy (Plan for Modernization of Agriculture) explicitly include treatment of environmental concerns. The catalogue of documents relating to environmental management clearly shows that problems have been extensively addressed “on paper’. However, these merely remain intentions unless implemented. Even when implemented, one needs to be further assured of their positive effects on the environment and if these are sufficient.

Unfortunately, quantitative assessment of the success or failure of policy initiatives and developments is not an easy task (UNEP, 1999).Global experience indicates that implementation effects and sufficiency are particularly hard questions to answer due to: uneven monitoring; poor and missing data; a lack of indicators and continuous reporting; and data on the environmental situation before and after implementation (UNEP, 1999). Furthermore, there are no proper mechanisms, methodologies or criteria to determine which policy contributes to which change in the state of the environment. Such problems often prevent valid comparisons between the current situation and what would have happened had no policy action been taken. Consequently, a more 119 complete and precise analysis will require the development of better mechanisms for monitoring and assessing the effects of environmental policies on environmental quality (UNEP, 1999).

Uganda faces the same problems as the rest of the global community as far as analysis of policy responses is concerned. Therefore, keeping the foregoing limitations in mind, the analysis that follows is organized into the following clusters: • policies, laws and institutions; • decentralized environmental management; • economic instruments; • financing of environmental action; • public participation; • environmental information and education; • social policies; and • multilateral and regional environmental agreements.

Policies, Laws and Institutions

During the pre-colonial era, access to environmental goods and services was governed by a democratic system of communal tenure under which all members of society had equal usufruct rights over forests, pastures and water resources. The official ‘policy’ then was that it was an inalienable right of every member of a community to have access rights to those resources in addition to full ownership of the products of one’s labour (Kamugisha, 1993). Thereafter, according to Kamugisha, at the turn of the last century, there came the disruptive era of the British colonial administration that introduced a series of complex laws and policies whose purpose was to regulate the indigenous people’s relations with their environment. When Uganda gained independence in 1962, most basic aspects of the policies and laws governing the environment remained virtually intact except for some minor cosmetic changes (Kamugisha, 1993). Most laws were geared towards specific resource users, and the inter-relationships among them were not strongly emphasized.

Realizing the above problems and with increasing national and global environmental awareness, the Government of Uganda sought and has made significant environmental policy, legal and institutional reforms.

Environmental Policy Reforms

The National Environment Management Policy (NEMP), endorsed by Government in 1994, was the first of its kind in Uganda. The NEMP is a landmark output of the NEAP process (NEMA, 1996). The overall policy goal is “sustainable social and economic development which maintains or enhances environmental quality and resource productivity on a long-term basis, that meets the need of the present generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. The policy sets out the objectives and key principles of environmental management and provides a broad framework for harmonization of sectoral and cross-sectoral policy objectives. It was on the basis of the policy that a comprehensive environmental legal and institutional framework was designed. The policy created new capacity building needs in environmental planning, information generation and dissemination, and the use of environmental tools in managing the environment. The policy also set the agenda for decentralized environmental governance in Uganda. At least seven districts (Busia, Tororo, Mbale, Arua, 120 Kasese, Mbarara and Kabale) have already formulated their own District Environment Management Policies all in line with NEMP but focusing on specific district concerns. Several sectoral policies have also been developed after or in line with the comprehensive national environment management policy (Table 11.1).

Table 11.1 Key Environmental and Other Sectoral Policies Policy Goal(s) The National Environment Sustainable social and economic development which maintains or enhances environmental Management Policy, 1995 quality and resource productivity on a long-term basis that meets the needs of the present generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs National Policy for the • to establish the principles by which wetlands resources can be optimally used now and Conservation and in the future Management of Wetlands Resources, 1955 • to end practices which reduce wetlands productivity • to maintain the biological diversity of natural or semi-natural wetlands • to maintain wetlands functions and values • to integrate wetlands concerns into the planning and decision making of other sectors The Draft National Soils • to streamline soil management methods (framework) Policy for Uganda 2000 • to improve and maintain soil quality and productivity on a sustainable basis Water Policy 1995 To sustainably manage and develop the water resources in a coordinated and integrated manner so as to secure/provide water of an acceptable quality for all social and economic needs Wildlife Policy 1995 To conserve in perpetuity the resource within the national parks and other wildlife areas, and to enable the people of Uganda and the global community to derive ecological, economic, aesthetic, scientific and educational benefits from wildlife. to generate revenue to support these conservation efforts and hereby contribute to the national economy Draft Forest Policy 2000 An integrated forest sector that achieves sustainable increases in the economic, social and environmental benefits from forests and trees by all the people of Uganda, especially the poor and vulnerable. The National Fisheries To ensure increased and sustainable fish production and utilization by properly managing Policy (draft) capture fisheries, promoting aquaculture and reducing post-harvest losses

Uganda was the second country in the world, after Canada, to adopt a national policy for the conservation and management of wetlands resources. Draft sectoral policies for the management of forestry, fisheries and wildlife resources have been prepared and await Government approval. For the first time, these policies explicitly address such issues as biodiversity conservation, community participation in resource management and benefit sharing, and the roles of civil society and the private sector. For example, the draft forestry policy advocates for a greater role for the private sector in forest estate development particularly the establishment of privately owned industrial forest plantations. The policies also advocate for the use of environmental assessments in designing resource-based development projects. The Water Policy 1995 of Uganda introduced an integrated, multi-sectoral approach to water resources management within the prevailing socioeconomic context. The Policy emphasizes the importance of: (i) treating water as an economic, social and environmental good; (ii) relying on markets and pricing to determine water allocation among various sectors and user groups; (iii) involving the beneficiaries and the private sector in managing water at the lowest appropriate level; and (iv) recognizing that water is a finite resource that contributes to economic development and supports natural ecosystems.

Both the national and district environment management policies, and the sectoral ones have well spelt out implementation strategies. Furthermore, action plans, translated into investment programmes, have been or are being developed to allow for the implementation of the policy actions. Some of the policies have pointed to the revision of the existing laws and regulations governing the various sectors or the creation of new ones. Uganda now has an enabling policy 121 framework for environmental management at the center. Additional efforts are needed to encourage those districts that do not have environmental policies to do so.

However, in recognition of the fact that inter-relationships among agricultural activities, biodiversity, energy, water and climate are determined to a great extent by the quality of landuse and management practices, the absence of a national landuse policy is a significant gap. NEMA and the Physical Planning Department of the Ministry of Water, Lands and Environment is in the process of developing one. The first national landuse policy development workshop has already been held (Moyini, 2000).

Legal Reform for Environmental Management

The National Environment Management Policy gave rise to the National Environment Statute (NES) 1995. Other significant pieces of legislation are the: Constitution 1995; the Water Act 1995; and the Wildlife Statute 1996. A new Forest Act is currently being developed.

Under its national Objectives and Directive Principle of State Policy, the Constitution 1995 mandates the Government to promote sustainable development and public awareness of the need to manage land, air and water resources in a balanced and sustainable manner for the present and future generations. The Constitution also mandates the State to protect important natural resources, including land, water, wetlands, mineral, oil, fauna and flora on behalf of the people of Uganda. Above all, the Constitution has secured a place for the environment among the fundamental rights and freedoms of all people by providing that every Ugandan has a right to a clean and healthy environment. Other important landmarks in the Constitution include: involvement of people in the formulation and implementation of development plans and programmes that affect them; conservation of biodiversity and wetlands; and an enactment of laws to promote environmental awareness and prevent the environment from abuse, pollution and degradation. In relation to the multilateral agreements, the Constitution allows the President or any other person so authorized to enter into any of the agreements in respect of any matter. The Constitution also empowers Parliament to make laws to govern the ratification of the agreements. Other novel reforms under the Constitution include empowering district and local councils to handle environmental issues which initially were centralized and vested in the central Government and its agencies and departments.

One of the important outcomes of the extensive consultations during the NEAP process was the enactment of a comprehensive environmental framework legislation, the National Environment Statute 1995 (Statute No. 4 of 1995). The Statute brings together all the sectoral agencies involved in the management of the environment. The forum was created through the establishment of the Inter-Ministerial Policy Committee on the environment. This Committee provides policy guidelines and formulates and coordinates environmental policies for the National Environment Management Authority.

Also, for the first time the National Environment Statute addresses all aspects of biodiversity conservation in a holistic manner. The Statute, in addition, has a focus on wetlands, providing for its management, restrictions on use and penalty for default. The Statute provides other tools for environmental management, which had hitherto not been employed, such as the requirement for environmental assessments before project implementation (reviews and impact assessments) and during operations (reviews and audits). The Statute moves away from formative sanctions and promotes other methods, particularly economic instruments, for environmental management. 122 Freedom of access to any information relating to the Statute or the environment is also given legal recognition. To promote public awareness, the Statute mandates NEMA to produce a national state of environment report every two years; while districts are required to produce theirs annually.

Another novel aspect of the Statute is that a subsidiary law can amend it rather than amending the Statute itself, as is the common practice in law. That is, the Statute empowers the Minister responsible to amend, by statutory order, any enactment other than the Constitution in order to give effect to say a convention or treaty.

The Statute is further innovative in that it empowers various categories of people and the general public. For example, it is a legal requirement to incorporate environmental education into school curriculum. The Statute also provides for NEMA or a local environment committee to bring action on behalf of any other person. A general legal principle is that a person cannot bring action unless the action complained of has caused that person personal injury. In this context, therefore, the Statute is greatly improves the protection of those who are not aware of their rights in such cases. Finally, by providing for the establishment of local as well as district environment committees, the Statute has assured a bottom-up approach from the lowest level of the local council system in the environmental decision making process and implementation.

Comprehensive and holistic as it is, there still remain some problems with the provisions of the National Environment Statute 1995. First, the Statute provides for the supremacy of the law over those that existed previously. While this was expected, it does not cover the Constitution, the supreme law that unfortunately came after NES. Also it does not cover other laws made after the Statute. Second, although into its sixth year, the environment law is still relatively new and the judiciary is not entirely comfortable with its administration. There is, therefore, need to build the capacity of the judiciary to improve on the effectiveness of the Statute. Third, perhaps the greatest threat to the effectiveness of the National Environment Statute 1995 is the change in Government policy, which favours investors. The balance between conservation and development often swings in favour of the investor. Fourth, the lack of regulations and sectoral support is another threat which needs to be addressed. Sectoral managers are still fairly reluctant to surrender their powers for collective efforts in conservation. Fifth, the Statute provides that every person shall have freedom of access to any information relating to its implementation. It also stipulates that environmental impact statement reports shall be public documents and may be inspected at any reasonable hour by any person. Both provisions call for administrative guidelines on how people’s rights to such information may be exercised. There is, therefore, need to develop and adopt the respective guidelines either through legislation or administratively. A number of regulations have, since the enactment of the Statute, been put in place to operationalize it. These are highlighted in Box 11.1.

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Box 11.1: Environmental Regulations Developed before the National Environment Statute

• EIA regulations 1998 • Waste management regulations 1999 • National effluent discharge regulations 1999 • National environment, wetlands, river banks and lake shores management • regulations 2000 • National environment hilly and mountainous areas management regulations 2000

Since its enactment, the National Environment Statute has had the effect of providing the basis for the formulation of several sectoral laws as shown below. These laws have all been or are being developed through an extensive consultation process, similar to the one of the National Environment Statute 1995 .

Box 11.2: Environment Related Laws Developed After the National Environment Statute

• The Wildlife Statute 1996 • The Wetlands Act (in preparation) • The Energy Act 1998 • The Forestry Act (in preparation) • The Ratification of Treaties Act 1998 • The Local Governments Act 1997 • The Land Act 1998

Institutional Reforms

Before 1986, Uganda had no institution specifically responsible for environmental management. The environment was ‘managed’ at the sectoral level. In 1986, the Government of Uganda created the Ministry of Environment Protection (MEP), charged with the responsibility of coordinating and enhancing natural resource management, harmonizing the interests of resource users, monitoring pollution levels, and advising Government on policy and legislative reforms for ensuring sound environmental management. The Ministry was later absorbed into a larger Ministry of Water, Energy, Minerals and Environment Protection (MWEMEP) which in 1993 became the Ministry of Natural Resources (MNR). The responsibility for environmental management then shifted to the Department of Environment Protection (DEP), some sort of a downgrade from commanding a whole ministry. Consequently, the institutional framework did not give environmental management the authority and profile it deserved. Even when combined with the role of other sectoral institutions and civil society organizations the creation of DEP did not solve the ad hoc nature of environmental monitoring, coordination, supervision and management.

These institutional weaknesses were identified during the NEAP process. Subsequently, the National Environment Management Policy advocated for a new institutional structure, the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA). The structure was provided for in the National Environment Statute 1995. NEMA is the principal agency in Uganda for the management of the environment with the express mandate to coordinate, monitor and supervise all activities in the field of the environment. NEMA is one of the highly placed institutions in the 124 country which is expected to influence other institutions and the general public. Its concerns about the environment are voiced at high levels of decision-making and policy formulation and it has the necessary political approval.

An Inter-Ministerial Policy Committee (IPC), composed of 11 cabinet ministers, is the supreme organ of NEMA. It is chaired by the Prime Minister. The IPC provides policy guidelines, formulates and coordinates environmental issues in the country for NEMA, and liaises with the Cabinet on issues affecting the environment generally. Furthermore, the IPC identifies obstacles to implementation of environmental policies and programmes and ensures their implementation. Another important institutional organ of NEMA is its Board of Trustees, which oversees the implementation and successful operation of policy and the function of NEMA. The Executive Director and Board Chairman are ex-officio members of the IPC.

Since NEMA is not an implementing institution, it must perform its duties through cooperation with other institutions. NEMA is horizontally linked to the lead agencies in the environment sector. NEMA is also vertically linked to the local government structure, the private sector, and civil society.

Under the various sectoral policies and legislation there are lead agencies, which are coordinated by NEMA for purposes of addressing environmental issues. This is done through the Environmental Liaison Units (ELUs). The ELUs have the responsibility to develop internal capacity to contribute to sustainable environmental management, collect data and disseminate information, and promote environmental education and public awareness in their respective sectors. They also ensure enforcement, implementation, compliance, and monitoring of laws, policies and activities within their jurisdictions. To date, the ELUs are designated officers of the lead agencies. A recent review by NEMA has however questioned the effectiveness of the individualized arrangement (NEMA, 2000). As a result, a new arrangement has been proposed which places the overall function of the ELU with the heads of the respective institutions. The lead agencies are also expected to supervise within their legal and administrative setup the conduct of environmental assessments, set environmental standards and carry out inspections related to the environment.

NEMA also links vertically with local governments. The Local Governments Act 1997, derived from the decentralization policy provides for the devolution of governance from the center to the districts and lower levels. The District Council is the highest level of governance at sub-national level. One of its roles is to ensure the integration of environmental issues in the development planning process. The District Council has direct linkage with the District Support Coordination Unit of NEMA, which provides guidelines for the establishment of district environment committees in consultation with the district councils. Environment Committees are also established at sub-county, parish and village levels, although the lowest level of government is the sub-county.

The district environment committees are expected to ensure that environmental concerns are integrated in the district plans and projects, formulate bye-laws, promote dissemination of environmental information, and prepare the district state of environment reports annually. Most districts have already formed their environment committees and prepared their first and subsequent state of environment reports with the technical assistance of NEMA. However, the capacity of the environment committees at various levels of local government is still weak.

125 The foregoing depicts a much improved institutional framework for environmental management. However, two issues remain unresolved. First, while the National Environment Statute 1995 has made NEMA the highest organ for environmental matters in Uganda, its location within government structure appears to undermine this prominence and authority. NEMA is currently located within the Ministry of Water, Lands and Environment. The arrangement makes it difficult for NEMA to coordinate environmental affairs in other ministries, the ELU arrangement not withstanding. Second, and to date, NEMA does not have a sustainable source of funding. It is currently supported through the World Bank’s Environment Management Capacity Building Project (EMCBP) and other donor-funded project activities. NEMA recently prepared a strategic plan to operationalize the National Environment Fund (NEF) provided for in the Statute (EMA, 2000). The operationalization calls for the Government of Uganda to catalyze the process and solicit for contributions from development partners. Enabling regulations are being prepared to operationalize the NEF.

Decentralized Environment Management

Historically, environment and natural resources policies and their implementation across Africa have evolved from the government- declared central monopoly over control of resources, where resource users were legally alienated from their sources of livelihood, toward devolved control and co-management (Brinkerhoff and Honadle, 1996). The institutional and administrative frameworks appropriate for these new approaches have tended to lag for a variety of reasons: because governments have been reluctant to dismantle their monopolies, because institutional change is a slow and often threatening process, and because capacity gaps take time to fill (Brinkerhoff and Kamugasha, 1998). As a result, one gets a pattern of bipolar activities at the center and at lower levels. Decentralization is one of the strategies that seeks to bring together the center and the grassroots levels, and to give effect to policy decisions to de-monopolize environmental management (Brinkerhoff and Kamugasha, 1998). Decentralization strategies that reallocate responsibilities to a broader set of partners, not just from a central public agency to a local one are called for in the area of environmental management. Institutional pluralist decentralization can result in the creation of triangular relationships among central government, local government and civil society organizations, which can result in a lower level of win – lose conflicts, a more stable balance of interests, and better performance (Tendler, 1997). According to Brinkerhoff and Kamugasha (1998), Uganda is at the forefront of African nations pursuing decentralization.

Box 11.3: Role of the District Environment Committee (DEC)

• act as a forum for community members to discuss and recommend environmental policies to the DC. • provide guidance to the DTPC in the creation of District Development Plans that incorporate environmental concerns. • receive draft District Development Plans and District Environmental Action Plans from the DTPC for discussion. • based on potential environmental impact, endorse all development activities and environmental action plans sent for approval to the DC. • recommend district environmental policies and bye-laws to the DC. • advise the DC on environmental issues. • mobilize members of the public to initiate and participate in environmental activities.

Source: NEAP (1994)

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Uganda’s decentralization policy provided for in the Local Governments Act 1997, involves devolution of powers from the Central Government to the districts and other lower councils. The district council is the highest level at the district to ensure the integration of environmental issues in the development planning process. The district council has direct communication linkages with the District Support Coordination Unit located within the office of the Executive Director of NEMA. In the first place, NEMA provides guidelines for the establishment of district environment committees in consultation with the district councils. The district environment committees are expected to ensure that environmental concerns are integrated in the district plans and projects, formulate bye-laws, promote dissemination of environmental information, and prepare the district state of environment reports annually (NEMA, 1999) as summarized in Box 11.2.

Box 11.4: Decentralized Environmental Management Provisions of the National Environment Management Policy

Establish district environment committees and lower committees in the districts to act as the link between the local authorities and communities and the authority (NEMA) on environmental issues. Ensure that the policy is implemented at the grassroots level by assisting the districts in developing their own environmental action or work plans Enlist the support and participation of local people by strengthening districts’ abilities to collect, process and disseminate environmental information.

Source: NEAP Secretariat, 1994

Consequently, Uganda’s decentralized environmental management as spelt out in both the Policy (Box 11.4) and Statute places emphasis on linkages from the center to community, through districts and municipalities, and an expanded role for NGOs and civil society. Figure 11.1 shows the structure of decentralized environmental management in Uganda. The status of recruitment of district environment officers and the establishment of district environment committees in Uganda as at December 31st, 2000, is shown in Table 11.2.

While Policy and legal provisions have been made to allow for decentralized environmental management, it was also recognized that the capacities of the districts and lower levels are relatively weak for fulfilling their obligations. Subsequently, a number of initiatives have been put in place for capacity building. This includes the World Bank’s Environment Management capacity Building Project (EMCBP), and support from USAID, the Netherlands, Ireland Aid, and others. The districts that have been able to produce district environment action plans (DEAPs) and those that are to do so in the future is presented in Figure 11.2

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Figure 11.1: Structure of Decentralized Environmental Management in Uganda.

NEMA

DSC

DEC DTPC DEO OTHER SECTORAL COMMITTEES SEC

PEC

VEC

NEMA: National Environment Management Authority DSC: District Support Coordination Unit DC: District Council DEC: District Environment Committee DTPC: District Technical Planning Committee DEO: District Environment Officer SEC: Sub-county Environment Committee PEC: Parish Environment Committee VEC: Village Environment Committee LEC: Local Environment Committee

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Table 11.2 Status of Recruitment of District Environment Officers (DEO) and Establishment of District Environment Committees (DEC)as at December 31, 2000 No District Name of the DEO or status of recruitment Status of DEC 1 Adjumani Mr. Charles Giyaya Designated but not functional 2 Apach Mr. Tom Okello Obong Designated but not functional 3 Arua Mr. Edward Adraku Odipio Established and functional 4 Bugiri Mr. Charles Maka Mutemo Designated and functional 5 Bundibugyo Mr. Jockus Mate Established and functional 6 Bushenyi Mr. Cyrill Mugenyi Established and functional 7 Busia Ms. Rebecca Nanjalla Established and functional 8 Gulu Mrs. Christine Oryema Designated but not functional 9 Hoima Ms. Jocelyn Nyangoma Designated but not functional 10 Iganga Mr. Stephen David Mugabi Established and functional 11 Jinja Mr. Suudi Bamulesewa Established and functional 12 Kabale Mr. Paul Sabiiti Established and functional 13 Kabarole Mr. David Azora Established and functional 14 Kalangala Mr. Maurice Bafirawala Designated but not functional 15 Kampala Not yet appointed Designated but not functional 16 Kamuli Ms. Monica Kateega Designated and functional 17 Kapchorwa Mr. Awadh Chemangei Established and functional 18 Kasese Mr. Asa Kule Musing Uzi Established and functional 19 Katakwi Mrs. Jessica Okui Established and functional 20 Kibaale Ms. Animate Kashemeire Designated and functional 21 Kiboga Advertised Designated but not functional 22 Kisoro Mr. David Mfitumukiza Established and functional 23 Kitgum Not yet appointed Designated but not functional 24 Kotido Mr. Philip Kodet Established and functional 25 Kumi Mr. James Okiria Ateker Established and functional 26 Lira Mr. Joseph Ongol Established and functional 27 Luwero Ms. Teopista Gateese Established and functional 28 Masaka Ms. Rose Nakyejwe Established and functional 29 Masindi Mrs. Wandera Kabasindi D. Established and functional 30 Mbale Ms. Anne Nakayenze Established and functional 31 Mbarara Mr. Jeconious Musingwire Established and functional 32 Moroto Mr. John Lotyang Established and functional 33 Moyo Mr. Maurice Madra Edema Designated but not functional 34 Mpigi Mr. Anthony Ogwal Established and functional 35 Mubende Mr. Peter Mugisha Established and functional 36 Mukono Mr. Solomon Musoke Established and functional 37 Nakasongola Mr. Peter Kityo Established and functional 38 Nebbi Mr. Fred Onyai Established and functional 39 Ntungamo Mr. Justus Tusuubira Established and functional 40 Pallisa Mr. John Peter Nabbola Established and functional 41 Rakai Mr. Fredrick Muhumuza Kateego Designated and functional 42 Rukungiri Mr. Severino Lukwago Established and functional 43 Sembabule Not yet appointed Established but not functional 44 Soroti Mr. Robert Bagyenda Established and functional 45 Tororo Mr. Joshua Esiepet Established and functional

129 Figure 11.2: Districts with Targeted Environment Management Programs

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Decentralized environmental management is also provided for in the forestry and wildlife policies. The Uganda Wildlife Authority has a Community Conservation Unit within the Directorate of Field Operations, headed by a Deputy Director. The Forestry Department also has a unit dealing with collaborative (joint) forest management.

The Uganda Forestry Policy (2000) advocates for the promotion of innovative approaches to community participation in forest management on both government and private forest lands, to address the disincentives associated with a protectionist approach to forest management, and the destructive practices associated with open access to forest resources (MWLE, 2000). According to the policy statement, the development of collaborative forest management is expected to define the rights, roles and responsibilities of partners and the basis for sharing benefits from improved forest management. That there is to be a specific focus on wide stakeholder participation, collective responsibility and equity, and on improving the livelihoods of forest- dependent communities (MWLE, 2000). The proposed strategies for implementing collaborative forest management are presented in Box 11.5.

Box 11.5: Strategies for the implementation of the policy statement on collaborative forest management

• Harmonize approaches and legislation relating to collaborative forest management between lead government agencies, and with NGOs/CBOs • Develop a supportive legal basis for devolved decision-making, enforcing regulations, arbitration, and accountability • Develop a supportive legal basis for tree tenure, access rights and sharing of benefits from wood and non-wood forest products • Develop security of land tenure for collaborative management of private forests • Develop both the capacity and attitude changes in government and non-government agencies to create genuine partnerships for collaboration with local community groups • Develop robust community institutions to ensure transparent decision-making, the adequate representation and participation of women, men and vulnerable groups and the equitable sharing of forest benefits and responsibilities • Strengthen the role of NGOs/CBOs in mobilizing communities and building capacity for implementing collaborative forest management • Develop technical approaches to collaborative forest management that are consistent with the principles of sustainable forest management • Ensure resolution of conflicts relating to problem animals

Source: MWLE (2000)

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Box 11.6: Goal, Objectives of the Community Protected Areas Institution Policy

Policy Goal To promote effective partnership between Local Governments, the local communities, and protected areas (PA) and harmonize the community – PA interactions therein for enhanced community participation in PA and wildlife management.

Policy Objectives • To establish effective linkages between Local Government institutions, local communities, and PA management

• To establish a transparent, fair and just system that will represent and articulate community interests in PA management and PA concerns over people’s actions towards protected areas.

• To establish a mechanism through which local people shall be mobilized for active participation in the management of PAs.

• To have a forum through which community – PA issues of common interest that cut across Local Governments’ boundaries can be addressed.

• To have a forum that will facilitate two-way communication between local communities, PA management and Local Governments.

Source: UWA (2000)

According to MTTI (1999) collaborative management (CM) of protected areas is also a viable option for UWA to employ in meeting its objective, but it is only one of several. The Uganda Wildlife Authority has gone ahead to produce a policy on collaborative management titled Community Protected Areas Institution Policy (UWA, 2000), to develop an institutional linkage for managing relations between communities and protected areas, and at the same time enhance community participation in protected areas management. The goal and objectives of the Community Protected Areas Institution Policy are presented in Box 11.6.

Economic Instruments

Up until the NEAP process in the early to mid 1990s, Uganda’s environmental management relied exclusively on command and control measures to enforce compliance. The NEAP process identified the inherent weaknesses in, and ineffectiveness of, such an approach. The NEAP recommended a change towards greater use of economic instruments for better environmental management. Economic instruments (incentives and disincentives) are instruments that affect costs and benefits of alternative courses of action open to economic agents, with the effect of influencing their behaviour in a way that is more favourable to the environment than would otherwise be the case in their absence (SDC, 2000a). An incentive is an instrument that is offered to encourage good practices in environmental management. On the other hand, a disincentive is an instrument offered to discourage practices that are harmful to the environment.

Government has two kinds of macroeconomic interventions to affect environmental use-targeted economic instruments and indirect economic measures (NEAP Secretariat, 1995b). The indirect economic policy measures include monetary and fiscal policy, the exchange rate, attitude to foreign investment, regulation of the capital and labour markets, industrial strategy, trade policy, 132 foreign debt servicing, and energy pricing. However, this section of the report concerns itself with the former, namely economic instruments. Targeted instruments are designed to use market incentives and disincentives to achieve specific environmental aims or objectives.

Economic incentives and disincentives can induce changes in behaviour of people and other economic entities more effectively than regulation. If a resource can be appropriated at little or no cost, there is no economic incentive for producers to use the resource efficiently or carefully. If the product prices are relatively low, there is little economic incentive for consumers to use the product(s) judiciously. If a natural resource can be appropriated at little cost, there is no incentive to invest in the production of that resource (for example trees, fish and wildlife). Or if soil and water conservation and other food crop and livestock production practices are too costly, there is no incentive to invest in such practices. The environmental policy objective with respect to economic instruments is to ensure that individuals, groups, businesses and other economic entities have appropriate incentives and disincentives with regard to sustainable resource use and environmental protection (NEAP Secretariat, 1995).

This policy objective is in line with the Rio Spirit, for Agenda 21 also encourages the use of economic instruments, recommending as follows: ‘improve and/or orient government policies and create an inventory of effective uses of economic instruments and market mechanisms and increase understanding of their role’ (UNCED, 1992). Subsequently, thereafter, evaluation of various policy instruments after Rio found that economic instruments are ‘among the most powerful policies for improved environmental management because the market and price give signals to make the appropriate allocation of resources’ (SDC, 2000a).

It is important to keep in mind that economic instruments are not substitutes for, but rather complements of, other environmental management tools. For example one needs a policy or legal framework to operationalize incentives and disincentives. Also one can use standards, incentives and regulations concurrently to address one environmental problem (SDC, 2000a). Box 11.7 shows the array of tools, including economic instruments, which one can use for environmental management.

Box 11.7 Tools for Environmental Management

• Economic Instruments • Other tools

- Environmental laws and policies - Environmental standards - Regulatory approaches - Environmental impact assessments (EIAs) - Strategic impact assessments (SIA) - Environmental reviews and audits - Public awareness and participation - Institutional reforms and strengthening - Environmental information

Both the National Environment Management Policy 1994 and the National Environment Statute 1995 provide for the use of economic instruments as a management tool. Clearly, the capacity for analyzing the applicability and level of economic instruments has been limited in Uganda. Recently, NEMA engaged Sustainable Development Center (SDC), an NGO, to prepare a User Manual on Incentives and Disincentives for Environmental Management (SDC, 2000a). The

133 same institution was also asked to prepare an implementation strategy for the use of incentives and disincentives in environmental management (SDC, 2000b). Despite the newness of the approach and lack of capacity to carry out analytical work, Uganda has registered some successes in the use of economic instruments in environmental management, as presented in Box 11.8 below.

Box 11.8 Examples of successful application of economic instruments

• a recent focused study on economic instruments in the forestry sector has indicated that there are many incentives in place, which have been responsible for the rehabilitation of degraded areas, and motivating private sector participation. Figure 3.3.1 shows the response of farmers to permits issued by the Forestry Department for afforestation in forest reserves. The permit allows tree farmers to have access to the use of Government land on condition that they pay Ushs. 25,000 for every 5 hectares for a period of 5 years. Farmers satisfying the conditions stipulated under the permits are entitled to renewal. Two incentives are involved in the permit system: one is access to the use of the land to plant trees; and the second is the nominal fee charged (SDC, 2000b). • under the Water (Waste) Discharge Regulations 1997, waste discharge fees are imposed in proportion to BOD (biological oxygen demand) load (Figure 3.3.2). These charges were provided for within the Water Statute 1995. The Directorate of Water Development has licensed more than 30 companies for water and pollution permits. The Directorate is keenly monitoring pollution and the relevance of the charges set. • owing to increased awareness campaigns, private sector firms are taking steps to ensure that they avoid negative publicity on matters of environment (eg. BAT, Hima Cement, Mukwano Soap Industries and Gomba Fishing Co.). Others, such as the Sheraton, have programs on the environment). • some companies (e.g. Roofings Ltd, Alam Group of Companies, Mukwano Soap Works) have committed considerable resources publicizing their certification for compliance with ISO 9002. • both the Forestry Department and Uganda Wildlife Authority are involved in revenue sharing schemes with communities surrounding forest reserves and wildlife protected areas. The overall goal of revenue sharing is to ensure that local communities living adjacent to these forest and wildlife protected areas obtain benefits from the existence of these areas, improve partnerships between the two central government institutions, local communities and local governments for sustainable management of resources in and around the protected areas. The incentive is 40% of forest products royalties; and 20% of wildlife protected area entrance fees. • the Forestry Department has recently revised its royalty rates to as much as three times higher for softwood timber to encourage better utilization of the resource. • Kampala City Council has introduced car park charges to raise revenue for financing its expenditure, and to ensure proper vehicular management and orderly traffic flow. A private firm licensed by the City collects the charges.

Source: SDC, 2000

While progress is being made in the application of economic instruments, more needs to be done, especially in the agricultural sector, the main cause of environmental degradation in the country.

The main constraints facing Uganda in the promotion and wider application of economic instruments are: limited knowledge and capacity; limited financial resources; low culture for tax compliance; economic obstacles; weak private sector presence in economic monitoring; and high operating costs by commercial banks resulting in unsustainable interest cost for long-term investments as is usual in environment projects (SDC, 2000b). There are also legitimate feared risks, including: loss of government revenue; industry resistance; and possibility of causing market distortions (SDC, 200b). The strategy for overcoming some of these constraints or feared

134 risks were identified to include: popularizing existing instruments before investing in new ones; expanding the source of green funds, providing grants or concessionary credit; focusing on training the districts; encouraging voluntary compliance (through non-monetary awards, certifying industries voluntarily complying under ISO 1400, and releasing a blacklist of environmental culprits); involving the media; and exposure visits.

Figure 11.3: Cumulative Acreage Planted by the Forestry Department and Private Farmers in Kajjansi Forest Reserve

350 300 250 Private 200 Hectares farmers 150 100 Forest 50 Department 0 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 Years

Source: SDC (2000b)

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Figure 11.4: Charges Under the Water (Waste) Discharge Regulations 1997

14000 12000 10000 Annual charge 8000 (thousands) 6000 4000 2000 0 <100 100-400 400-600 600- 1800- 3000- 3800- >5200 1800 3000 3800 5200 BOD

Source: SDC (2000b)

Financing Environmental Action

The cost of environmental degradation in Uganda was estimated at 4-12% of gross national product (Slade and Weitz, 1991). If corrective actions are not put in place, this cost is likely to increase. In Uganda’s context, investments in environmental management are justified in terms of: (a) halting or reversing environmental degradation so as to guarantee improved productivity of the environment and the natural resource base with a view to accelerating sustainable economic growth and improving human welfare; (b) building and strengthening human institutions and capital in environmental/natural resource management so that they can continually respond to new demands and challenges; and (c) holding open future options for resource conservation and development by formulating good policies so that irreversible losses are avoided and positive conservation culture and attitudes are inculcated into the people (NEAP Secretariat, 1995).

Sound investments in environmental management are in turn expected to generate a number of benefits, including: (a) increased earnings at macro and micro levels due to improved productivity of biotic elements; (b) avoiding losses of future incomes (e.g. by controlling the impact of soil erosion on agricultural productivity); (c) avoiding future costs (e.g. replacing lost soil nutrients, extensive curative medical care); and (d) having a healthy and productive labour force (NEAP Secretariat, 1995). However, the realization of the aforementioned benefits can only be achieved if the following assumptions hold: (a) continued political commitment and support; (b) political, social and economic stability; (c) willingness and ability of local resource users to participate; (d) regional and international collaboration and support; and perhaps most important (c) timely availability of financial and technical resources.

In Uganda, investments in environmental management while not fully documented are thought to be significant. The 5-year investment programme resulting from the NEAP process was well over $80 million (Figure 11.5).

136 However, this figure represents a certain prioritization covering NEMA’s capacity building needs and investments in cross-cutting areas. The investment does not include allocations by Government to key sectors. In general, it is agreed that the combined sectoral, NEMA-focused and cross-sectoral investments in environmental management in Uganda are not sufficient.

Figure 11.5: Environment Investment Programme

Biodiversity conservation and use 4% 11% 17% Water/land productivity

Capacity building environment management 42% 26% Environmental education/awareness

Environmental health and pollution

Programme Area 1: Enhancement of Resource (Water and Land) Productivity - ($34,066,480) Programme Area 2: Capacity Building in Environmental Management – ($21,839,950) Programme Area 3: Environmental Education and Public Awareness – ($14,359,880) Programme Area 4: Environmental Health and Pollution Management – ($3,340,000) Programme Area 5: Biodiversity Conservation and Use - ($9,236,600) Total Priority and Reserve Projects: $82,842,910 Source: NEAP (1995)

Uganda participated at the Earth Summit represented by none other than the Head of State. At the Summit, it was agreed that implementing Agenda 21 would need new and incremental sources of funds – domestic public and private investments, development aid, and other foreign capital flows.

On the domestic front, the National Environment Statute provides for the creation of a National Environment Fund (NEF) to finance the operations of NEMA and to invest in environmental management in other sectors. The Statute specifies the main sources of funds for NEF as: • disbursements from Government; • all fees charged under the relevant sections of NES; • any fees prescribed for any service offered by NEMA; • any fines collected as a result of the breach of the NES or any statutory instrument under it; • gifts, donations and other voluntary contributions to the Fund made from any source; and • any other sources.

Currently, NEMA is in the process of operationalizing NEF. In terms of structure, NEF is supposed to comprise of three types of funds, namely: an endowment; sector specific revolving funds; and activity specific sinking funds. Operationalization of NEF requires the development of regulations subsidiary to the National Environment Statute. NEMA is currently drawing up the necessary regulations. If successfully operationalize, NEF should become the main vehicle for financing environmental management in Uganda, in addition to others such as ECOTRUST and Bwindi Trust. Uganda has also received substantial contributions from its development partners for environmental management (Box 11.9).

137 Box 11.9: Examples of Financing of Environmental Management in Uganda Through External Assistance

• The World Bank’s Environment Management Capacity Building Project (EMCBP) • Action Program for Environment (APE) of USAID, now replaced by the Conservation of Biodiversity in Critical Ecosystems (COBS) Project under Strategic Objective 1; • World Bank’s Protected Area Management and Sustainable Use (PAMSU) Project; • DFID, NORAD, GTZ, UNDP and FAO support to the Forestry Sector; • UNDP’s support to NEMA aimed at strengthening environmental information systems management and the Authority’s institutional capacity; • Support of the Netherlands Government through IUCN for integrated conservation and development projects; • GTZ, KfW and DED support to the Uganda Wildlife Authority; • European Union support to UWA, Uganda Tourist Board, and the Ministry responsible for tourism; • GEF funded projects – Strengthening East African institutions for the conservation of biodiversity, Reducing biodiversity loss at cross-border points in East Africa, the Mgahinga Bwindi Impenetrable Forest Conservation Trust (MBIFCT), GEF Small Grants Projects, GEF support for climate change related projects; • Support by various international NGOs, including: CARE, IGCP, AWF, IUCN and WWF.

Source: Environment Management Ass., 2000

While external support to Uganda’s environment management has been very encouraging there are many who feel that the present Comprehensive Development Framework (CDF) of the country, the Poverty Eradication Action Plan (PEAP) needs to place environment in the highest priority area (the Poverty Action Fund -PAF). The Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development (MFPED) is allaying these fears and has openly stated that environment will indeed be a priority investment of Government. The Development Committee has agreed in principle to receive an ‘environment sector’ investment programme although it is accepted that environment is not a sector but rather cross-cutting. Also, MFPED has agreed to accept the wetlands investment programme as eligible for PAF funding.

Recognizing environment as a priority investment area is a positive development for sustainable development. Nonetheless, there is a feeling that domestically Uganda could do better in increasing non-tax revenues from environmental resources and services. For example, very little attempt has been made to determine economic rents for timber, fisheries resources, and minerals. Uganda needs to value its resources on the basis of total economic value so as to prescribe appropriate environmental taxes and user fees for natural resources, provided for in the National Environment Statute 1995.

138 Public Participation

Broad public participation in decision-making is an important element of Agenda 21 because, combined with greater accountability, it is basic to the concept of sustainable development (UNEP, 1999). Agenda 21 devotes separate chapters to involving many different groups including women, children and youth, indigenous people, NGOs, local authorities, workers and trade unions, business and industry, scientists and technologists, and farmers (UN, 1993). The belief is that individuals and members of these groups are the best source of knowledge about the causes of, and remedies for, many environmental problems. That public participation enables such knowledge, skills and resources to be mobilized and fully employed, and the effectiveness of government initiatives to be increased (UN, 1999).

In Uganda, public participation in environmental management has grown from almost none up to 1985 to covering virtually all major policies, strategic plans and major projects (through the EIA process) today. The right of the public to participate in environmental matters is enshrined in the Constitution 1995; the various sectoral statutes; the National Environment Statute 1995; and the Local Governments Act 1997. For any policy or plan to be approved by Cabinet, there must be clear evidence of extensive consultations right down to the districts and local councils and communities. For example, this was the process used in the formulation of Vision 2025, the Poverty Eradication Action Plan, the Plan for the Modernization of Agriculture, the Forestry Policy, and the Protected Area Systems Plan.

In addition to statutory requirements or government policy, public participation in environmental decision making is further being encouraged by the many local and international NGOs in the country. New NGOs are emerging whose central focus is lobbying and advocacy in environmental issues. Ugandan NGOs active in advocacy and lobbying include Uganda Wildlife Society (UWS) through collaboration with World Resources Institute (WRI) and funding from USAID; Advocates Coalition for Development and Environment (ACODE) also through collaboration with WRI and same source of funding; and the Environmental Practitioners Association. At lower levels, clearly, the decentralization of environmental governance has further facilitated participation by the public in decision making.

In the context of decentralized environmental management, the District Environment Committee is mandated to ensure free and open participation of the communities in its deliberations and in the formulation of bye-laws. Likewise, the District Environment Officer must also ensure that the views of the community are genuinely represented in the DEC’s recommendations to the District Development Committee and the District Council (NEAP Secretariat, 1994). Box 3.5.1 shows the process of ensuring community participation in district planning.

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Box 11.10: Community Participation in District Planning

Public input into district planning should be encouraged through: • normal representation in local council structure, DEC, DDC and DC; • active solicitation of public views on district plans; • solicitation of public views on new activities using the EIA scoping process; • placing responsibility for natural resource management on the communities through bye-laws that encourage locally made natural resource plans or activities; • posting implementation plans and costs in public areas and/or holding public forums to discuss them; • educating the public on environmental issues and planning procedures; and • providing incentives for the community

Source: NEAP Secretariat, 1994

Environment Information and Education

Environmental Information The NEAP process of the early 1990s recognized the need for establishing an effective natural resources and environmental information system to facilitate the collection, storage, analysis and dissemination of environmental information as a key component for developing a regular monitoring and evaluation programme (NEAP Secretariat, 1992). In order to monitor the dynamics in the quality of Uganda’s environment, the NEAP process identified the following core datasets and subsequent efforts to address environmental information has been focusing on them: demographic data; agricultural information and farming systems; energy consumption patterns and availability; soils, water, protected areas and biodiversity; climate and topographic information; infrastructure and general socioeconomic trends; and information on landuse and landuse changes (NEMA, 1999).

Although Uganda does not have a ‘Freedom of Information Act’ as exists in the United States at the moment, the National Environment Statute 1995 provides that every person should have freedom to information relating to the implementation of the Statute. In addition, NEMA and the environmental lead agencies are developing guidelines and principles to improve environmental information collection, processing, exchange and dissemination. A recent study by Martensson et al (2000) on environmental information systems best practices focusing on Uganda found that compared to most other sub-Saharan African countries, the country was far ahead. Uganda’s decentralized environmental information management system was found to be unique in Africa. A horizontal environmental information network (EIN) has been established initially with 5 participating institutions, now 13, with a target of 21. Also, a data standards committee of the EIN has been set up to address issues of exchange of data, software compatibility, coding and classification systems, and general information quality control among the institutions participating in the network. A number of focus districts now have GIS-based environmental information management systems in place.

The National Environment Statute 1995 mandates NEMA to prepare a national state of environment report (NSOER) biennially; while districts are obligated to prepare district state of environment reports (DSOERs) annually. The District Environment Action Plan (DEAP) process which every district is expected to eventually carry out has already begun yielding a wealth of information, sometimes right up to the village level about the status and issues covering the environment. Figure 11.7 shows environmental information management in Uganda. 140

Environmental Education There is a growing recognition that national development plans and environmental policies have a better chance of being implemented effectively when supported by an informed, educated and involved public, and general acceptance of the need for greater openness and transparency (UNEP, 1999). Agenda 21 urges every country to prepare a national strategy for environmental education (UN, 1993).

Uganda has demonstrated a very high level of commitment to education, seeing it as an important ingredient for modernization. Uganda has put in place the Universal Primary Education (UPE) programme where four children per household receive free education up to primary seven. In addition to this general commitment towards education, NEMA has also put in place two environmental education strategies, one for the formal and the other for the informal education sectors. The strategy for the formal education sector is already being operationalized. Environmental education is now part of the formal education curriculum.

Social Policies

Uganda’s comprehensive development framework, the Poverty Eradication Action Plan (PEAP), is the overarching macroeconomic framework. Environmental concerns were mainstreamed into the PEAP; and now efforts are underway to include investments in the environment ‘sector’ into the priority Poverty Action Fund.

All other sectoral and cross-sectoral investment plans and strategies are expected to conform to, or be compliant with, the PEAP in order to access Government and development partner resources. Therefore, all new such plans and strategies will have to address environmental concerns in order to become eligible for support.

There are a number of social policies, plans and projects that were formulated before the PEAP. However, even these plans are fairly progressive where environmental issues are concerned. These include: • The Population Policy, • The Education Sector Strategic Plan, and • The Health Sector Strategic Plan.

For example, the Health Sector Strategic Plan 2000/01-2004/05 clearly observes that for development to be sustainable, health and economic growth must be mutually reinforcing (MOH, 2000). The 1998 Uganda Participatory Poverty Assessment Project (UPPAP) identified ill health as the most frequent cause and reason for poverty; and that it is, therefore, clear that the health sector will play a key role in poverty eradication and overall socioeconomic development in Uganda. The Health Sector Strategic plan has a whole section on environmental health – describing what it is; the objectives of the component; and implementation. One of the objectives of the environmental health component of the strategic plan is to have an Environmental Health Act and subsidiary legislation in place and being fully enforced by 2004.

Multilateral and Regional Environmental Agreements

141 Uganda is an active member of the global community of nations, having entered into several regional and international environmental conventions and agreements. These agreements and conventions historically first began with sectoral, single issue, use-oriented approaches addressing allocation and exploitation of natural resources; while the recent ones are more trans- sectoral, system-oriented and holistic (UNEP, 1999). One of the first international environmental agreements was the 1900 Convention for the Preservation of Animals, Birds and Fish in Africa, signed in London by the European colonial powers with the intention of preserving game in East Africa by limiting ivory exports from the region (UNEP, 1999; Rueter and Simma, 1975; and Brenton, 1994). The UN Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm in 1972 was one of the first attempts to move away from a sectoral towards a more comprehensive approach including all aspects of environmental protection – reflected in the Declaration of the UN Conference on the Human Environment and the Action Plan for the Human Environment which were adopted in Stockholm (UNEP, 1999). Before the Stockholm Conference, Uganda entered into a number of international conventions (Box 11.11).

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Box 11.11: Pre-Stockholm Conventions Uganda Entered into

• Convention on the Continental Shelf (1958). • Convention on Fishing and Conservation of the Living Resources on the High Seas (1958). • Convention on the High Seas (1958). • Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapons Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water (1963). • Treaty of Principle Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (1967). • African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (1968). • Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat – Ramsar Convention (1971).

From the above list, some of the conventions were entered into as part of the collective effort of the colonial power. For example, the conventions of 1958 had very little direct significance for Uganda. The conventions on nuclear weapons tests and outer space exploration also appear to have been the result of the Pan African Movement, which was in high gear by then. International conventions that came into force after the Stockholm Conference which Uganda is a member to are shown in Box 11.12. The international environmental conventions that are considered to be of significant importance to Uganda are presented in a summary form in Table 11.3.

Uganda is also party to several regional environmental agreements. As highlighted in the State of Environment Report for 1996, there are at least seven such regional agreements (NEMA, 1996). Table 11.4 lists six of the regional agreements together with their objectives.

Table 11.3 International Environmental Conventions of Importance to Uganda Convention Objectives African Convention on the Conservation To encourage individual and joint action for the conservation, utilization and of Nature and Natural Resources (1968) development of soil, water, flora and fauna for the present and future welfare of mankind, from an economic, nutritional, scientific, educational, cultural and aesthetic point of view. Convention on Wetlands of International To stem the progressive encroachment on and loss of wetlands now and in the future, Importance especially as Water fowl recognizing the fundamental ecological functions of wetlands and their economic, Habitat-Ramsar Convention (1971) cultural, scientific and recreational values. Convention Concerning the Protection of To establish an effective system of collective protection of the cultural and natural the World Cultural and Natural Heritage heritage of outstanding universal value, organized on a permanent basis and in (1972) accordance with modern scientific methods. Convention on the International Trade in To protect certain endangered species from over exploitation by means of a system of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and import/export permits. Flora-CITES (1973) Convention on the Conservation of To protect those species of wild animals that migrate across or outside national Migratory Species of Wild Animals boundaries. (1979) Vienna Convention for the Protection of To protect human health and the environment against adverse effects resulting from the Ozone Layer (1985) modifications of the ozone layer. Montreal Protocol on Substances that To protect the ozone layer by taking precautionary measures to control global Deplete the Ozone Layer (1987). emissions of substances that deplete it. Convention Concerning Safety in the Use To prevent and control the exposure of workers to asbestos and to protect them of Asbestos (1986). against health hazards due to occupational exposure to asbestos. Basel Convention on the Transboundary To set up obligations for the state parties with a view to: Movements of Hazardous Wastes and • reducing transboundary movements of wastes subject to Basel Convention to a their Disposal minimum consistent with the environmentally sound and different effects of such wastes. • minimizing the amount and toxicity of hazardous wastes generated and ensuring their environmentally sound management (including disposal and recovery operations) as close as possible to the source of generation. • assisting developing countries in environmentally sound management of the hazardous wastes 143 Convention on Biological Diversity-CBD To conserve biodiversity, promote the sustainable use of its components and (1992) encourage equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources. Such equitable sharing includes appropriate access to genetic resources, as well as appropriate transfer of technology, taking into account existing rights over such resources and such technology. United Nations Framework Convention To regulate levels of greenhouse gases concentration in the atmosphere, so as to on Climate Change- UNFCCC (1992) avoid the occurrence of climate change on a level that would impede sustainable economic development, or compromise initiatives in food production. United Nations Convention to Combat To combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought in countries Desertification in those Countries experiencing serious drought and/or desertification, particularly in Africa, through Experiencing Serious Drought and/or effective action at all levels, supported by international cooperation and partnership Desertification, Particularly in Africa- arrangements, in the framework of an integrated approach which is consistent with CCCD (1994) Agenda 21, with a view to contributing to the achievement of sustainable development in affected areas.

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Table 11.4 Summary of Regional Agreements Regional Agreement Objective(s) Lake Victoria Fisheries to regulate and enhance fisheries in Lake Victoria covering Uganda, Kenya Organization (1994) and Tanzania Lake Victoria Environment programme for the management of the environment in the Lake Victoria Management Programme region addressing water quality, landuse, wetlands, fisheries, and control of (LVEMP) water hyacinth Kagera Basin Agreement forum of cooperation between the Kagera Basin states of Uganda, Tanzania, (1997) Rwanda and Burundi to ensure that environmental considerations are taken into account in development projects Technical Cooperation to promote basin-wide cooperation for the integrated and just development, Committee for the Promotion conservation and use of the Nile Basin water resources; and to determine the of the Development and equitable entitlement of each riparian state to the use of the Nile water. Environmental Protection of the Nile Basin (TECCONILE) Cooperation Enforcement Directed at controlling illegal trade in wildlife and wildlife products Operations Directed at Illegal Trade in Wild Fauna and Flora (the Lusaka Agreement) 1996 Inter-Governmental Authority originally known as the Inter-Governmental Authority on Development, on Development (IGAD) Drought and Desertification. It is a regional forum for conflict resolution and environmental management, particularly early warning system and food security. Covers: Sudan, Eritrea, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda and Somalia

References Brenton, T. 1994. The Greening of Machaivelli: The Evolution of International Environmental Politics. Earthscan, London, UK.

Brinkerhoff, D.W. and B.N. Kamugasha. 1998. Uganda and the National Environment Action Plan: Focusing on Implementation. Management Systems International

Brinkerhoff, D.W. and G. Honadle. 1996. Co-Managing Natural Resources in Africa: Implementing Policy and Institutional Changes in Five Countries. Washington, D.C. USAID, Implementing Policy Change Project, Monograph No. 4.

Kamugisha, J.R. 1993. Management of Natural Resources and Environment in Uganda – Policy and Legislation Landmarks, 1890-1990. Regional Soil Conservation Unit (SIDA).

MOH (Ministry of Health). 2000. Health Sector Strategic Plan 200/01 – 2004/5. Kampala, Uganda.

Moyini, Y. 2000. Report of the Proceedings of the First Workshop on the Development of a National Landuse Policy. Prepared on behalf of the National Environment Management Authority. Kampala, Uganda.

NEAP Secretariat. 1995a. The Environment Investment Programme. Ministry of Natural Resources. Kampala, Uganda.

NEAP Secretariat. 1995b. National Environment Action Plan. Ministry of Natural Resources. Kampala, Uganda.

NEAP Secretariat. 1994. Guidelines for Environmental Management at the Local Government Level: Decentralising Natural Resource Management in Uganda. Ministry of Natural Resources. Kampala, Uganda.

Ministry of Natural Resources (MNR). 1992. Environmental Information, Education and Public Awareness, Research and Monitoring. Task Force No. Report. Kampala, Uganda.

Martensson, U., Y. Moyini and J. Bemigisha. 2000. EIS Best Practices – Uganda Case Study. Prepared for the World Bank.

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MWLE (Ministry of Water, Lands and Environment). 2000. The Uganda Forestry Policy. Draft for Cabinet, 3rd November 2000. Kampala Uganda.

MTTI (Ministry of Tourism, Trade and Industry). 199. Wildlife Policy 2000 (draft). Prepared by the Project Coordination Unit. Kampala, Uganda

National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) 2000. Review of the Effectiveness of Environmental Liaison Units (ELUs).

National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) 1999. State of the Environment Report for Uganda 1998. Kampala, Uganda.

National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) 1997. State of the Environment Report for Uganda 1996. Kampala, Uganda.

Ruester, B. and Simma, B. (eds). 1975. International Protection of the Environment Treaties and Related Documents. Vol. 4 Oceana Publications, Dobbs Ferry, New York, USA.

Sustainable Development Centre (SDC) 2000 a. Incentives and Disincentives for Environmental Management: A Draft Users Manual. Kampala, Uganda.

Sustainable Development Center (SDC) 2000 b. Incentives and Disincentives for Environmental Management. Draft Implementation Strategy. Kampala, Uganda.

Slade, G. and Weitz, K. 1991. Uganda environmental issues and options. A masters Dissertation. Unpublished. Duke University, North Carolina, USA.

Tendler, J. 1997. Good Governance in the Tropics. Baltimore : Johns Hopkins University Press.

UNCED (United Nations Conference on Environment and development). 1992. The Rio Summit.

UN (United Nations). 1993. Agenda 21: The United Nations Programme of Action from Rio. New York. USA.

UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) 1999. Global Environment Outlook 2000: UNEP’s Millennium Report on the Environment. Earthscan Publications Ltd. London.

UWA (Uganda Wildlife Authority).2000. Community – Protected Areas Institution Policy. Kampala, Uganda.

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PART 4

THE FUTURE

147

The Future

Introduction

Around independence time, Ugandans in general felt pretty good about themselves. Their security was more or less guaranteed. Economic opportunities were there. The markets for traditional cash crops were assured. Employment opportunities, especially for skilled labour, were abundant. Except in a few places such as present Kabale District, land was abundant. Fallow periods were typically 7-10 years. There were huge populations of wildlife. Fish stocks were abundant and little effort was needed for harvesting. There were extensive areas of wetlands able to perform their ecological functions. Copper mining was a major economic activity employing thousands of people. This trend continued with minor reductions until 1970. Then things took a turn for the worse.

From 1971 to 1985, there were sharp declines in almost all measures of quality of life. Insecurity, civil war, economic mismanagement, resource depletion, to mention a few, all increased dramatically. Ugandans’ quality of life declined sharply. From 1986 up to today, there has been a remarkable improvement although not to the level of 1970. If it were possible to assign quantitative values for the quality of life described above, it would resemble the depiction in Figure 12.1. Ugandans are once again beginning to feel good about themselves, except in areas where there are rebel activities and when natural disasters such as earthquakes, droughts, and diseases strike.

The question is, for how long? What does the future hold for Ugandans and the environment? In 1999, Ugandans reached a consensus on a vision for the future and summed it up as “Prosperous People, Harmonious Nation, Beautiful Country” (MFPED, 1999). In coming up with this vision, Ugandans examined four possible scenarios or development paths for the future. A scenario is a story, told in words and numbers, concerning the manner in which future events could unfold and offering lessons on how to direct the flow of events towards sustainable pathways and away from unsustainable ones (UNEP, 2000). While one cannot know what it will be, it is possible to tell plausible and interesting stories about what could be. Scenarios draw on both science – the understanding of historical patterns, current conditions, and imagination to conceive, articulate and evaluate alternative pathways of development and the environment (UNEP, 2000).

148

Figure 12.1: Characterization of trends in quality of life of Ugandans

100

90 90

80 80

60 60 Index of quality 50 of life 40 40 40

10 10

0 1960 1970 1980 1985 1990 2000 Years

Scenario construction is a key component of long-term planning or perspective studies (MFPED, 1999; UNEP, 1999). It is a method of communicating and forming opinions about the future, without claiming to predict the future. Besides building awareness on the part of people and governments on the potentialities, scenarios provide the nitty gritty of ideas and tools for the formulation of normative goals and structured patterns of development (Ayeni, 2000). Scenarios provide the link between the present and the future; while also providing insights into the understanding of the interplay of forces shaping variations in the processes of environmental change (Ayeni, 2000). Through the Global Environment Outlook series, UNEP provides a comprehensive assessment of the state of the global environment, a review of policy responses and an outlook on the future (UNEP, 2000). While scenarios are based on happenings of the past and present for their context and logic, it is also important to recognize that the future is inherently unpredictable (MFPED, 1999). During Uganda’s Long-term Perspectives development process, four scenarios were identified, namely: the Flying Crane Scenario, the Moribund Scenario, the Ostrich Scenario, and the Peaceful Slumber Scenario (MFPED, 1999). These scenarios are illustrated in Figure 12.2.

The Flying Crane Scenario. This is the most desirable. Here the economy is vibrant, with positive impacts on all human development indicators at both national and local levels. The main political actors function in harmony in the national interest, thus creating a stable political environment to nurture economic progress (MFPED, 1999). • good governance and smooth transition of governments; • vibrant and competitive economy; • sustainable external debt; • rural transformation and modern agriculture; • significant improvements in human development; • beautiful country.

149

Moribund Scenario. This is at the other extreme end of the scenarios spectrum. It captures the possible unfolding of events in the policy and other decision arenas which lead to an unstable political environment and a non-competitive economy. It portrays untold sufferings to the people on account of a political regime which operates against the background of greed and selfishness among the ruling elite. The ruling class fails to pursue economic policies that are conducive to sustainable economic growth (MFPED, 1999). • chaotic politics and poor governance; • poor human development; • talented people and investors leave the country; • degraded environment; • poor and non-sustainable economic management; and • unsustainable levels of external debt.

Ostrich Scenario portrays a situation where economic progress is sustainable over the perspective period amidst an unstable political environment. However, as the political circumstances deteriorate further, economic progress begins to show signs of serious decline, on account of the inextricable linkage between the two critical development forces. In this scenario, leaders bury their heads in the sand against the political circumstances prevailing in the country, and their impact on the well-being of the nation state. • unstable politics and poor governance; • regional and internal insecurities and hostilities; • sound macroeconomic policies and financial management; and • high economic growth vis-à-vis rising levels of corruption and poverty.

The Peaceful Slumber Scenario is one where the economy is envisioned to be steadily declining over the perspective period, while the political situation is stable. In this scenario, the quest for power compels the political leadership to focus largely on their political credibility at the expense of economic growth and development. Eventually the consequential poverty from economic decline begins to take a bigger bite in the well-being of the people, who declare that they cannot just eat peace and political stability. The situation eventually leads to acrimony and unease, with clear signs of possible political instability beyond the perspective period (MFPED, 1999). • smooth transition of governments; • popular grassroots governance and transparency; • emergence of nationalistic and patriotic ideals; • reversal of stable macroeconomic policies and financial management; • capital flight, low investment and brain drain; and • hostile internal and external shocks.

150 Figure 12.2. Uganda’s Development Scenarios – Vision 2025

Source: MFPED (1999)

151 For purposes of presenting a future outlook for the state of the environment, UNEP’s GEO-3 format identified four possible scenarios: conventional worlds, barbarization, great transitions, and surprise scenarios. Table 12.1 shows the relationship between the scenarios of the GEO-3 format and that of Uganda’s Vision 2025. Except for the ‘surprise surprise’ scenario, all the other three of GEO-3 format can be accommodated under the four scenarios of Uganda’s Vision 2025.

Table 12.1: Scenarios Matrix SOER scenarios Vision 2025 The Flying Ostrich Peaceful Moribund Crane Scenario Slumber Scenario Scenario Scenario Conventional worlds scenario • Conventional Development a a a a a a • Policy Reform

Barbarization scenario Breakdown a a • a a • Fortress World Great transitions scenario • Eco-communalism a a • New Sustainable Paradigm Surprise, surprise scenario • Policy Induced • Disasters

In reporting on an outlook for Uganda’s state of the environment into the future, four scenarios were adopted. The four include three scenarios of Vision 2025 and the ‘surprise surprise’ scenario of GEO-3 format. One of the four scenarios of Vision 2025, the ‘Peaceful Slumber Scenario’ was dropped from analysis due to its relatively close similarity with the ‘Ostrich Scenario’. Consequently, the four scenarios described below are: • The Flying Crane Scenario (Great Transitions) • The Ostrich Scenario (Conventional Worlds) • The Moribund Scenario (Barbarization) • The Surprise Surprise Scenario (same as in GEO-3)

The main features of the four scenarios are presented in Table 12.2.

152 Table 12.2: State of Environment Scenarios Scenario Sub-scenario Features The Ostrich Conventional Refers to a future governed by a conventional development paradigm of Scenario Development market-driven development, accelerated globalization, trade liberalization, and (Conventional convergence of Uganda toward the development and institutional models of worlds) industrialized countries. Rather than ‘business-as-usual’, this sub-scenario is a normative future which would require substantial policy initiatives to over- come the barriers to such a market-driven future, to foster the necessary institutional conditions and to bring Uganda into the global market system. Policy Reform This sub-scenario accepts the basic development and modernization model of Conventional Development, but envisions the successful imposition of policies to meet strong environmental sustainability and social goals. This perspective underlies tacitly much of the international discussion and negotiation on these issues, which seek to reduce ecological impacts and levels of poverty through better technology and management practices, but do not take up more fundamental questions of the conventional model of development. The Moribund Breakdown Envisions the grim possibility that the social, economic and moral Scenario underpinnings of Uganda’s society deteriorate, as emerging problems (Barbarization) overwhelm the coping capacity of both markets and policy reforms. This leads to unbridled conflict, institutional disintegration and economic collapse. Fortress World Similar to Breakdown, but features an authoritarian response to the threat of breakdown. Ensconced in protected enclaves, elites safeguard their privilege by controlling an impoverished majority and managing critical natural resources, while outside the fortress there is repression, environmental destruction, and misery. The Flying Eco- Explores visionary solutions to the sustainability challenge, including new Crane Scenario Communalism socioeconomic arrangements and fundamental changes in values. Depicts a (Great transition to a society that preserves natural systems, provides high levels of Transitions) welfare through material sufficiency and equitable distribution and enjoys a strong sense of social solidarity. Population levels are stabilized at moderate levels and material flows through the economy are radically reduced through lower consumerism and massive use of green technologies. Specifically, Eco- communalism incorporates the green vision of localism, face- to-face democracy, small technology and economic autarky. New Shares the same general observations under Eco-communalism. However, in Sustainability addition, it seeks to change the character of urban, industrial civilization rather Paradigm than replace it, to build a more humane and equitable global civilization rather than retreat into localism. Like Eco-communalism, it is a value-driven and fundamental modification of conventional development paradigm and the long- range development model. Surprise, Unintended Relates to unforeseen events, unintended impacts of various policies on the Surprise Policy Effects environment. Such policies include the promotion of regional integration, the Scenario encouragement of a federal system (federo), and research activities. Disasters Refers to disasters natural or anthropogenically -induced. These include floods, drought, climatic change, and ecological dynamics.

Ostrich Scenario (Conventional Worlds)

Conventional Worlds Scenario envisions that Uganda will continue to develop without major surprises, sharp discontinuities or fundamental transformations as the basis for human civilization. Under this scenario, Ugandans will be looking forward to catching up with the rest of the world, particularly the industrialized countries. This, therefore, will call for, among others: • a rise of the consumption of Ugandans towards that of the industrialized countries; • more people ultimately living in urban than rural areas; • Ugandans using more commercial energy per capita than now; 153 • households using more freshwater; • spending more time on leisure and recreation than is the case today; • an increase in the stock of automobiles; • more and better health facilities.

Conventional Development The centerpiece of this sub-scenario is the conventional development paradigm whose emphasis is economic growth.

At the current rate of growth of 2.5% per annum, Uganda’s present population, estimated at 22 million would reach 54 million by the year 2032. Africa’s urbanization rate for the continent as a whole is expected to reach 34% by the year 2010 (UNPD, 1997). Using the conventional development approach, therefore, it is not unreasonable to assume 50% of Uganda’s population would be urban. This means that by the year 2032, there will be 27 million Ugandans living in urban areas, a tenfold increase. According to UNEP (1999), with rapid economic development, particularly over the past thirty years, urban populations in Asia and the Pacific region have increased fast with most of the urban population concentrated in a few cities. According to UNEP (1999) unless urban transformation is properly managed, rapid urbanization could lead to encroachment on agricultural and forestlands, urban air and water pollution (and associated diseases), unavailability of safe drinking water and the overexploitation of groundwater causing urban land settlement and subsidence, increased traffic congestion, noise pollution, and significant increases in solid municipal and industrial wastes.

As Ugandans begin to use commercial energy (fossil fuel and hydro) instead of biomass, there will be reduced pressure on the forest and woodlands resources of the country. However, atmospheric pollution will increase as a result of escalating energy consumption due to economic growth and greater use of motor vehicles. The use of poor quality fuels, inefficient methods of energy production and use, traffic congestion, poor automobile and road conditions and leaded fuel will exacerbate the situation (UNEP, 1999).

The increased population also means that freshwater withdrawals from rivers, lakes, reservoirs, underground aquifers and other sources will increase, particularly in urban areas. For example in Beijing, the daily demand for water increased almost 100 times between 1950 and 1980 (UNEP, 1999). Due to increased industrial activity, contamination of freshwater resources by pollutants will contribute to serious degradation, thereby reducing the amount of clean water available.

Although 50% of the population is expected to live in urban areas, there will still be the remaining 27 million being rural. Arable land is about 18 million ha of which approximately 5 million is under cultivation (MNR, 1994). At per capita farm holding of 0.276 ha (MNR, 1994), the 27 million Ugandans living in rural areas will be cultivating slightly over 7 million ha. Therefore, based on the year 2000 cultivated area, over 2 million hectares of uncultivated land will have to be brought into production. But from where? This additional land is likely to come from rangelands with their own unique fragility for crops. Cultivation will begin to compete with pastoralism, itself a potential source of conflicts. Also, since the present settlement pattern indicates high population densities around major wetlands and protected areas, there will be tremendous pressure on these sites unless enforcement and effective policies are put in place.

The 54 million Ugandans expected in the year 2032 will also have to be fed from the country’s fish resources. Ugandans are estimated to consume on average 31 kg/ year/ person of fish protein 154 (Sali, et al, 1990). This means Ugandans will consume 1.674 million metric tonnes in the year 2032, up from 682,000 in the year 2000, almost three times more. Will the water bodies of Uganda be able to sustain such demand? Probably not. The country will need to invest heavily in fish farming if the consumption rate is to continue.

Policy Reform The likely impacts identified under the Conventional Development sub-scenario could arise under the policy reform sub-scenario if a policy-neutral environment were to pertain. However, under Policy Reform, the expectation is that effective policies would be put in place. Uganda will need to put in place appropriate policies to govern the rate and level of urbanization if the country is to avoid the adverse impacts being experienced by other countries. Even in Uganda, where urbanization is still low, with an urban population of less than 3 million, the people are already beginning to experience traffic congestion, solid waste disposal problems, and pollution. The beginning point would be to formulate a landuse policy and develop landuse plans to guide development.

To discourage resource depletion, the prices of Uganda’s natural resources will have to move progressively towards their true economic values and thereby discourage rent seeking. Similarly, policy reform will be needed in energy pricing, ensuring that long-run marginal cost becomes a basis for determining prices.

Policies that encourage better agronomic practices will be needed to try and raise agricultural productivity without excessive use of agrochemicals. This also means elimination of agricultural subsidies as has been recommended in the Plan for Modernization of Agriculture.

Perhaps a much more profound policy area is that of population since it is the principal driver of a number of these impacts. Incentives for and promotion of lower rates of population growth will need to be encouraged. A positive relationship exists between levels of education and family size. A literate population is expected to be in a much better position to appreciate the benefits of family planning. Uganda’s Universal Primary Education is, therefore, in the right direction and will have to be sustained and perhaps expanded.

The Moribund Scenario (Barbarization)

The Moribund Scenario envisions the grim possibility that, social, economic and moral underpinnings of Uganda’s development deteriorate. Ugandans have been there before. This is what happened during the 1970s and early 1980s, where the quality of life of Ugandans declined precipitously. Uganda became a world pariah state. So, what would contribute to such a barbaric scenario? Several factors.

First, a radical change in governance favouring irresponsible leadership would lead to civil war and armed rebellion. Different parts of the country may also decide to break away resulting in a fragmented country, with districts or regions making independent decisions on such things as natural resource management that is counter to national interests. A breakdown in law and order will make it virtually impossible for government to enforce many laws, including those governing environmental management.

155

Breakdown Allowed to continue unattended, barbarization will lead to a complete breakdown of the country, resulting in economic stagnation, among others. However, Uganda’s population will continue to grow. Most likely the 54 million Ugandans expected by the year 2032 will be mainly rural and poor. Urbanization will be less than the 50% expected under The Ostrich Scenario, but probably more than the present 12%. At 25% urbanization, close to 41 million Ugandans will live in rural areas engaged in subsistence agriculture, practicing poor farming methods and contributing to increased land degradation. Slightly more than 11 million ha of arable land will be under cultivation, leaving only 7 million ha out of the total 18 million ha for livestock.

Without any investments in commercial energy production, the 41 million subsistence farmers will continue to depend on woody biomass. At per capita consumption of 8m3/year, the rural population would require 328 million m3 of fuel wood in the year 2032. This is well over the sustainable long-run supply. A forecast made earlier had suggested that if present utilization rates persisted and no ameliorative actions taken, Uganda would face a severe wood fuel scarcity by the year 2021 (MNR, 1994). The scarcity will, therefore, be far more worse by the year 2032.

The 13 million people expected to reside in urban areas would also be worse off in the absence of investments in infrastructure and lack of opportunities for employment and other economic activities. There will be a proliferation of urban slums, haphazard settlements, congestion, pollution, and rising levels of crime.

Most of the rural population depends on groundwater sources from boreholes and protected springs. Uganda’s groundwater resources are generally poor and occur in limited areas along fissures, cracks and joints of the granite-gneiss formation (MNR, 1994). Hence the estimated 41 million Ugandans will put great pressure on the country’s groundwater resources.

Fortress World Fortress World has potentially similar impacts on the environment as the Breakdown sub- scenario, but with one significant difference. The Fortress World envisions authoritarian response to the threat of a breakdown. The Fortress World features elites safeguarding their privilege by controlling an impoverished majority and managing critical natural resources. Outside the Fortress, there is repression, environmental destruction, and misery.

Under Fortress World, the ruling elite will force the subsistence farmers to grow the kinds of crops only of interest to them. This may mean placing emphasis on cash crops instead of production for food, thereby leading to increased food insecurity, which in turn would lead to increased off take of natural resources products. Where the production of certain cash crops is also favoured, some of the protected areas may get degazzetted as happened in the 1970s under the double production campaign of the Amin regime.

Corruption will also proliferate as the poor masses seek favours from the ruling elite, while members of the latter try to out-compete each other in wealth agglomeration. The gap between the few rich and the many poor will increase, further aggravating the poverty situation. And poor people are known to be both agents and victims of environmental degradation. There will be a sea of poverty and degraded environment and scattered islands of relative prosperity.

156 The Flying Crane Scenario (Great Transitions)

The Flying Crane Scenario calls for visionary leadership, and the willingness to change some of the ways in which development currently occurs. The Flying Crane Scenario could involve, among others: • aggressive family planning to reduce average population growth to about 1.5% per annum over the 2000-2032 period; • rapid urbanization so as to catch up and then exceed the average African rate so that by 2032, 70% of the population will be urban. This sort of development is implicitly favoured in the Plan for Modernization of Agriculture which advocates for the radical transformation of rural areas; • unprecedented economic growth through the combined effects of modernization of agriculture, petroleum and mineral production, exports of hydro power, and agro-based manufacturing; • stable, effective, decentralized governance; • high level of investment in infrastructure development; • sustained peaceful co-existence; and • universal primary, secondary and tertiary education.

Eco-communalism Should the foregoing developments pertain, Uganda’s population would increase from 22 million in the year 2000 to 35 million by the year 2032. The rural population would decrease by 8 million, from 19 million in the year 2000 to 11 million by the year 2032. A smaller, educated population would live in the rural areas, in near-complete harmony with the environment. Pressures will be off protected areas. Agriculture would be modernized with few farmers engaged in it but producing more than under subsistence agriculture. The number of rural residents will be a smaller number, well organized and appreciative of the surrounding ecology. Their governance system would be simpler but effective.

However, modernization of agriculture will also mean intensification of management, including increased use of agro-chemicals–herbicides for weeding due to labour shortage, fertilizers to enhance yields, and pesticides during both the growing period and in storage.

New Sustainability Paradigm The paradigm seeks to change the character of urbanization and industrialization, and to build a more humane and equitable society rather than retreat into localism.

At the assumed rate of population growth, Uganda’s urban population would increase from 3 million in the year 2000 to 24 million by the year 2032. This scale of urban growth will require careful planning otherwise problems of pollution and congestion will be significant. Crime rates might also increase in the urban areas unless employment opportunities are expanded significantly. The increased urbanization will also result in encroachments onto agricultural land, but on balance more land will be available for agriculture and green spaces compared to The Ostrich and The Moribund scenarios.

Increases in manufacturing, processing, petroleum production and mining will all generate substantial quantities of waste and pose serious pollution problems. Standards must be set to guard against degradation of the environment; and this must be accompanied by effective

157 enforcement of laws. Appropriate incentives measures will also have to be put in place to encourage clean production.

The Surprise Surprise Scenario

The Surprise, Surprise Scenario addresses unforeseen events and scientific discoveries that could have profound effect on the lives and the environment of Ugandans.

Although it is recognized that a lot of research is being carried out on various phenomena, to a large extent, these are mainly concentrated in industrialized countries, addressing their specific concerns (UNEP, 1999). In Uganda, there is a dearth of research and information on the possible consequences of various events including those unintended effects of policy and disasters.

Unintended Policy Effects Ugandans have and continue to debate the merits and demerits of a federal system of governance (federo). Also, attempts to forge a national character since independence have not been entirely successful. Ugandans identify themselves more with their various ethnicities than the Republic of Uganda. If these sentiments are allowed to flourish, the country could disintegrate into small (50 or so) nation-states, aggregating at best under a federal system. Such a situation would complicate environmental management with each entity claiming sovereignty and the right to manage its resources as it sees fit. In a situation where the polluter is right next door to the polluted, potential for conflict exists. Also, natural resource boundaries do not follow administrative ones in most cases. Agreements on resource sharing, ownership and management responsibilities would have to be carefully negotiated. This situation is already emerging among the districts. The sharing of timber royalties between Kapchorwa and Mbale districts is already a contentious issue (UWA, 2000). Now it seems this royalty will also have to be shared with the new district of Sironko, further complicating the problem.

Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania are also in the process of re-establishing the old East African Community. Once concluded, the regional arrangement will have significant implications for Uganda. As happened before, there is likely to be migration of people from Kenya to the surplus arable areas in Uganda. The integration, though would help rationalize the management of shared resources such as the Lake Victoria and Mt. Elgon ecosystems. As a landlocked country, Uganda would benefit from having unrestricted access to the sea thus contributing to greater trade with the rest of the world.

Research and development and increased private sector participation in it, is one of the linchpins of the Plan for Modernization of Agriculture. Unsupervised private sector involvement in agricultural research could pose potential risks. There could be unexpected consequences of the increasing human manipulation of nature and biological processes. According to UNEP (1999), the possible effects of accidentally or intentionally introducing genetically-modified organisms (GMOs) on the gene pools, and the survival and overall health of wild populations of cultural species is an active area of research. However, the rapid evolutionary nature of microbes, viruses and some insects is an area where surprises could be in store (UNEP, 1999). Also, every year many new agrochemicals are introduced on the market. Unfortunately, many of these introductions are carried out without sufficient research into their impacts.

158 Disasters There are two main potential disasters that Ugandans should keep a watch on, namely: climate change and ecological dynamics.

With respect to greenhouse gases, Uganda is a net sink, meaning the country absorbs all the carbon dioxide it produces and some of those produced by other countries. Many countries, particularly the industrialized countries produce more carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases than they absorb. Released into the atmosphere, these gases know no national boundaries. There is, therefore, a buildup of the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, contributing to global warming. Annual global emissions of carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels, cement manufacture and gas flaring reached a new high of nearly 23,900 million metric tonnes in 1996 (CDIAC, 1999). This was some 400 million tonnes more than in 1995 and nearly four times the 1950 total (UNEP, 1999).

The buildup of greenhouse gases will lead to the warming of the earth. In a warmer world there will be higher agricultural production in the high latitudes of the northern and southern hemispheres but reduced production in the tropics and sub-tropics where there is already food deficiency (UNEP, 1999). Climate change could also influence Uganda’s numerous lakes, streams and wetlands through altered water temperatures, flow regimes and water levels. Increases in the variability of water flow, particularly the frequency and duration of large floods and droughts, would tend to reduce water quality and biological productivity and habitat in freshwater ecosystems (IPCC, 1998). Any warming up of the earth would make Uganda drier. Depending on its severity, the global warming could shift agro ecological zones, initially increasing the area of the country considered arid and semi-arid. Correspondingly, the size of the areas with rainfall in excess of 1700mm per year would be reduced. Under such a scenario, Uganda's coffee growing area may actually shrink in size, with no compensating alternatives.

The second potential disaster relates to the ecological dynamics of both lakes Victoria and Kyoga. There are attempts underway to dredge Lake Kyoga so that more water can flow to Sudan and Egypt. Unfortunately, the behaviour of this rather shallow lake has not been adequately studied. The dredging could very well end up drying the lake altogether. The ecological dynamics of Lake Victoria is also worrying. The Nile Perch, an introduced species has virtually wiped out most of the native species. Can the Nile Perch sustain itself and continue to yield significant annual catches? If not, Lake Victoria runs the risk of becoming sterile should the Nile Perch population crash. The only option after such an event would be to restock the lake, an enormous effort for which Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania are ill-prepared largely because they do not have the resources.

The Preferred Future for Uganda – A synthesis

Ugandans chose The Flying Crane Scenario as their most preferred development path. It is, therefore, appropriate to summarize the assumption of The Flying Crane Scenario in order to better appreciate the nature of the driving forces as well as identify possible impacts of the forces on the environment. Similar to the work done by Ayeni (2000) for Africa, the assumptions are as follows: • neither The Ostrich Scenario nor The Moribund Scenario possess strategies that are adequate for addressing the ills of the assault on the environment;

159 • furthermore, given the range of treaties and conventions on environmental issues which Uganda has adopted and is effectuating, policies alone will not be sufficiently effective against social inequities and environmental uncertainty; • while Uganda is unlikely to abandon market forces as a policy tool, equally, social, cultural and environmental goals are likely to receive precedence in thinking about development; • Ugandans have endorsed the principle of sustainable development, and this endorsement is likely to fundamentally change values and lifestyles of the people; • most likely, there will be a cultural renaissance that will not only be critical of past behaviour and effects on the environment, but will also outline new ways of thinking and fostering environmental goals; • the increasing number of affluent Ugandans, becoming ever more disillusioned with consumerism, other ills of society and the negative impacts of development on the environment will undertake steps to develop new values and value systems which they will gradually introduce and promote to a new set of ethics to the rest of Ugandans; and • a new generation of Ugandan thinkers, leaders and artists will join and shape national and global dialogue towards environmental sustainability.

The foregoing assumptions of The Flying Crane Scenario operate jointly and severally on a set of factors, best described as driving forces. These forces are: demographics, economics, social development, culture, technology, environment, and governance. The driving forces and their characteristics adapted from Ayeni (2000) are presented in Table 12.3.

Under The Flying Crane Scenario, the driving forces would lead to a future for Uganda that is not only desirable but also achievable. Uganda’s environment will be in perfect harmony with its human population. Furthermore, the people’s needs will be fully met without jeopardizing the future in any way. The other details of this environmental harmony are summarized in Table 12.4, adapted from Ayeni (2000).

What will it take for Ugandans to achieve the desired state of environment under The Flying Crane Scenario? First and foremost, The Flying Crane Scenario calls for a very radical change with respect to development thinking at conceptual, methodological, institutional, operational and financial levels similar to what Achebe et.al (1990) advocated for the African Renaissance. This means that development must move away from being crisis-oriented. At the methodological level, the development must be surprise-rich, inductive and retroductive as opposed to conventional wisdom that is surprise-free, deductive and predictive (Ayeni, 2000). Operationally, strategies aimed to achieve development under The Flying Crane Scenario must be locally owned and initiated. It must be supportive, nurturing and people intensive. Uganda’s institutions must also continue to decentralize and become truly grassroots-oriented, multiple, dispersed and pluralizing. The beauty of The Flying Crane Scenario for Uganda is that a lot of effort has already gone into its articulation during the preparation of Uganda’s Vision 2025. Uganda can also additionally borrow ideas from others. Collectively, these ideas will continue to crystallize to become major foci for the accelerated environmentally sustainable development of Uganda.

160 Table 12.3 The Driving Forces and their Characteristics Driving Descriptions forces Demographics • increasing population characterized by a stable demographic structure • zero growth rate and balanced age cohort distribution of persons • population will be dynamic • decreasing income inequalities minimize transnational migrations and prevent brain drain • increasing rates of urbanization coupled with ability to fight the evil effects • harnessing the virtues of urbanization Economics • the information economy leads to a more integrated world economic system • information economy impacts both the processes and patterns of industrialization • privatization of sectors of the economy leads to the stabilization and hence their desirable integration with the global economic system • marginalisation of Uganda by the rest of the world will reduce • sub regional blocks will be strengthened and will set to minimize regional inequities • multinationals will dominate the modern economies, which will be characterized by rising incomes and reductions in levels of poverty • foreign investments especially through multinational companies and through processes of privatization will increase and replace foreign aid • move from an era of total dependence on natural resources through sustained programmes of diversification of the economy and through industrialization within the framework of information technology Social • improving levels of human development development • minimization of disparities in human development between sexes, and within the country • increasing ability to tackle the HIV/AIDS epidemic as well as other endemic diseases introduction of social development policies to foster good family relations and change social concerns of persons • introduction of social reforms that guarantee access to land and public facilities and to modern infrastructure • introduction of policies that stabilize families and reduce the gaps between urban and rural areas • enthronement of the legacy of social responsibility to the environment Culture • convergence of cultures to western life styles • western values overshadowing African cultures • effective utilization of the mix of cultures will lead to healthier life-styles and promotion of alternatives • replacement of traditional family ties that are breaking down • elimination of religion and ethnicity as a divisive force in Uganda’s development Technology • improved information technology infrastructure as the basis for the new development strategy • creation of opportunities in business, commerce and industry • integration with the African nations and with the rest of the world • economic integration with African nations • biotechnology will provide increasing opportunities to meet the food and drug needs of the peoples of Uganda • marginalization decreases over time as information technology leads to a rapid catch up • information technology will provide the basis of modern industrial development • Uganda will for once be able to realize its dreams of industrialization as a strategy of development • the emergence of micro-power technologies will be assisted by modern information technology and will revolutionalize the source of energy needs of Ugandans • ability to recognize the sequence of timing that is essential to harness good technology and integrate this into the process of development • the introduction of cleaner fuels and the culture of a greater concern for the environment will reduce the negative impacts of industrialization on the environment Environment • Uganda will willingly enforce international environmental treaties • the emergence of civil societies and non-governmental organizations will assist to enforce international treaties • unsustainable use of natural resources and environmental degradation will decline • biotechnology will lead to great improvements in the food production chain • there will be hope of self-sufficiency in food production • unsustainable agricultural practices and increasing use of marginal lands will decrease as a result of improved farming practices • competition for resources across national borders will be minimized because improved database will exist for the settlement of disputes • better urban management practices will eliminate strains and assaults on the urban environment • people will appreciate the importance of better cities and better environments • sustainable management practices will stem the problems of aquatic environments and the rate of degradation will be slowed down considerably Governance • privatization will be the dominant force in restructuring basic services • privatization will lead to greater efficiency and the elimination of incessant problems associated with the provision and distribution of services and facilities • there will be greater level of cooperation between Uganda and the rest of the world in a single world economic system • institutional reforms will strengthen governance while the influence of civil societies will increase and will serve as checks on the excesses of national governments • local participation in decision-making will increase considerably • reduction of conflicts in most countries through assistance to provide basic services and through breaking of poverty trap Source: Adapted from Ayeni (2000) 161 Table 12.4 Environmental Consequences of the Flying Crane Scenario Themes Effects on the indicators Atmosphere • some gases persist in the atmosphere but technology to clean them has become available • technology to clean-up the atmosphere is developed and will be used in Uganda • emission levels reduced due to cleaner production and transport technologies, whose implementation may be delayed in Uganda • urban air quality improves • energy use efficiency improves tremendously due to improved awareness and technology, and changes in attitudes • Uganda given the means (financial and technical) will phase out use of ozone depleting substances within the context of a partner rather than a recipient Biodiversity • biodiversity, ecosystems and habitats receive adequate national and international protection through policies and practices • the value of biodiversity, ecosystems and habitats is recognized globally and nationally with a fair share of benefits from sustainable use accruing to local communities and the national and district and sub-county governments • trade in rare species will be fairly regulated and driven by ethics and moral values Disasters • reduction in man-made disasters • decreased vulnerability to the incidence of disaster • reduced impact of catastrophes due to greater preparedness • shift in population and development from disaster-prone and ecologically sensitive areas to environmentally safe areas • full compliance to MEAs, built upon through stronger national, regional, and local initiatives and cooperation, resulting in reduced incidence of natural disasters and greater preparedness in response to catastrophes Urban • proportion of people living in urban environments will increase, just as the rate of growth of urban population environment • marked increases in access to water and sanitation • marked decreases in persons living in urban slums and unplanned settlements • greater control of waste management Protected • incremental loss of biodiversity due to human activity will be reduced to zero, and there will be no endangered species areas • recognition of sustainable uses of forest resources for medicinal and other purposes • protected area system plan in place and respected • sensitive and important habitats will be protected • communities will be environmentally aware/conscious and empowered to care for the earth • area of forests will increase and forest quality will improve, due to the realization of the real value of forest resources and improved forest management • integrated and sustainable development management will ensure minimal degradation of the man-environment system • human and environmental vulnerability will be minimized • NGOs and civil society capacity will be enhanced and empowered to play a more significant role in environmental management Land • increased equitable access to land • reduced conflict over land-based resources and amicable resolution of conflict that do arise • major rehabilitation of marginal and degraded lands • planned development and rational land use within country and region • higher protection of the environment and fragile ecosystems • free land market (including purchasing land in any part of the country) • rural-urban disparity decreases • greater incentive for sustainable land use • opportunity costs for environmentally benign use of the land would be recompensed • environmental management will be applied to ecosystems (i.e watersheds) within the regions and not restricted by national political considerations • national boundaries are less significant-nomadic and pastoralist communities allowed greater • movement across borders (return to traditional practices) Aquatic • sustainable use and management of aquatic resources resources • effective integrated management will lead to sustainable use of coastal and aquatic resources Health and • everyone is healthy and happy environment • health services are affordable and accessible

References Achebe, C. et al. 1990. Beyond Hunger in Africa 2057: An African Vision. Heinemann Books, New Hampshire

Ayeni, B. 2000. Regional Scenarios: Great Transitions. Global Environment Outlook (GEO-3). United Nations Environment Programme. Nairobi, Kenya

CDIAC (Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center) 1999. Revised Regional CO2 Emissions from Fossil Fuel Burning, Cement Manufacture, and Gas Flaring: 1751-1996. Environmental Sciences Division, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, United States

162 IPCC (Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change) 1998. The Regional Impacts of Climate Change: An Assessment of Vulnerability. A Special Report of IPCC Working Group II. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, U.K.

MNR (Ministry of Natural Resources) 1994. The State of Environment Report for Uganda 1994. Kampala, Uganda.

MFPED (Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development). 1999. Vision 2025 – A Strategic Framework for National Development. Volume 1. Kampala, Uganda.

Raskin, P. 2000. Regional Scenarios for Environmental Sustainability : A Review of the Literature. Stockholm Environment Institute, Boston Center, MA.

Sali, W.M. et. al. 1990. Fish and Fuel, Food and Forests: Perspectives on Post-Harvest Issues in Uganda. Field Notes No. 17

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) 2000. GEO-3 Scenarios: Preliminary Framework. Africa Expert Group Consultations on GEO-3 Outlook, 30th October – 1 November, 2000. UNEP Headquarters, Nairobi, Kenya.

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) 1999. Global Environment Outlook 2000. UNEP’s Millenium Report on the Environment. Earthscan Publications Ltd., London, U.K.

United Nations Population Division (UNPD) 1997. Urban and Rural Areas, 1950-2030 (1996 Revision). United Nations. New York, USA.

UWA (Uganda Wildlife Authority) 2000. Personal Communications. Kampala, Uganda.

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PART 5

OUTLOOK AND RECOMMENDATIONS

164

Outlook and 13Recommendations

Uganda has had a mixed history right from colonial administration to the end of the 20th century. Churchill once called Uganda ‘The Pearl of Africa’. This image of Uganda as a beautiful prosperous and peaceful country persisted until 1970. Thereafter, up to the mid eighties Uganda became a pariah state. There was an almost total breakdown of governance systems. Environmental concerns were largely ignored in favour of short-term illegal benefit maximizing behaviours such as wildlife poaching, illegal timber harvesting, and degazzetement of protected areas. From 1986 onwards, Uganda has aggressively reversed the decline of the 1970s and mid 1980s. Uganda is now regarded as one of the countries in Sub-Saharan Africa that shows great promise for accelerated development, having attained GDP growth rates in excess of 5% per annum over the last ten years.

This State of Environment Report 2000 confirms the achievements the country has made since the mid 1980s, particularly with respect to environmental management. However remarkable as the achievements have been, Uganda still faces some daunting environmental challenges. This section of the State of Environment Report 2000 highlights some of the challenges, emerging problems, areas of success, while the last part of the section is devoted to making some recommendations for action.

Outlook for the 21st Century

Globally, the beginning of the 21st Century finds the planet Earth poised between two conflicting trends – a wasteful and invasive consumer society, coupled with continuing population growth, is threatening to destroy the resources on which human life is based; while at the same time, society is locked in a struggle against time to reverse these trends and introduce sustainable practices that will ensure the welfare of future generations (UNEP, 1999).

Uganda faces the twin challenges of poverty and environmental degradation. While poverty is being addressed through the Poverty Eradication Action Plan, there is concern that some of the

165 strategies advocated for doing so may in fact work against environmental integrity. Section two of the State of Environment Report 2000 shows clearly that in some cases time is running out and in others new problems are beginning to emerge, thus compounding an already difficult situation. Nonetheless, there have also been remarkable attempts and achievements in halting environmental degradation.

Time is Running Out In the past, the carrying capacity of Uganda’s environment was adequate and was able to contain some minor degradations. This is no longer the case. The time for a rational, well-planned transition to a sustainable system is running out fast as illustrated in Section 2 of this report. For example: • Land degradation, contributed largely by soil erosion, has reduced soil fertility and agricultural potential. Replacing lost topsoil takes centuries or even millennia. These losses have negated many of the advances made through expanding agricultural areas and increasing productivity. • While deforestation in protected areas has been largely halted, that on private and public lands is going on unabated. Even if current trends were reversed, it would take many generations to replace the lost forests. The biodiversity that have been lost with them will never be replaced. • There are many mammalian species that are now extinct in Uganda. Re-introducing these species such as the black and white rhinos is expensive. • If the present rate of use of fuelwood consumption continues without replenishment, Uganda will face a major biomass energy crisis over the next twenty years. Some areas are already experiencing this. • Several of Uganda’s water bodies such as Lake Wamala have been over-fished, and their recovery will be slow. Future growth in demand for fish will have to be satisfied by aquaculture – itself a practice fraught with environmental dangers. The dependence of Ugandans on fish as the lowest cost animal protein will have major implications for malnutrition once fish becomes scarce at the present poverty levels. • Extensive areas of Uganda’s wetlands have been ‘reclaimed’ for agriculture, and urban and industrial development. These wetlands have been lost permanently. • Uganda’s climate is becoming increasingly unpredictable with dire consequences for agricultural production and rural livelihoods. • Although the urban population of Uganda is small relative to the total, there are already signs of urban pollution. • While Uganda is referred to as a success story in its attempts to deal with the HIV/AIDS scourge, the country has lost a significant percent of the productive segment of its population. The cost of treatment is too prohibitive for the majority of the population. • Malaria is once again a major disease in Uganda. New strains of malaria parasites have emerged that are resistant to the traditional treatment (use of chloroquine). The country is also losing a lot of productivity due to the illness. Developing vaccines against malaria is very expensive and Uganda cannot do it alone.

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New Problems In addition to the foregoing environmental problems, in the recent past, Uganda has witnessed the emergence of a number of new ones that have major impacts on the environment. Some of these emerging problems are presented below. • The economic and ecological importance of species invasions, an inevitable result of increasing globalization appears to have become more significant. Of particular and immediate concern to Uganda is the invasion of Lake Victoria by the Nile Perch at the expense of other aquatic species. There is also the invasion of the Lake by the water hyacinth. • The continuation of conflicts in the Great Lakes Region not only threatens the environment of those directly involved but that of neighbouring states also. • The environmental importance of the thousands of refugees living in Uganda, and who are forced to make unrestricted assaults on the natural environment for their survival is significant, particularly in northern Uganda. • The increased frequency and severity of natural disasters, now killing and injuring hundreds of people every year, and causing severe economic losses is also of concern. • The increasing severity and number of diseases (coffee wilt, cassava mosaic virus) confronting agriculture threatens Uganda’s economic growth prospects.

Continued success Despite the environmental problems inherited from previous bad governance systems and the new emerging ones, Uganda has recorded a number of major achievements in environmental management. Fundamental changes have been effected in the way Uganda’s environment will be managed in the future. Examples of these changes are listed below. • There is in place an institution, the National Environment Management Authority, which is responsible for environmental matters in the country. • Uganda now has an improved policy and regulatory framework for environmental management that focuses largely on incentives and disincentives. • Decentralized environmental management is a cornerstone of Uganda’s achievements, together with an adequate provision for public participation. • Through increased awareness creation, the public in Uganda is much more aware of environmental issues. This awareness covers all segments of the population. • Awareness of the link between poverty and environment has been promoted. Environmental concerns were mainstreamed into both the Poverty Eradication Action Plan and the Plan for Modernisation of Agriculture. A number of poverty-environment indicators have been identified and will be part of the household surveys for monitoring poverty trends. • The capacity of several districts for environmental management has been built. These districts have come up with district environment action plans, and in some cases district environment policies and bye-laws. • Wetlands inventories have been carried out in selected areas. There is in place a policy framework for the management of Uganda’s wetlands. Environment officers are in the process of being appointed responsible for wetlands management in key districts. And within the responsible ministry, there is a Wetlands Inspection Division. • A number of biodiversity conservation initiatives are progressing well. Uganda is in the final stages of preparing a National Biodiversity Conservation Strategy and Action Plan.

167 • Conservation of wildlife and forests in protected areas has improved greatly. The wildlife protected area systems plan has been rationalized. The management of forests is being restructured for greater effectiveness. • Both health and water and sanitation are priority investment areas of government, meaning that environmental health issues are receiving high-level attention.

Recommendations for Action

The presentation of recommendations for action is a significant departure from the format of the previous three State of the Environment Reports for Uganda, which had none. The reason for including recommendations this time is to present key measures and actions that could effectively reverse unwelcome trends and reduce threats to the environment. The recommendations are grouped under seven headings, namely: • Tackling root causes; • Policies; • Decentralised environmental management; • Economics; • Data/information; • Regulations and standards; and • Financing.

Tackling the root causes The root causes of environmental degradation in Uganda are poverty and population growth, which are not strictly addressed by the various environmental policies. Resource consumption, for example, is a key driver of environmental degradation (UNEP, 1999). Policy measures needed to attack this root cause must reduce population growth. The measures should also ideally upgrade the living standards of the disadvantaged and increase sustainability (UNEP, 1999). Linked to population growth is the dependence of Ugandans on biomass energy (MNR, 1994a).

Suggestions for Action • Take steps to raise awareness of the linkages between population, poverty and environment • Promote the adoption of energy efficient technologies • Advocate for increased promotion of family planning activities together with increased school enrolment, particularly of the girl child • Design policies that promote alternative renewable energy sources to alleviate pressure on woody biomass resources.

Policies Uganda has put in place a number of policies aimed at better environmental management. Some of these policies have already been translated into laws while others are in the process of being turned into laws. To the extent that a large part of the environmental degradation in Uganda is related to land ownership and management practices, the enactment of the Land Act 1998 must be seen as a significant improvement. Unfortunately, the Act was enacted before a national landuse policy was in place. This has not allowed the subsequent development of a national landuse plan, which could contribute significantly towards reducing land degradation. Furthermore, although the policy framework for environmental management is reasonably comprehensive, there may be a need to develop other topic or area (district) specific policies to 168 address any unique concerns. For example, within the overall umbrella of The Wildlife Policy, UWA has produced two subsidiary policies: The Monitoring and Research Policy (UWA, 1999) and The Community Protected Area Institution Policy (UWA, 2000). Also, at least seven of the districts of Uganda have come up with their own environment policies to address specific concerns but under the overall umbrella of the National Environment Management Policy 1994 (DSCU, 2000). Finally, although policies exist, their effectiveness is hard to measure.

Recommended Actions

• Formulate a national landuse policy and support districts in preparing their own landuse policies • Translate the landuse policies into a national landuse plan and district landuse plans • Encourage the formulation of thematic policies within overall sectoral policies • Develop suitable indicators for measuring the effectiveness of environmental policies

Decentralized Environmental Management The devolution of environmental management to lower levels of government is one of the landmark achievements of Uganda. However, in implementing decentralized environmental management, the capacities of the districts differ. Less than half of the districts have environment action plans (DEAPs). Even where day to day environmental management is concerned, there are some districts (such as Kampala, Kiboga and Sembabule as of December 31st, 2000) who have yet to appoint environment officers. Even where officers were appointed, six of the 45 districts (Adjumani, Apac, Gulu, Hoima, Kalangala and Moyo) for the year 2000 were designated by NEMA as having been not fully functional (DSCU,2000). Also many of the indigenous civil society organizations (NGOs, CBOs and CBAs) are generally not very effective, lacking capacity and resources.

Recommended Actions • Support district in building their environment management capacities in general • Support districts that have not prepared their environment policies and action plans to do so • Support indigenous civil society organizations to become effective participants in environment management

Economics First, The National Environment Management Policy 1994 , advocates for the use of economic instruments (incentives and disincentives) in environmental management, together with resource pricing strategies and supportive macroeconomic framework (MNR, 1994b). Other sectoral policies also support the increased use of economic instruments for better resource management (MTTI, 1995; MWLE, 2000; and MAAIF, 2000).

The second concern is that of the natural resource management agencies who feel that the assets they manage are routinely undervalued leading to their being disadvantaged during budgetary allocations. A pertinent question, therefore, is what are these resources worth? Part of the answer lies in the benefit streams generated by the environmental goods and services of the resources. This in turn leads to the question of how resource rents are determined.

Third, without preparing proper accounts, it is not possible to know if Uganda’s natural resources are being utilized sustainably. Pearce et al (1994) carried out a review of economic values and 169 the environment in developing countries including Ghana, Madagascar, Nigeria and Cameroon as case studies. Uganda could benefit from such an exercise.

Fourth, although the economy of Uganda is growing at an average rate in excess of 5% per year, there is concern that this growth may not be sustainable, perhaps coming at the expense of the environment. For example, environmental degradation was conservatively estimated at 4 – 12 % of gross national product (Slade and Weitz, 1991). There is, therefore, need to ensure that Uganda’s economic growth is sustainable. Other countries have approached this by adjusting their national statement of accounts to reflect environmental degradation. For example, they have attempted to adjust their gross domestic product to come up with what is termed Eco-Domestic Product. That is, Gross Domestic Product less Depreciation of National Assets less the Costs of Environmental Degradation (Hamilton and Lutz, 1996). The Eco-Domestic Product is considered a better measure of sustainability.

Finally, Uganda favours a sector wide approach for estimating budgetary requirements within its Medium Term Expenditure Framework (MTEF). Various sectors have come up with strategic investment plans (e.g. education, health, and water and sanitation). However, environment has not been mainstreamed into these plans.

Recommended Actions

• Develop economic instruments for environmental management • Determine economic rents (pricing) for timber, fisheries, minerals, land and other natural resources • Carry out resource valuations (forests, wildlife protected areas) as a basis for proper resource accounting and policy formation • Green national accounts • Mainstream environment into sector wide strategic investment plans

Data and Information In carrying out environmental assessments, there is need to have sound technical data and information. Compared to other sub-Saharan African countries, Uganda’s environmental information system is considered to be far ahead (Martensson, et al 2000). For example, Uganda has an environmental information network (EIN) whose membership is expanding. NEMA’s environmental information center has a meta database for environmental information.

A number of districts have developed databases for environmental information. Also, the datasets held by various sectoral agencies and departments is improving. Examples include: The National Biomass Study Project of the Forestry Department; The National Biodiversity Databank of the Makerere Institute of Environment and Natural Resources (MUIENR); the dataset of the Department of Geological Mines and Surveys and the Department of Petroleum Exploration and Production of the Ministry of Energy and Minerals; and MIST and MONIS monitoring systems of the Uganda Wildlife Authority. However, impressive as these achievements are, there still exist a number of critical problems associated with data and information. These relate to availability, quality, access and standardization.

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Recommended Actions

• Expand and strength the Environment Information Network • Promote environmental data quality and opportunities for standardization • Advocate for a law on access to information including the one on the environment • Provide technical and financial resources needed to improve monitoring and data collection standards • Support to NEMA to strengthen data analysis capability • Train districts on data collection, processing, storage and pricing

Regulations and standards The National Environment Statute 1995 (NES) provides for the development of regulations to effect it’s various provisions. The statute also provides for the development of standards to govern environmental management. The same also applies to sectoral laws such as the Wildlife Statute 1996 and the Water Act 1995. For example, with respect to NES, there is a legal provision for the establishment of a National Environment Fund (NEF). However, the operationalization of NEF requires accompanying regulations, which NEMA is in the process of developing. The Wildlife Statute 1996 devotes a whole section to various wildlife use rights. Similarly, the operationalization of the wildlife use rights requires accompanying regulations.

Standards also need to be developed to govern environmental management. NEMA has developed a number of standards relating to noise, air and water pollution among others. More standards need to be developed to govern other aspects of environmental management.

Recommended Actions

• Develop regulations to operationalize NEF • Develop regulations to operationalize wildlife use rights • Develop other regulations to govern environmental management within NES and other sectoral laws • Develop appropriate environmental management standards within the context of the NES and other sectoral laws

Financing Uganda has committed significant resources to environmental management through both its own domestic resources and external support. However, what is clear is that at present levels, Uganda’s domestic resources are fairly limited and demands by other sectors such as security, health, education, and water and sanitation receive higher attention compared to environment and natural resources. More and sustainable financing is needed for the following: NEMA, the principal institution responsible for the environment; sectoral institutions (such as water, agriculture, forestry, wetlands, meteorology and fisheries); districts and lower levels of government; and civil society.

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Recommended Actions

• Make more domestic resources available through among others resource use fees and pollution taxes to facilitate environmental management particularly at lower levels of government • Continue to lobby effectively and successfully for additional bilateral aid for the environment • Borrow funds for environmental management, where possible, at concessionary rates to accommodate emergencies such as El Nino effects of 1998 • Lobby for incremental funds that are available through the multilateral environment agreement mechanisms (conventions and treaties) • Involve the private sector and civil society in making funds available for environmental management

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References District Support Coordination Unit (DSCU).2000. Annual Report 2000. National Environment Management Authority. Kampala, Uganda.

Hamilton, K. and E. Lutz. 1996. Green National Accounts: Policy Uses and Empirical Experience. Environmental Economics Series. Paper No. 39. Pollution and Environmental Economics Division. The World Bank. Washington, D.C.

Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries (MAAIF).2000. The National Fisheries Policy. The Republic of Uganda. Kampala, Uganda.

Martensson, U. et al. 2000. Environmental Information Systems (EIS) Best Practices – Uganda Country Case Study. Prepared for The World Bank.

Ministry of Tourism, Trade and Industry (MTTI). 1995. Wildlife Policy 1995. The Republic of Uganda. Kampala, Uganda.

Ministry of Water, Lands and Environment (MWLE) .2000. The Uganda Forestry Policy. The Republic of Uganda. Kampala, Uganda.

Pearce, D. et al. 1994. Economic Values and the Environment in the Developing World. A Report to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Nairobi, Kenya, by The Centre for Social and Economic Research. University College London.

Slade, G. and K. Weitz. 1991. Uganda: Environmental Options. Masters Thesis. Duke University. North Carolina, USA.

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Global Environment Outlook 2000. UNEP’s Millennium Report on the Environment. Nairobi, Kenya.

Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA) 2000. Community – Protected Areas Institution Policy. Kampala, Uganda.

Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA) 1999. Wildlife Monitoring and Research Policy. Kampala, Uganda.

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