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Not Listening to Music Before Exercise: Reasons

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Not Listening to Music Before Exercise: Reasons This work is protected by copyright and other intellectual property rights and duplication or sale of all or part is not permitted, except that material may be duplicated by you for research, private study, criticism/review or educational purposes. Electronic or print copies are for your own personal, non- commercial use and shall not be passed to any other individual. No quotation may be published without proper acknowledgement. For any other use, or to quote extensively from the work, permission must be obtained from the copyright holder/s. Music use and exercise: A mixed methods study of activity, autonomy and adherence Rachel Justine Hallett Submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy June 2015 Keele University i Abstract Regular exercise improves both physical and mental health but many people struggle to adhere to exercise programmes. Music is widely used by exercisers, and may aid adherence, but no evidence has yet substantiated this. This thesis consists of four studies exploring exercise music’s potential to assist adherence. In Study 1 (N = 282), online survey responses indicated that women were more likely to use exercise music and to synchronise movement to the beat than men, that running performance was superior among non-music users, and that music preference and personality are related. In Study 2, ten of the participants from Study 1 were interviewed, and interpretative phenomenological analysis revealed four main themes: Taking control, relating to managing the environment and internal challenges; It’s all about me, concerning individualisation and sense of self; Exercise music literacy, involving the capacity to source and access desired exercise music; and Embodiment, connected with the interaction of body, music and hardware. Study 3 (N = 60) was a correlational study, exploring relationships between individual differences, gym media use and exercise frequency. Retrospective exercise data was collected from the gym’s Fitlinxx computerised workout system, with participants supplying additional data for unrecorded exercise. Results indicated that men regularly listening to their own music exercised more frequently than those using other media. Study 4 (N = 99) was a longitudinal intervention study, comparing music and non- music pre-exercise interventions condition; the results indicated that listening to music prior to exercising to ‘get in the mood’ was associated with greater exercise frequency. The thesis demonstrates a music-adherence relationship: use of music both during and before exercise was found to relate to frequency of exercise. This may relate to indications that certain kinds of music evoke an ‘exercise mood.’ Combined, these studies support the use of music to help facilitate exercise adherence, and extend knowledge of the who, why and how of music use in exercise. [298 words] Key words: music, exercise, adherence, motivation, mixed methods ii Contents Chapter 1 ............................................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Overview ............................................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Music in everyday life......................................................................................................... 3 1.2.1 Music as potential motivator ........................................................................................... 3 1.2.2 Emotion and mood .......................................................................................................... 5 1.2.3 Music’s effects on behaviour .......................................................................................... 6 1.2.4 Individual differences in response to music .................................................................... 7 1.3 Music in exercise ................................................................................................................ 9 1.3.1 Sport, exercise and physical activity definitions ............................................................. 9 1.3.2 Music in exercise: previous research ............................................................................ 10 1.4 Theoretical frameworks from music psychology .............................................................. 21 1.5 Exercise behaviour and adherence .................................................................................... 30 1.5.1 Conceptualising adherence in health behaviours .......................................................... 31 1.5.2 Models of health behaviour ........................................................................................... 35 1.5.3 Individual differences ................................................................................................... 49 1.6 Summary of questions raised ............................................................................................ 61 Chapter 2 ........................................................................................................................................... 64 2.1 Research aims ................................................................................................................... 64 2.1.1 What role do autonomous choices of music play in exercise? ...................................... 65 2.1.2 What do people listen to, and how is it chosen? ........................................................... 66 2.1.3 What role does technology play? .................................................................................. 66 2.1.4 Can pre-exercise music help adherence? ...................................................................... 67 2.1.5 Do individual differences affect how music is used in exercise?.................................. 68 2.1.6 When and why is music not listened to? ....................................................................... 68 2.1.7 Does music affect adherence? ....................................................................................... 68 2.1.8 Can music be used to assist adherence? If so, how? ..................................................... 69 2.2 Theoretical Approach ........................................................................................................ 69 2.2.1 Overview ....................................................................................................................... 69 2.2.2 Theoretical framework .................................................................................................. 70 2.2.3 Combining disciplines................................................................................................... 74 2.2.4 Mixed methods .............................................................................................................. 75 2.2.5 Interpretative phenomenological analysis ..................................................................... 79 2.2.6 Summary of theoretical approach ................................................................................. 82 2.3 Rationale ........................................................................................................................... 82 2.4 The Studies ........................................................................................................................ 84 2.4.1 Study 1 .......................................................................................................................... 85 2.4.2 Study 2 .......................................................................................................................... 85 iii 2.4.3 Study 3 .......................................................................................................................... 85 2.4.4 Study 4 .......................................................................................................................... 87 2.5 Methodological Practicalities ............................................................................................ 88 2.5.1 Precedents ..................................................................................................................... 88 2.5.2 Field-based research ...................................................................................................... 89 2.5.3 Self-reported data .......................................................................................................... 90 2.5.4 Recruitment ................................................................................................................... 92 2.5.5 Online tools ................................................................................................................... 93 2.6 Reflexivity ......................................................................................................................... 94 2.7 Ethics................................................................................................................................. 97 2.8 Summary ........................................................................................................................... 97 Chapter 3 ........................................................................................................................................... 98 3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 98 3.2 Methodological strategy ...................................................................................................
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