The Winter 2013 -14

GeographerThe newsletter of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society

Zoonoses In This Edition... Reservoirs, reasons and the role of viruses • RSGS’s First ‘Explorer-in- Residence’ • Zoonotic Geographies – A Multi-Faceted Issue • Viruses, Evolution & Spillover • Living Patterns, Vaccines & Vermin • A Syrian Refugee Camp & The Philippines After Haiyan • Villages of Hope • RSGS Education – A Year of Success! • Reader Offer: Life: A Journey Through Time

“Intrepid disease ecologists are hiking into forests, climbing through caves,… and sleuthing the mysteries of reservoir host and spillover.” plus other news, David Quammen comments, books...

RSGS: helping to make the connections between people, places & the planet The Geographerzoonoses

oonoses are much more than just a good Tivy Education Medal word in Scrabble: the term derives from Alan Parkinson was awarded the Tivy Education Medal, together Z‘zoo’ meaning ‘of animals’, and the Greek with Fellowship of the RSGS, at the ‘nosos’ meaning ‘disease’, and refers to those Scottish Association of Geography diseases which can be passed from animals to Teachers conference in Perth in October. The award was given in humans. Many people anticipate that if there is to recognition of his work developing be a major outbreak of a new disease, it will most online educational resources for RSGS President Prof Iain Stewart presents the Medal to Alan Parkinson. likely be a zoonosis. schoolteachers. In 2001, Alan developed the then-revolutionary About 60% of current infectious diseases are thought to be Geography Pages website. He went on to become a zoonotic in origin. For example, all influenza stems from diseases prolific blogger, better known to some for his online of water birds such as ducks; even swine flu comes from birds, but persona ‘GeoBlogs’, and he now runs eight blogs on its appearance in pigs simply increased the likelihood of ‘spillover’ various aspects of geographical education. He previously into humans. Many readers will remember the ‘bird flu’ (or H5N1) worked for the Geographical Association, and is a founder scare in Scotland back in 2006, and the consequent concerns it member of the Geography Collective / Explorer HQ, generated. Flu is a particular worry, in part because of its incredible creators of the Mission:Explore books and website. He now works part-time as a geography teacher at King’s Ely. adaptability – there are 18 known types of haemagglutinin (H) and ten known types of neuraminidase (N), so, in theory, 180 different Delighted to have received the Medal, Alan remarked, “What was equally important to me was to read and hear combinations of these proteins are possible. the comments of others who were there, who appreciated Zoonotic diseases lurk in some of our more ancient species, such the work that I’ve created and shared over the years.” as bats, rodents and birds, and other hosts who have developed immunity but carry the virus. In fact, these viruses have almost John Rae Bicentenary Conference certainly influenced the evolution of these animals in the process. Dr Andrew Cook, a member of the RSGS’s Collections But with a growing human population, increased deforestation and Team, visited Orkney to speak on behalf of the RSGS encroachment into natural areas, more travel, more urbanisation, at the John Rae Bicentenary Conference in September. and an indiscriminate demand for meat, the opportunity for Dr Cook presented on the Goodsir Papers, a record of spillover to humans is greater than ever. It is a classic geographical correspondence between conundrum – a multi-faceted combination of environmental members of the Goodsir change, lifestyle change, and changing patterns of connectivity. family, which forms part of the RSGS’s archive. There are thousands of people on the front line of zoonotic Harry Goodsir was surgeon exploration. Where do these diseases come from? Where have on the ill-fated Franklin they been hiding? Why are they appearing? How do they spread? Arctic Expedition. A young And what do we need to know to prevent them spreading? In naturalist in Edinburgh, this edition of The Geographer, we aim to shed some light on this he realised his ambition for Arctic exploration when he fascinating area of research, with the help of veterinarians and was appointed Acting Assistant Surgeon, HMS Erebus, in virologists, journalists and geographers. March 1845. I am grateful to Professor Jo Sharp, Dr Jo Halliday and Professor Sarah Cleaveland from the University of Glasgow for their help in RSGS Perth Train trip no more producing this magazine. Group please Sadly, we have not been able to Mike Robinson, Chief Executive Our Perth local develop our plans for a 130th group is keen to help anniversary train trip, due to RSGS, Lord John Murray House, hear from anyone a lack of sufficient interest. 15-19 North Port, Perth, PH1 5LU who would be able to assist Thank you to those members tel: 01738 455050 with some of the basic but who did express enthusiasm, email: [email protected] critical tasks associated but unfortunately the costs of www.rsgs.org with running our public train hire are too prohibitive talks. If you feel you could to allow us to proceed without Charity registered in Scotland no SC015599 help, please contact RSGS a much higher take-up than The views expressed in this newsletter are not necessarily those of the RSGS. has been evident. We will keep Cover image: © Mike Robinson HQ. Masthead image: © www.iStockphoto.com trying other ideas in future editions. RSGS: helping to make the connections between people, places & the planet The Geographer 1 Winter 2013 -14 NEWS People • Places • Planet

Chairman’s thoughts RSGS AGM Barrie Brown Monday 24th March 2014 will see the next RSGS AGM, in Perth Concert Hall, which we plan to follow with a public talk given by As I approach the end of my term as our President, Professor Iain Stewart. More details will be sent to Chair, I hope you will indulge me for members in February. sharing these thoughts with you all. Amongst other items on the agenda for the AGM, we will be seeking to In any charity, faith in what you introduce a new constitution (tidying up the 2009 constitution which exist for is essential. In this is now somewhat dated in places), and to appoint new members context, I am happy to assure you of Board (Trustees). Two members of Board have recently stepped all that the members, and staff, of down, including the longest-standing member, Stuart Frame, who the Society are at least as convinced of the rights of had served as Treasurer for more than 20 years. We are grateful to what Stuart for all his efforts over the past two decades, and to Trustee we are doing as our founder members would have been Keith Griffiths for his more recent input, in particular to the new in 1884. And that assurance is strengthened by our ability constitution. to communicate more effectively through our exhibition To replace them, the Board would particularly welcome people with centre in the Fair Maid’s House, and in particular through good financial skills, and those with the time to commit to help the use of our collections. move the Society further along in the months and years ahead. I was told some years ago that the Society could not Board roles are normally held for a maximum of two terms each exist without its volunteers and I completely endorse of three years, and there are five half-day Board meetings a year, that statement. Our CEO has regularly calculated the usually in Perth, plus the AGM. Anyone wishing to put themselves total contribution made by all our volunteers and it forward for nomination as a potential Board member must be an totals the equivalent of several staff years. It would be RSGS member, and will need a Proposer and a Seconder (also both impossible to keep open the Fair Maid’s House without RSGS members). If you are interested, then please send a short the dedicated team of volunteers, and our collections, too, biography, detailing the experience you would bring to Board and how you can help, to RSGS HQ, addressed ‘Board nomination’. have benefited from the work of a team of volunteers, Please contact RSGS HQ if you would like further details. most of whom have a background in that type of work. It would be impossible to run our local groups without the commitment of the local committees who are often RSGS Chairman the first point of contact with our members, visitors, and After six years as Chairman of the RSGS, Barrie potential members. Brown announced in November that he would All charities need benefactors, and by that I mean people step down in the New Year. Keen to ensure that there would be a smooth transition, he who support their work by gifts of money. We have invited the Board to nominate a successor, and effected many economies in our running costs in the past Professor Rogers Crofts CBE few years, but despite that, we still have great difficulty was duly unanimously elected. in making ends meet. I read recently that some large Professor Crofts is a charities benefit by receiving “millions of pounds in legacies Barrie Brown geographer by training, each year, often from people who are not even members”. profession and inclination. He has used his These people simply approve of what the organisation is geographical skills in many senior roles in doing and may even use legacies to make sure that nothing government, and has been a Board member of goes to the taxman when the final tally is made. Despite international, UK and Scottish bodies. He has a our longevity as a vibrant Scottish charity, we have only particular interest in Scotland’s Earth history, Professor Crofts occasional support of this type, and I would ask you to Iceland’s environmental protection, energy, and please consider helping the Society in this way if you can. the world’s natural wonders. He said, “On behalf of all members of the Board and of the Society, I express sincere thanks to Barrie I conclude by sharing with you one of my ‘straws in the Brown who has given sterling service as Chair. The award of a wind’. I was at the launch of the Society’s Stories in the Fellowship was a fitting tribute to his many contributions. I wish Land exhibition, and one of the young participants told me him well for the future. that she had changed schools so that she could study “It is a rare privilege to be appointed as the Chair of the RSGS. geography and that she hopes to work as a volunteer guide Now we are fully established in the Fair City, I hope we can in the Fair Maid’s House in a gap year before university. become a beacon for new ways of looking at our world and be I was delighted to assure her that she would be most a formative influence in resolving the issues of the day. Like all welcome. charities, we have our challenges. I know that the Board and the With best regards, staff will address these jointly with rigour and creativity. I relish the prospect of chairing the organisation through its next phase.” Barrie

NEWS People • Places • Planet

Fairtrade Pioneers Presented Hats off to Iain Stewart with Shackleton Medal Midway through his run of popular Inspiring People talks Husband and wife team Craig Sams and Jo Fairley were for the Society, RSGS President Professor Iain Stewart travelled to London to receive an Honorary Doctorate presented with the RSGS’s Shackleton Medal after their from Kingston University. The University’s Faculty of talk in Perth in December. Science, Engineering and Computing was pleased to Craig and Jo were the brains honour Professor Stewart with the award of Doctor of behind Green & Black’s Science honoris causa, in recognition of his outstanding chocolate, the pioneering contribution to geoscience communication to the public. brand which paved the way for mainstream Fairtrade products. Stories in the Land After a well-received run at Green & Black’s was Edinburgh’s Scottish Storytelling launched in 1991 by the Centre in October, where it was ex-hippy organic wholefood seen by an estimated 2,000 pioneer and his journalist wife, with virtually no cash. visitors, the RSGS’s Stories in From those tentative beginnings, it has grown into the Land exhibition will carry on an internationally renowned $100 million brand, now its journey to Stirling in 2014. on owned by Cadbury, where Jo still works as a brand The exhibition will be hosted in the Crush Hall of the University tour ambassador, alongside her day jobs as a marketing of Stirling’s Pathfoot Building, a central hub where items from the consultant and journalist. University’s art collection are put on display. The Stories in the Land project The RSGS’s Shackleton Medal, which recognises has involved researchers from the University’s School of Education. Dr Greg leadership and citizenship in a geographical field, was Mannion recorded the reactions of both school pupils and the Duke of awarded to Craig and Jo for their work on developing Edinburgh’s Award group to their experiences of learning in the landscape, sustainable, ethical, fair trade practices. Due to Green & as a basis for research into outdoor learning. It’s hoped that the exhibition Black’s fair trade policy, cacao growing communities will also visit the communities involved in the project later in the year. in Belize have been strengthened both socially and economically, improving the status of women, increasing education, and uniting the community in a SAGT & RSGS SARS virus zoonoses common business. Further to a successful recent Researchers have found two meeting with representatives of Shakespeare’s Scotland SAGT about the issues regarding SARS-like coronaviruses in geography’s place within the Chinese horseshoe bats. In September, to coincide with Perth Theatre’s Curriculum for Excellence, we are These viruses are around 95% production of Macbeth, an informal display of maps seeking comments from teachers genetically similar to the SARS from Shakespeare’s time was exhibited in the Fair and practitioners on their experience virus in humans, and could have Maid’s House. Collections Convenor Margaret Wilkes, of the changes, and hoping to transferred directly from bats to volunteer Tony Simpson, and Education Officer Joyce establish the scale of their impact. humans. They could therefore be Gilbert selected items from the RSGS’s extensive If you would like to take used to develop new vaccines and collections of part, please contact our drugs to combat SARS, which splendid early maps take Education Officer at joyce. infected more than 8,000 people of Scotland. part [email protected]. and killed over 770 during the The display also outbreak in 2002 and 2003. formed the basis of a Continuing Professional Gavin Francis wins Scottish Book of the Year Development evening for teachers. Before Members of the cast with a map of Cawdor. Dr Gavin Francis received the Scottish Mortgage the evening, three members of the Macbeth cast visited Investment Trust Book of the Year award for the Fair Maid’s House to hatch their murder plot! his non-fiction book Empire Antarctica: Ice, Silence and Emperor Penguins, which details his experiences as resident doctor with the British Professor Charles McKean FRSGS Antarctic Survey. Gavin, who spoke for the Society Professor Charles McKean, Emeritus Professor of Scottish in Dunfermline in November, and previously Architectural History at the University of Dundee, died in took part in our World Book Day celebrations in September, some time after being diagnosed with cancer. 2012, was based at Halley, a profoundly isolated A passionate advocate of preserving Dundee’s architectural British research station on the Caird Coast of history, he led hundreds of walking tours of the city, and Antarctica. The research station is so remote, it is was recognised by several royal societies and academic said to be easier to evacuate a casualty from the bodies for his achievements in engaging the public with his International Space Station than it is to bring someone out of research in Scottish architectural history. Halley in winter. The Geographer 2-3 Winter 2013 -14 NEWS People • Places • Planet

First ‘Explorer-in-Residence’ RSGS Medals 2014 We are delighted to announce the appointment of the RSGS’s first ambassador for exploration, more commonly known as Explorer- in-Residence. Scottish explorer Craig Mathieson will work with the Society for the next four years, promoting our work and his, and inspiring school children all over the country. Craig has been involved in The RSGS’s prestigious • Tivy Education Medal, for many polar expeditions, Medals and Awards allow exemplary, outstanding to both the Antarctic and us to recognise outstanding and inspirational teaching, the Arctic. His childhood contributions to geographical educational policy or work dream was to ski to the exploration and learning. We in formal and informal on South Pole, a dream that are now inviting nominations educational arenas. tour he realised in 2004. He decided then that he wanted to share this for the RSGS Medals 2014, • Bartholomew Globe, for experience with the younger generation. In 2006 he trained a 16-year- and are particularly seeking excellence in the assembly, old boy, who joined him on a journey to the Geographic North Pole. nominations for: delivery or application of This trip of a lifetime proved life-changing, and motivated Craig to • Livingstone Medal, for geographical information replicate its success elsewhere. outstanding service of through cartography, GIS a humanitarian nature and related techniques. Since then, Craig has established the Polar Academy charity, to take with a clear geographical young adults from difficult backgrounds and motivate them through To nominate someone for an dimension. expeditions. Participants will learn to work together in the outdoors award, please send details, • Mungo Park Medal, for an as a team, learning the importance of planning and leadership. including a brief explanation outstanding contribution The Academy will emphasise that any goal is achievable, as long as (up to 250 words) of why to geographical knowledge you have the right attitude. Craig your nominee(s) should through exploration or will spread this message wide, by be considered, by email to adventure in potentially talking to school classes around the [email protected], or by hazardous physical or country, before taking a selection of post to RSGS HQ in Perth. social environments. young adults for training sessions in Nominations should be • Shackleton Medal, for Scotland. A small number of these marked for the attention leadership and citizenship young people will then join him on an of the Chief Executive, and in a geographical field. expedition to East Greenland. should arrive by the end of • Geddes Environment February 2014. Craig has given talks to thousands Medal, for an outstanding of school children around the country, and will now be doing so as a contribution to representative of the Society. Despite the ‘in-Residence’ part of his conservation of the built nominate title, he will not be confined to the Explorers’ Room, but will be out and or natural environment about around Scotland and on expedition, encouraging understanding and the development of a medallist of exploration and the natural world. sustainability. Craig said, “To be awarded the title of the first RSGS Explorer-in- Residence is truly an honour and a privilege. As a young boy I would read of the achievements of Scott, Amundsen and Shackleton, hoping and dreaming that perhaps one day I could also experience the harsh Sustainable Energy For All beauty of the polar regions. Having now stood at both the North and The UN Decade of Sustainable Energy for South Poles, I feel it my duty to share the knowledge and experience All, 2014-24, highlights the importance of gained over the years. Therefore, working with the RSGS, who have energy issues for sustainable development. similar aspirations, allows for an ideal partnership. Over the coming The UN General Assembly has asked Member months and years, I am looking forward to inspiring our younger States to galvanize efforts to make universal generation and hopefully motivating them to achieve their own dreams access to sustainable modern energy services one day.” a priority, noting that 1.3 billion people are without electricity, that 2.6 billion people RSGS Chief Executive Mike Robinson said, “Craig is a great guy with a in developing countries rely on traditional gentle exterior that hides a fierce determination and an iron will. His biomass for cooking and heating, and that even plans for the Polar Academy are visionary and ambitious, and the RSGS when energy services are available, millions of is delighted to back him in this venture and, I hope, help him to achieve people cannot afford them. that vision. We hope he can ‘crack on’, as Craig would say.” NEWS People • Places • Planet

Scotsman Supplement From waste to Inspiring People talks water filtration We were delighted to see some fantastic turn-outs for talks by RSGS President Professor Iain Stewart, and mountaineers Doug Scott and Paul Braithwaite, in November. Both played to packed halls Whooper swans. © L Campbell throughout the country. The talks were so A quarter of Scotland’s green successful that some members of the public had to be denied entry, and glass bottles are to be recycled to we would like to extend our apologies to anyone who was inconvenienced. make water filtration systems at One of the drawbacks of engaging high-profile adventurous people to a new plant in Midlothian. Dryden come and give talks for us is that sometimes they will be offered an Aqua will use the glass in filters unmissable opportunity to go and do something more adventurous come to for drinking water, industrial waste instead. And so it is with Dave MacLeod, who was invited to water and pools. Environment a talk We were delighted spend January doing some spectacular climbing in Patagonia Secretary Richard Lochhead said, to publish a four- and who is therefore unable to speak for us this year. However, “This is a major investment in page feature in The we are delighted that his place in our talks programme has been taken Scotland’s green credentials and Scotsman on Saturday by wildlife photographer Laurie Campbell, who will now be speaking in 19th October. This places us at the forefront of the Inverness, Perth and Stirling in mid-January. Laurie has dedicated over 35 supplement was move towards a zero waste nation.” designed to act as years to photographing Scotland’s distinctive wildlife and flora, and was an introduction to Scotland – No 3 Scotland’s first full-time professional wildlife photographer. He will speak the history of the on the results from a recent project where he worked on a commission for Society, whilst also place to visit the North Harris Trust to photograph the wildlife, landscape and a little featuring our current Scotland has been named by of the culture of a community-owned 62,000 acre estate in this wild and activities and aims, Lonely Planet as one of the top ten beautiful part of Scotland. and to act as a countries to visit, narrowly missing showcase for the talks out to Brazil and Antarctica. Why programme. There has was Scotland so high on the list? been a great positive Lonely Planet said that events like Norwegian town sees the light response to the supplement, including the Commonwealth Games and a number of new the many events under the Year of members and some Homecoming banner, plus a certain notable increases in political debate, mean that Scotland attendance at talks. is an exciting place to visit in 2014. Deer management We were happy to receive two pieces of feedback on an article in the Autumn 2013 edition of The Geographer. George J Strachan, a former geography teacher and a founder member of the first deer management unit established in Scotland (Gairloch Conservation Unit), The small town of Rjukan in Norway has seen its first ever winter sun. took issue with a number of the statements made in Mike The town is nestled in a deep valley, and remained completely sheltered Daniel’s piece Deer Management – Getting Out of the Rut!. from the sun from late September to mid March. Now, three large Forestry Commission Scotland also gave us some key solar-powered and computer-controlled mirrors have been placed on the points on the article. Both responses are available at our hillside, to reflect sunlight into the town square. Locals can come to the blog at royalscottishgeographicalsociety.blogspot.com. square for a quick burst of reflected sunlight, which is almost as intense as natural light. Doug Scott FRSGS HIV genetic diversity zoonoses Researchers from two universities in São Paulo, Brazil, who analysed blood samples from HIV+ children and adolescents born between 1992 and 2009, observed greater genetic variability in the HIV virus than had been indicated by previous studies in adults. The results of the investigation (detailed in Variability of In November, Doug Scott (left), one of the world’s HIV-1 Genomes among Children and Adolescents from São Paulo, most accomplished climbers, was presented with the Brazil, available on www.plosone.org) suggest that the profile of RSGS’s Honorary Fellowship by Colin Mitchell, Chair the epidemic in Brazil is changing, with possible implications for of the RSGS Dumfries Group. both diagnostic tests and vaccine development. The Geographer 4-5 Winter 2013 -14 NEWS People • Places • Planet

Global Land Use Excavations at the In order to assess the global impacts of land use on the environment Black Spout, Pitlochry and help provide appropriate countermeasures, a group of researchers A new book by David Strachan, under the leadership of the Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research published by and available from (UFZ) has created a new world map of land use systems. Based on Perth and Kinross Heritage Trust various indicators of land use intensity, climate, environmental, and (www.pkht.org.uk), tells the story of socio-economic conditions, the researchers identified twelve global an archaeological dig from 2005 to patterns called land system archetypes. These include barren lands in the 2009 which uncovered remarkable developing world, pastoral systems, or extensive cropping systems. The broch-like architecture at an Iron Age results are published in the journal Global Environmental Change. building near Pitlochry. The book explores the contemporary culture and environment of the region, with expert contributions on place-names, ancient come to environments, and the array of stone, metal and glass a talk artefacts unearthed. Polio in Syria In late November, the World Health Organization (WHO) confirmed 17 cases of wild poliovirus type 1 infection in three separate areas of the Syrian Arab Republic, confirming widespread circulation of the virus. A comprehensive outbreak response is being implemented across the region, with seven countries and territories holding mass polio vaccination campaigns targeting 22 million children under the age of five years. As a result of the global effort to eradicate polio, cases decreased from 350,000 in 1988 to Global land system archetypes. The data for this classification refer to the year 2005. just 223 in 2012. In 2013, only three countries (Afghanistan, Nigeria and Pakistan) remained Bob Scott polio-endemic, down from more than 125 in 1988. We were sorry to lose a good friend when Bob Scott died in October But as long as a single child remains infected, after a short illness. An enthusiastic supporter of the RSGS, Bob was children in all countries are at risk. Failure to determined to be the first to sign the new Fair Maid’s House Visitor Book, eradicate polio from its last remaining strongholds on 21st July 2011. His words, “Excellent facility. Credit to the Society.” could result in up to 200,000 new cases every year, set the trend for many more positive comments to follow. within 10 years, across the world. A former provost of Perth, Bob became one of the Fair Maid’s House Matthew Smallman-Raynor, Professor of Analytical volunteer guides, a friendly and welcoming face, with a wealth of local Geography at the University of Nottingham, knowledge. Later, he worked with the RSGS’s collection team, thoroughly enjoying himself as he carefully cleaned layers of grime off all the explained, “The wartime collapse of hygiene and Ordnance Survey 19th century 6-inch map indexes, and all superficial healthcare systems means that familiar infections dirt off at least a hundred OS early 20th century 25-inch maps of rapidly re-establish themselves opportunistically in Edinburgh – he loved doing these and noting the map detail on them. war-torn populations.” Bob made a considerable, positive and practical contribution to the RSGS, in hours of work always done with a sunny smile and with absorbing interest. We will miss him. Fair Maid’s Garden We are planning to create a ‘geological garden’ at the Fair Maid’s House, and Geoparks are rocking were delighted to welcome students from Edinburgh College of Art’s Art, The Shetland and North West Highlands (NWH) Geoparks are back on track after securing Space & Nature course to share their funding from the Scottish Government in July. design ideas. The ten students took Backed by this new funding, the NWH Geopark as inspiration the work of Scottish geologist James Croll, who developed Jonathan Hemelberg’s advertised for a new Development Manager and design for a geology garden. Information Manager in November. The NWH a theory of climate change based on Geopark starts at the Summer Isles in Wester the Earth’s orbit. The students produced a startling variety of Ross and continues northwards through west designs from this shared base point, using elements including Sutherland to the north coast. It extends to the glacial stone, sculptures based on icebergs, and the planting east of Durness, beyond Loch Eriboll, and on to of rare Arctic mosses, to create inspired concepts for this the Moine. Its eastern boundary largely follows the Moine Thrust zone, a currently under-used space in our visitor centre. We will be in famous and important geological structure. touch with members during 2014 as plans develop. I visited Leptis Magna the other day. I didn’t really know how many Roman sites there are in Libya! Apparently it is the largest Joining the Dots Roman site outside of Italy. Anyway we had it to ourselves basically.....the potential for tourism in this country is massive. Zoonotic Geographies Professor Jo Sharp, Dr Jo Halliday and Professor Sarah Cleaveland, University of Glasgow

“It is A zoonosis is a pathogen (a new target. Accidents happen. the combined forces of natural biological agent that can cause Aberrations occur. Circumstances erosion; influencing climate estimated disease in a host) that jumps change and, with them, through the emission of huge species from an animal host exigencies and opportunities amounts of carbon into the that at to infect a person. It is not a change too. When a pathogen atmosphere; and causing the least 60% commonly used word, nor is leaps from some non-human irreversible extinction of some it one that has generally been animal into a person, and species and the monocultural of human considered by geographers, succeeds there in establishing production of others. infectious but the concept it describes itself as an infectious presence, Changes in human activities is ubiquitous, and the causes sometimes causing illness or lead to the creation of novel diseases are and effects of zoonotic disease death, the result is a zoonosis.” ecosystems and alterations to zoonotic.” transmission are intensely It is estimated that at least 60% existing ones, with new and geographical. We actually read of human infectious diseases changed interactions between about zoonoses all the time: in are zoonotic. We have always people and other animal species. terrifying headlines about the lived with zoonoses because These changes lead to the release discovery of a new form of bird we have always shared our of new diseases into new animal flu or swine flu in Southeast world with other animals and and human populations, and Asia that is sweeping through their infections. However, it the impact of these changes local populations and would appear that on the distribution of disease threatening to go global there are more can be seen at a range of via the intense networks frequent ‘spillovers’ geographical scales. At the local of travel and trade of diseases from scale, human alteration of the that now connect the animals into the landscape can have a range of distant parts of the human population unintended effects on animal world; through debates in recent years than populations, wiping out some and about the necessity of has been the case supporting others, for instance badger culls to protect in the past, and this the populations of rodents and farmed cattle (and the has been linked to scavengers like foxes that now consumers of their milk) humanity’s ever- thrive in cities. Consumption from TB; in cautions given out to greater influence in reworking of ‘bush meat’, including walkers heading to the Scottish the Earth’s environments. Some various primates, in Central hills to abandon the hardiness of have gone so far as to think of Africa is thought to mediate the hiking in shorts and instead to humanity now as being an Earth- emergence of diseases such as cover exposed flesh as protection shaping force akin to a geological HIV and Ebola. At larger scales, from ticks and the possibility of era. In the Anthropocene, as it climate change is shifting the Lyme disease. has been labelled (beginning pattern of diseases that are In his book Spillover, David either at the initiation of spread by insect vectors, and Quammen explains zoonosis humanity’s reshaping of the changing migration patterns as follows: “Just as predators world through the domestication of wild animals and livestock have their accustomed prey, of certain plants and animals in herders in search of dwindling their favoured targets, so do agriculture, or with James Watt’s supplies of food and water again pathogens. And just as a lion invention of the steam engine provide new bridging points might occasionally depart from and the start of the industrial for possible disease transfers its normal behaviour – to kill revolution), it is people who between humans and animals. a cow instead of a wildebeest, represent the single greatest Clearly, there have always been a human instead of a zebra – force for change of the planet: interactions between humans so can a pathogen shift to a moving more sediment than and various animal populations, The Geographer 6-7 Winter 2013 -14

and ever since the earliest forms greater risk of disease for people points at which prevention of agriculture, which facilitated as a result of more regular and measures can be addressed. the concentration and growth close interactions with livestock, Moreover, this more contextual of people in certain places, but also a greater impact on the approach explicitly draws in these relationships have been livelihoods of people who are the significance dynamic. However, the rate of dependent on farming. In such of other systems “One Health this change has never been societies, there is often chronic too: the changing recognizes higher. The concept of the under-funding of health services environmental Anthropocene highlights the for animals and people, and this conditions within the important interconnectedness of these is compounded by low levels which species intersections of, and changes at a global scale, of education and difficulties meet; the economic affecting not only the immediate in effective dissemination of constraints of interdependencies environs of the intervention but information. As it is the case livestock production; also the ways in which systems that many zoonoses are often and the cultural between, human and operate across the whole planet. difficult to diagnose, particularly dimensions of animal health, and so We cannot be sure of the effects in cases where they have animal care and of human-mediated changes symptoms that are very similar consumption. the need for joined-up when different systems (climatic, to other, more high-profile, Thus, a variety thinking.” fluvial, oceanic, for instance) diseases such as malaria, of environmental are interacting in such complex the human illness burdens of and social ways, but we can be sure that these diseases is frequently science researchers, including changes in our environments unrecognized. Moreover, this geographers, are also getting are likely to lead to changes in is not only a problem for rural involved in the One Health the infectious disease threats residents: the rapidly growing approach. In this edition of (zoonoses and non-zoonoses) informal areas of cities in the The Geographer, we offer an that we face. Furthermore, the Global South represent the introduction to some of the network of global connections fastest changing environments research that is emerging from between societies means it now on the planet. Such communities these new collaborations. only takes a pathogen like SARS are poorly supported through and influenza 24 hours to cross infrastructure – city authorities the globe. Despite increasing and national governments simply governments’ attention to cannot keep up with the speed ‘biosecurity’ as a part of national of urbanization here – so people defence strategies, irrespective live without adequate water of where we live we can all or sewerage services, and are now be impacted by disease often tightly packed together. transmission events in the most These are ideal conditions for remote parts of the planet. the emergence and spread of While it is undoubtedly the case diseases that can be acquired that it’s the potentially global through contact with rodents, reach of new flu strains or the or close proximity to livestock haemorrhagic fevers like Ebola and poultry brought to the urban that have captured the popular populations to meet growing imagination, whether through demand for protein. Urban pig-keeping in Dar es Salaam. popular science books like The However, the recent emergence Hot Zone or Hollywood movies of the ‘One Health’ approach like Outbreak and Contagion, has begun to address zoonoses and their impacts some of these challenges. go far beyond these dramatic One Health recognizes the headline-grabbing scenarios. important intersections of, and As well as these high-profile interdependencies between, newsworthy outbreaks, endemic human and animal health, and so zoonoses also have significant the need for joined-up thinking. burdens in countries throughout Such approaches have seen the world. research being designed and These burdens are felt most undertaken by teams of human acutely in the countries of the health researchers and vets Global South. Many of these working together to understand zoonoses affect production where the key interactions occur, livestock, resulting in a ‘double where risks of transmission might arise, and thus the whammy’ effect – not only a Focus group discussion with livestock keepers about understanding of disease risk in Northern Tanzania. Mapping – DNA & Disease

The Viruses In Us Dr Frank Ryan

Life on Earth is essentially it played in our human evolution? event, long ago, enabled all “…the interactive. Biologists have What role is it still playing in animals, plants and fungi to vertebrate been investigating these living our human embryology, our day breathe oxygen, while a series of interactions – symbioses – for to day genetic chemistry? What symbiotic events enabled plants component more than a century. But only role is it playing in the genetic to capture the energy of sunlight of our recently have we realized to what underpinning of disease? through photosynthesis. In my extent it applies to some of the This brings me back to the book, Virolution, I explained how protein- most fearsome of organisms concept of symbiosis. The viruses are not only capable of on Earth, plague viruses, and partners in a symbiotic being symbionts – they are the coding how this might apply to us, as relationship are known as ultimate genetic symbionts. DNA – the humans. ‘symbionts’. When Retroviruses, like HIV- We all know about viruses – they symbiosis results 1, the cause of AIDS, part we cause epidemics, like swine flu, in evolutionary have an extraordinary traditionally smallpox and polio. But some change it is known evolutionary potential. 17 years ago, I entered epidemic as ‘symbiogenesis’. They can invade the think of as zones to research a book, Virus Symbiosis is germ line cells of X, and I came to the conclusion not synonymous their hosts, the ova human – there was more to viruses than with mutualism, and sperm, to embed amounts to met the eye. I proposed that since it is only themselves into the they changed the evolution necessary that one chromosomes of future a mere 1.5% of their hosts. Today we have of the partners generations, where growing evidence that this is benefits from the their viral genomes of the total.” true – indeed it seems likely that partnership. Thus it sometimes take on viruses have played a subtle role includes parasitism, important genetic and in the evolution of life. We also where one partner physiological roles. have growing evidence that they gains at the expense of another. At least 12 different HERVs changed our human evolution. Symbiosis also works at different play a variety of roles in human When, on 12th February 2001, we levels. For example, the root reproduction. Some help to obtained the first comprehensive symbioses between fungi and construct the placenta, where analysis of our human genome, all land-based plants, known they improve its structure by we were confronted by surprises. as mycorrhizae, are metabolic, fusing together the cells lining Where we had anticipated while the symbioses of the the placental mother/foetal perhaps 100,000 or so genes, oceanic cleaner stations, where interface. They also help to based on the prevailing notion predators line up to have their suppress the maternal immune of ‘one gene, one protein’, there skins and teeth cleaned by rejection of the foetus. But were as few as 20,000. Today tiny wrasse and shrimps, are it doesn’t stop there. Recent we know that these genes are behavioural. Symbiosis also research in Sweden, where made up of a series of exons, operates at genetic level, where colleagues are drawing up the separated by non-coding introns, partners share pre-evolved complete human proteome, has with proteins being coded by the genes arising from different shown that HERV-derived proteins splicing together of a selected evolutionary lineages. In its are involved in as-yet unknown cluster of exons from one or most powerful form, ‘genetic roles in the normal physiology of more genes, so that 20,000 symbiosis’ involves the union of a wide variety of different human genes can code for a much wider entire pre-evolved genomes from cells, tissues and organs. variety of proteins. A bigger different evolutionary lineages. surprise still was the breakdown For example, a single symbiosis of our human DNA, which Dr Ryan is a revealed that the vertebrate consultant physician component of our protein-coding and the author of DNA – the part we traditionally Virolution, in which think of as human – amounts to he examines the a mere 1.5% of the total. This extraordinary role of is dwarfed by DNA deriving from viruses in evolution human endogenous retroviruses, and how this is or HERVs, which amounts to revolutionising roughly 9%. biology and Contrary to earlier suppositions, medicine, including the viral component of our the possibility of genome cannot be dismissed manipulating the as ‘junk DNA’. Instead we are role of the viruses confronted by a paradox. How to help fight a huge has this remarkable viral load range of diseases. come to be there? What role has The Geographer 8-9 Winter 2013 -14 Pandemic geography Professor Dirk Brockmann, Humboldt University & Robert Koch-Institute, Berlin

In the 14th century, the Black Death powerful methods for addressing from Edinburgh according to this swept across the European continent these questions is with highly approach. “The patterns in a wave that killed more than sophisticated computer simulations The key question now is, “What are of modern 25% of the European population in that incorporate human mobility the patterns of global epidemics that its wake. Although this event was and transportation on a global scale. appear so complex on conventional disease driven by the interplay of human Although these models have been longitude/latitude maps?” Figure interactions and mobility, on large successful in the past decade, we still 2 illustrates that, in the effective spread are geographic scales, the process lack a fundamental understanding of distance view, patterns are now geographically possessed a rather simple structure. global contagion phenomena. Also, simple concentric wave-fronts, very With an initial outbreak in southern computer simulations require detailed much similar to the patterns of chaotic.” Europe, this historic pandemic turned information on emergent infectious historic diseases. This means that, into regular, large-scale wave-fronts diseases, information that is usually in essence, these phenomena are that propagated in a matter of a few not available when new pathogens fundamentally not much different years and at a constant speed of a surface. nowadays than they were 500 years few kilometres per year across the In a recent study, The hidden geometry ago. It also means that, based on entire continent. of complex, network driven contagion this new notion of effective distance, Nowadays, matters are different. phenomena, we tackled the problem we can predict much better when Recent large-scale epidemics, such from a different angle. The key an epidemic will arrive at a chosen as the 2003 worldwide spread of question we asked in this study was, location. SARS and the 2009 global spread “Are modern epidemics really that One of the interesting aspects of this F u r t h e r R e a d i n g of ‘swine flu’ (H1N1 influenza), much more complex than historic work is that only from the perspective Brockmann D, spread much faster (on average about events, or do they just appear to be of the actual outbreak origin do the Helbing D (2013), 100-400 km/day). Because of the more complex because of the global patterns behave nicely. For instance, The hidden complexity of worldwide mobility, connectivity of our world?” What if when an outbreak occurs in London, geometry of the patterns of modern disease only our notion of distance has to be then only from the perspective of spread are geographically chaotic, redefined? Historically, conventional London will one observe concentric complex, network no longer exhibiting the spatial geographic distance was a good patterns. Looking at the same driven contagion regularity of pandemics of the past. predictor for how long it would take hypothetical pandemic from any other phenomena This comes as no surprise if we a spreading pandemic to reach a location will not amount to a regular (Science, 442 consider the complexity of modern chosen location. Nowadays, it might concentric wave pattern. Thus, if one 1337 (2013)) air transportation, a network that be better to think of distance in an only has a temporal snapshot of a connects more than 4,000 airports effective way? For instance, from a contagion phenomenon (that is, a worldwide, and serves more than perspective of a randomly chosen number of cases scattered here and three billion passengers each year, traveller in London, other ‘distant’ there on a map), one can view this who travel more than 10 billion large cities such as New York City particular pattern from all possible kilometres each day. or Tokyo may effectively be closer locations and identify the most likely than a small town in Sussex simply As a consequence, it has become outbreak as the one from which the Figure 2: Each panel depicts a daunting task to forecast the because our traveller is more likely to pattern looks more regular. This a temporal snapshot of most likely spreading patterns of visit attractive hubs worldwide. This may become a powerful method for a hypothetical, computer intuitive notion can be cast into a simulated pandemic with its new, emergent infectious diseases. outbreak reconstruction in general, origin in London. A pattern Whenever a novel disease emerges mathematical formula that maps the and it remains to be seen what other that appears very complex at scattered locations on the globe, traffic between locations around the global contagion phenomena can be on the conventional map is simple in the effective researchers desperately try to answer globe on an effective distance scale. better understood by redrawing the This way, one can view the world from distance perspective from the following questions: Where is the maps of our world. London. © Dirk Brockmann, new disease going to hit next? Where the perspective of any location using Humboldt University & did it originate? When is it going to effective distance. Figure 1 (see page Robert Koch-Institute, Berlin, rocs.hu.berlin.de arrive somewhere? One of the most 11) illustrates this view of the world Spilling Over

Disease - the next one David Quammen big

“The worst Grim prognostications of few. The most devastating, AIDS, Sixty percent of human pestilence are as old as is caused by a devious, patient infectious diseases, including the new diseases the Book of Revelation, but virus that wages slow-motion worst of the old ones and the of the future, they have not gone out of war against the human body, scariest of the new, are zoonotic. style or been rendered moot. with mortal consequences for Now disease experts wonder like those of Plague is a tribulation that millions. The most explosive – about the ‘next big one:’ when the recent science, technology and social SARS in 2002, or some recent will it come, what will it look like, engineering haven’t fixed. In the strains of influenza – had the from which reservoir host will it past, will be mid-1960s, some public health potential, but for prompt action spill over, and how many people zoonotic.” officials imagined that antibiotics and good luck, to claim many will it kill? and other modern therapies more victims than they did. Prediction is difficult. But we can would enable us to ‘close the AIDS, SARS, Ebola virus, and be reasonably confident on a few book’ on infectious diseases and many other new diseases have points. The worst new diseases so make it possible to focus on one thing in common: they are of the future, like those of the non-communicable afflictions, recent past, will be zoonotic. zoonotic. This means they came like heart attack, diabetes and Unfamiliar pathogens come to from non-human animals and stroke. But that optimism was people from wildlife or livestock. made the leap to humans. The mistaken. The scariest of the new bugs will infectious agent might be a virus, probably be viruses. Formidable, By one account, published in or a bacterium, or another sort hardy, opportunistic, and Nature in 2008, more than 300 of parasitic microbe, or a worm; impervious to antibiotics, viruses instances of emerging infectious the animal in which it resides replicate and evolve quickly. They diseases occurred between inconspicuously, before spilling exist in extraordinary diversity 1940 and 2004. These included over into humans, is known as and seem ever ready to colonize both the first appearance of its reservoir host. The reservoir new hosts. scary new viral diseases (like host might be a bat (as with the Experts believe that the next SARS virus), global pandemic is likely to or a rodent be caused by a virus with high (the various ‘intrinsic evolvability’, meaning hantaviruses), that it mutates especially quickly or a or recombines elements of its chimpanzee genetic material during the (HIV-1). The process of replication. It crackles reservoir and snaps with accidental host of Ebola variation. Darwin told us that virus is still Ancient species like bats can harbour viruses to which they have become variation is the raw material of immune, but when they are eaten, or their habitat is encroached upon, the unidentified, adaptive change; and adaptive virus can leap to other animals, including people. a lingering change is what enables an SARS), with the potential to mystery, though bats again organism to thrive in unfamiliar cause global pandemics, and are suspected. And all of our conditions – including human the re-emergence of older influenzas (even the so-called hosts. swine flu’s) originate in wild bacterial infections in new In 1997, Dr Donald S Burke aquatic birds. forms (like antibiotic-resistant cautioned that the watch list of tuberculosis and Staphylococcus We now know from molecular candidate viruses for the next aureus), which are less dramatic evidence (published by Beatrice global pandemic – the ones but also capable of causing H Hahn, Michael Worobey and with high intrinsic evolvability – illness and death on a large their collaborators) that the should include the influenzas, scale. The authors of that study pandemic strain of HIV went the retroviruses (like HIV-1 and warned that global resources from a single chimpanzee into HIV-2), and the coronavirus to counter disease emergence a single person (presumably by family (including SARS). His were poorly allocated, with blood-to-blood contact when the warning was validated when most new outbreaks occurring chimp was slaughtered for food) SARS emerged. in tropical countries, and most around 1908 or earlier, in south- Precise prediction may not be scientific and surveillance efforts eastern Cameroon. The virus possible, but informed vigilance concentrated elsewhere. then must have passed slowly is. Intrepid disease ecologists This article was The most gruesome emergent downriver, human to human, are hiking into forests, climbing first published diseases – like those caused by into the large population centres through caves, visiting remote in the New York Ebola virus in Africa or Nipah of the Congo basin before communities to investigate small Times. virus in Asia – affect relatively spreading worldwide. outbreaks, gathering evidence of The Geographer 10-11 Winter 2013 -14

Figure 1: The world as seen from Edinburgh. The radial separation from the central node reflects the effective distance. The tree structure represents the effectively shortest routes from the root node to other nodes in the network. The colour of each node quantifies the size of the airport, and the size of the symbol quantifies the importance as a gateway to the world. © Dirk Brockmann, Humboldt University & Robert Koch-Institute, Berlin, rocs.hu.berlin.de novel infections, and sleuthing the mysteries of reservoir host and spillover. In labs, other scientists are developing sophisticated new molecular tools for quickly identifying and characterizing new viruses. Private, governmental and international health institutions support scientific efforts and public-health planning to limit the scope of coming pandemics. There are issues of civil liberties and privacy, as well as issues of public health, to be faced as we prepare for the ‘next big one’. Consider the matter of travel. When Dr Burke issued his warning, you could get on an airplane just about anywhere carrying a pocket-knife. You can’t do that anymore. But you can still board a plane carrying a virus. This may change. Soon, it will be possible to identify quickly who is or is not infected with a dangerous new virus, and the carriers may be excluded from certain activities – or worse. During smallpox outbreaks of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, some American communities instituted compulsory vaccination and forcible confinement in pest- for confining and controlling The answer may depend not just houses. A 21st century version, outbreaks – these represent on the nature of the virus, and based on similar fears about a our best defences against the on the density and abundance of new zoonotic virus, might involve ‘next big one’. We can’t prevent Homo sapiens on this planet, but cheek-swabbing and speedy another malign bug from also on the particulars of how we molecular diagnostics at airport entering the human population. respond. Viruses are adaptable security checkpoints, followed But will it kill a few thousand and heedless. Humans are by... who knows what sort of people, or tens of millions? adaptable and smart. quarantine for those carrying the bug. David Quammen is the author of Spillover: Animal We’ll need to balance between Infections and the Next Human Pandemic. He tracks individual liberties and the the animal origins of emerging human diseases, health of the human herd. recounting adventures in the field – netting bats in Field research in areas of high China, trapping monkeys in Bangladesh, stalking biological diversity, careful gorillas in the Congo – with the world’s leading scrutiny of the interactions of disease scientists, taking the reader along on this humans and wildlife, control astonishing quest to learn how, from where, and why of the killing and transport of these diseases emerge, and asking the question, what wild animals for food, attention might the next big one be? to the disease threats inherent In the book, Quammen quotes William H McNeill: “If in factory-scale livestock you look at the world from the point of view of a hungry virus… we offer husbandry, efficient sampling a magnificent feeding ground with all our billions of human bodies… in and diagnostic tools, global some 25… years we have doubled in number – a marvellous target for any monitoring networks, better organism that can adapt itself to invading us.” vaccines, better antiviral drugs, and contingency plans Hunting & Helping

Tracing HIV to its Roots Professor Dorothy H Crawford, Emeritus Professor of Medical Microbiology, University of Edinburgh

Where did the AIDS virus, from its as yet unidentified natural was very similar to HIV. In fact, this “The pandemic HIV, come from? This was host while both species were virus was so closely related to HIV results were the question uppermost in the housed together in captivity. The that the scientists were left in no minds of virus evolution experts only way to get to the root of the doubt that they had found what spectacular – when HIV was discovered in 1983. matter was to look at retroviruses they were looking for – the direct better than Most of our so-called ‘new’ viruses carried by wild chimpanzees. ancestor of pandemic HIV. AFRICA actually jump to us from other Studying chimpanzees in the wild, The two chimpanzee communities anyone animals, but the question always is: and particularly obtaining the in the spotlight both lived in the 40 20 0 20 Minsk 40 60 where to start looking? appropriate specimens from them, extreme south-east corner of could have IRE. U.K. By the time HIV was identified, it is no easy task.Amsterdam These animals live Cameroon, a veryBELARUS remote, densely London Berlin Warsaw RUSSIA NETH. KAZAKHSTAN had been spreading in the US and in remote areas in the rainforest,GERMANY forested area with few links to the hoped for.” Brussels POLAND Kyiv Europe for several years, mainly are large, and canBEL. be aggressive outside world. The implication is Nor t h LUX. Prague Aral among sexually active gay men and if approached. What’s more, they CZ. REP.that pandemic HIV emergedUKRAINE in Volga Sea Paris SL OV. A t intravenousl a n t i c drug users. But when a are an endangered species, and Viennahumans in this unlikely place. From AUS. MOL. SWITZ. Budapest Sea of Tashkent taskforce of doctors went to Africa, so sedating them to obtain blood thereHUNG. it travelled to virtually every Azov FRANCE SLO. ROM. Othey c e founda n a much older and more samples was not an option. The countryCRO. Belgrade in the world, eventually 40 Bucharest UZBEKISTAN widespread AIDS epidemic affecting scientists needed a non-invasive infectingBOS.& 65-85Danube million people and HER. SER. Black Sea Caspian heterosexuals in cities in Central method of virus detection, andITALY in killing 25 million.Sofia GEO. Sea AND. Corsica MONT. KOS. BULG. TURKMENISTAN Africa. Early reports fromPORTUGAL Kinshasa the end they opted to use faeces AZER. AZORES Madrid Rome MACE. ARM. Ashgabat in Zaire (now the Democratic that could be collected from the ALB. Ankara (PORTUGAL) Lisbon SPAIN Republic of Congo), and Kigali in forest floor. Sardinia GREECE TURKEY Rwanda, showed alarmingly high It took two years of intense Tehran Algiers Sicily Athens Tigris infection rates among female sex Strait of Gibraltar Oranlaboratory work before researchers AFG. MADEIRA ISLANDS Constantine Tunis MALTA workers,(PORTUGAL) with rapid spread from could reliably detect HIV antibodies SYRIA Rabat Fès CYPRUS LEB. E IRAQ up there to the generalCasablanca population. hr IRAN and virus-genetic materialTUNISIA in Mediterranean Sea Beirut Damascus ates MOROCCO Baghdad These findings suggested that the faecal samples. They could also Jerusalem Marrakech ISRAEL Amman epicentreCANARY ofISLANDS the pandemic lay in determine the sex, species andTripoli Benghazi Alexandria west central(SPAIN) Africa, and so the subspecies of animals, and even Cairo JORDAN KUWAIT - search for the direct ancestor of identify the individual animal that Al Jizah Persian AIDS was first HIV pinpointed wildlife in this area. A hadL G produced E R I the A sample. As often happens in science, Gulf Laayoune described in BAHR. Abu And when, in 1985, a virus from the For their initial field study, Lwhile I B answering Y A one question Dhabi 1981, and just Western EGYPT Riyadh QATAR Muscat sameSahara retrovirus family as HIV was researchers chose ten sites in this amazing piece of detective under three years U.A.E isolated from captive monkeys with Cameroon where they knew that work posed several more. When Aswan- later the Human Tropic of Cancer a fatal immunodeficiency similar to individual chimpanzee communities and how did the virus jump to Admin. SAUDI OMAN ImmunodeficiencyNouadhibou boundary AIDS, the finger was firmly pointed lived. They employed local trackers humans? How did it get from this ARABIA 20 Virus20 (HIV) was at African primates as the source SAHARAisolated region of Cameroon to discovered. who scooped up around 600 faecal Port Red of HIV.MAURITANIA cities like Kinshasa, a journey of Sudan Confirming that HIV samples from the forest floor. These Sea CAPE VERDE some 700km? And how did it then causes AIDS, now ResearchersNouakchott scoured primate were then airlifted toN the I G US E for R Nile centres, zoos, wildlife parks and Timbuktuanalysis. manage to spread globally? These acceptedPraia by virtually Agadez questions are still subjects ofOmdurman ERITREA YEMEN all scientists, tookDakar animal sanctuaries around the The results were spectacular – SENEGAL MALI debate and the answers are eagerly Asmara Sanaa Arabian rather longer. In world for primates to test. Several better than anyone could have CHAD Khartoum Banjul Niger BURKINA Niamey awaited. Sea Virus HuntTHE, Professor GAMBIA retroviruses wereBamako isolated from hoped for. Five chimpanzeeZinder Lac'Assal Gulf of FASO S U D A N Blue (lowest point in Crawford gives us Bissaua African primates, but few closely Africa, -155 m) Djibouti Aden Socotra communities containedKano SIV- N'Djamena (YEMEN) scientific GUINEA-BISSAUdetective resembled HIV. We now know Ouagadougouthat DJIBOUTI GUINEA carrying animals, and at two of Nile Y story – the search Conakrymost primate species carry their BENIN le these sites they found a virus that i E NIGERIA N L Niger e Addis Hargeysa for the origin of HIV. Freetownown particular strain of retrovirus, it L GHANA Abuja h CÔTE Moundou W A Volta Ababa She tells a gripping called simian immunodeficiency TOGO V SIERRA LEONE D'IVOIRE Prov. Ogbomoso Benue SOUTH story of brilliant ETHIOPIA admin. virus, SIV, which has co-evolved with Ibadan CENTRAL AFRICAN Monrovia Lomé line Yamoussoukro SUDAN T SOMALIA scientific sleuthing, Accra Lagos them for thousands of years and REPUBLIC F Porto- LIBERIA CAMEROON Juba I breakthrough Abidjan Novo generally causes them no harm. Bangui R Douala discoveries, tragic Malabo The SIV that was most similar to errors, stubborn C O N G O EQUATORIAL GUINEA Yaoundé T HIV came from chimpanzees of Congo UGANDA A intractable Gulf of Guinea Mogadishu E mysteries, generous the subspecies Pan troglodytes SAO TOME REP. OF Kisangani Kampala KENYA 0 Equator R 0 AND PRINCIPE Libreville troglodytes. Initially only four of THE collaborations, and São Tomé CONGO B A S I N G Nairobi over 200 chimpanzees tested GABON bitter disputes. She RWANDA Kigali Annobón Kilimanjaro I n d i a n conveys a wealth positive for the virus, and these (EQUA. GUI.) DEM. REP. Bukavu Lake (highest point in Victoria of interesting were all captive animals that had at Africa, 5895 m) Brazzaville OF THE CONGO Bujumbura O c e a n Victoria some stage been housed with other Pointe-Noire Mombasa observations about Kinshasa BURUNDI viruses, DNA, primates. This led to the suspicion ANGOLA Lake Dodoma Tanganyika Zanzibar A (Cabinda) Mbuji-Mayi M disease, immune I thatM chimpanzees may not be R Ascension TANZANIA Dar es A N SEYCHELLES systems, and the T the natural carrier of HIV’s direct Salaam E I Luanda T R latest research EN ancestorD in the wild. The SIV they CH methods. Lake carried- could have jumped to them Nyasa COMOROS Glorioso Islands Lubumbashi (FRANCE) A Moroni MALAWI T ANGOLA Kitwe Lilongwe Cidade Mayotte L de Nacala (admin. by France, A Namibe Lubango ZAMBIA claimed by Comoros) Blantyre Juan de Nova Tromelin Island N Lusaka Island (FRANCE) Saint Helena (FRANCE) Mahajanga T Zambezi

N A M I B Toamasina I Harare MOZAMBIQUE C Port S o u t h ZIMBABWE Mozambique Antananarivo Louis 20 Beira 20 Channel St. Denis E BOTSWANA Bassas MAURITIUS Windhoek K A L A H A R I da India A t l a n t i c G Walvis Bay Europa MADAGASCAR Reunion D E S E R T (FRANCE) D Island (FRANCE) Tropic of Capricorn I NAMIBIA Gaborone (FRANCE) D E S E R T R R Pretoria O c e a n I Maputo S D Johannesburg Saint Helena, Ascension, I Mbabane V G SWAZILAND and Tristan da Cunha L SOUTH A Or E (U.K.) an Maseru g W e AFRICA Durban LESOTHO I n d i a n O c e a n Cape Town Port Elizabeth Scale 1:51,400,000 Azimuthal Equal-Area Projection TRISTAN DA CUNHA 0 800 Kilometers E Gough Island I S 0 800 Miles R 40 E 40 A P Boundary representation is C not necessarily authoritative.

20 0 20 40 60 803510AI (G00392) 6-12 The Geographer 12-13 Winter 2013 -14 A ray of hope: socio-geographical aspects of the HIV/AIDS pandemic in Kenya Bob Thomson, RSGS Member

No pandemic has we spent a week struck the world in erecting cooking “It was truly such a frightening shelters adjacent to humbling but way as HIV/AIDS, and 16 cottages. Despite sub-Saharan Africa is the searing afternoon inspiring to one of the hardest hit heat and frustrating see the work AFRICA areas. Over 13 million delays in supplies African children have and transport, the being carried 40 20 0 20 Minsk 40 been orphaned already60 task was completed. IRE. U.K. Amsterdam BELARUS through AIDS, and this Over several years, out in these London Berlin Warsaw RUSSIA NETH. number is predicted KAZAKHSTANto Rotarians have GERMANY POLAND communities.” Brussels Kyiv constructed 70-odd BEL. increase as high as 40 Nor t h LUX. Prague Aral CZ. REP. UKRAINE Volgamillion by 2020. Sea such shelters, leaving Paris SL OV. A t l a n t i c Vienna In Kenya, there are just over 20 cottages AUS. MOL. SWITZ. Budapest Sea of Tashkent to be provided with HUNG. Azov huge areas where a FRANCE SLO. ROM. O c e a n CRO. Belgrade significant proportion of this essential part 40 Bucharest UZBEKISTAN BOS.& Danube the child-bearing-aged of daily life for HER. SER. Black Sea Caspian ITALY Sofia GEO.population hasSea been Children pose outside a clinic in one of the slum areas. ‘Mamas’. These AND. Corsica MONT. KOS. BULG. TURKMENISTAN PORTUGAL wiped AZER.out by the scourge ladies are issued with weekly AZORES Madrid Rome MACE. ARM. Ashgabat ALB. by a ‘Mama’, usually a widow who rations of maize, rice and (PORTUGAL) Ankara of HIV/AIDS, leaving Lisbon SPAIN is responsible for their domestic Sardinia GREECE TURKEY many communities populated beans to feed their charges, and care year-round. It is encouraging each keeps chickens or rabbits only by orphaned childrenTehran and Algiers Sicily Athens Tigris that the use of anti-retroviral elders. Poverty, illiteracy and social as well as a small cottage garden Strait of Gibraltar Oran AFG. MADEIRA ISLANDS Constantine Tunis MALTA (ARV) drugs has ensured that no to supplement the diet. In this (PORTUGAL) Rabat SYRIA deprivationIRAQ have resulted in many Fès CYPRUS LEB. Eu child has died for a number of essentially cash-free society, Casablanca childrenph being abandoned or living The purpose of our mission: to replace TUNISIA Beirut Damascus rate IRAN Mediterranean Sea s years, and many are progressing ‘Mamas’ often weave baskets or the often dangerous and decrepit cooking MOROCCO in Baghdaddestitution on the streets of shelters with new, secure, structures. Jerusalem well in their education. produce craft items which can be Marrakech ISRAEL Amman what the Kenyan government terms CANARY ISLANDS Tripoli Benghazi Alexandria • An impressive state-of-the-art sold to provide cash for the most (SPAIN) JORDAN ‘informal settlementKUWAIT catchments Cairo diagnostic laboratory speeds the modest of treats for the children. - areas’ – slums. Al Jizah Persian assessment of children within all Kenyan elections were taking A L G E R I A In A Geographical Study onGulf the HIV/ of the COGRI programmes, and Laayoune BAHR. Abu place at the time of our trip, L I B Y A AIDS Pandemic in Kenya (2007),Dhabi offers the opportunity to generate Western EGYPT Riyadh QATAR Muscat and regrettably our movements Sahara Moses Murimi Ngigi found that funds by analysing samples from - U.A.E to and around the slum areas Aswan the spread of HIV/AIDS has been hospitals and clinics which are Tropic of Cancer OMAN were severely constrained due to Admin. heterogeneousSAUDI geographically and also attentive to the incidence of Nouadhibou boundary concern for our safety. Certain in 20 has affectedARABIA some communities TB and20 pneumonia. the knowledge there was no way we SAHARA Redmore aggressively than others. He • Nyumbani Village is home to Port could ‘blend into the scenery’, we MAURITANIA Sudan Seacited poverty, population density, some 1,200 children from the CAPE VERDE migration, education and sexual had to be content with a couple of Nouakchott Nile Kamba tribe which has been N I G E R carefully managed brief visits to Timbuktu mores as key factors in the varying worst affected by the pandemic. ‘Mamas’ Grace and Agnes take a break from Praia ERITREA YEMEN selected sites. It was truly humbling pounding maize. Dakar Agadez Omdurman rates and levels of infection. In clusters of modest cottages SENEGAL MALI Arabian but inspiring to see the work being CHAD Khartoum However,Asmara on a positiveSanaa note, the holding 12 children, each with Banjul Niger Sea carried out in these communities. BURKINA Niamey Zinder Lac'AssalKenya National AIDS Strategic Plan a ‘Mama’, this community THE GAMBIA Bamako S U D A N Blue Gulf of FASO (lowest is point beginning in to slow and reverse the Protus Lumiti, general manager Bissau Africa, -155 m) Djibouti Aden Socotrabenefits from an on-campus Kano N'Djamena (YEMEN) of COGRI Nyumbani, told me he Ouagadougou incidence of bothDJIBOUTI HIV and AIDS, GUINEA-BISSAU GUINEA Nile clinic, school, polytechnic, and particularlyY in the most deprived was optimistic for the future of BENIN e Conakry il E psycho-social counselling services NIGERIA N L his children, despite their need to Niger e Addis Hargeysa Freetown it communities. L GHANA Abuja h which prepare children for their CÔTE Moundou W A take ARVs for the rest of their life Volta Ababa TOGO AgainstV this background, in reintegration into the wider world. SIERRA LEONE D'IVOIRE Prov. Ogbomoso and the challenges of often being Benue SOUTH ETHIOPIA admin. Monrovia Ibadan CENTRAL AFRICAN February 2013 I joined a volunteer The community is developing a Lomé line orphans. Yamoussoukro SUDAN T SOMALIA Accra Lagos REPUBLIC workingF party from Rotary Clubs sand-dam and varied cash-crops, Porto- LIBERIA CAMEROON Juba I Abidjan Novo The HIV/AIDS pandemic is Bangui R in the north-east of Scotland to with the aim of becoming self- Douala

extensive and well-entrenched in

Malabo help in the COGRI (Children of sustaining within a decade. C O N G O EQUATORIAL GUINEA Yaoundé T the fabric of Kenyan and African Congo UGANDA God Relief Institute) in Nairobi, the • The Lea Toto (‘raising the child’) A Gulf of Guinea Mogadishu societies. The modest work E 11th year in which such a group programme provides six clinics Equator SAO TOME REP. OF Kisangani Kampala KENYA 0 Libreville R 0 undertaken by our working party AND PRINCIPE THE has made the journey. COGRI was in slum areas; it tests, counsels São Tomé CONGO G Nairobi GABON B A S I N established by a Roman Catholic and provides ARV drugs to some faded into insignificance compared RWANDA Kigali to the scale of the effort required, Annobón priest Kilimanjaro in 1996, and Igoes n d under i a n the 8,500 children and 40,000 family (EQUA. GUI.) DEM. REP. Bukavu Lake (highest point in Victoria nameAfrica, ‘Nyumbani’ 5895 m) (Kaswahili for members who survive in near- and the evident need within this Brazzaville OF THE CONGO Bujumbura O c e a n Victoria society. However, each of us was Pointe-Noire BURUNDI ‘Home’).Mombasa It has four separate, but destitute circumstances. Kinshasa heartened that we had helped ANGOLA Lake Dodomalinked, facilities related to those Before returning to cope with the Tanganyika Zanzibar A in some small way, and we were (Cabinda) Mbuji-Mayi infected, or affected, by HIV/AIDS. M I M R challenges of refurbishing the The author with Hamish, who was Ascension TANZANIA Dar es A SEYCHELLES rewarded by the warm smiles and • The orphanage has 130 children N T found abandoned on a bus last Salaam E orphanage, I joined five volunteers I Luanda T R expressions of gratitude of those year and named by the Scottish who stay in same-age ‘families’ of EN D andC headed for Nyumbani Village, Lake a dozen boys and girls cared for H we helped. working party when he was - Nyasa COMOROS Glorioso Islands c120 miles east of Nairobi, where adopted by the orphanage. Lubumbashi (FRANCE) A Moroni MALAWI T ANGOLA Kitwe Lilongwe Cidade Mayotte L de Nacala (admin. by France, A Namibe Lubango ZAMBIA claimed by Comoros) Blantyre Juan de Nova Tromelin Island N Lusaka Island (FRANCE) Saint Helena (FRANCE) Mahajanga T Zambezi

N A M I B Toamasina I Harare MOZAMBIQUE C Port S o u t h ZIMBABWE Mozambique Antananarivo Louis 20 Beira 20 Channel St. Denis E BOTSWANA Bassas MAURITIUS Windhoek K A L A H A R I da India A t l a n t i c G Walvis Bay Europa MADAGASCAR Reunion D E S E R T (FRANCE) D Island (FRANCE) Tropic of Capricorn I NAMIBIA Gaborone (FRANCE) D E S E R T R R Pretoria O c e a n I Maputo S D Johannesburg Saint Helena, Ascension, I Mbabane V G SWAZILAND and Tristan da Cunha L SOUTH A Or E (U.K.) an Maseru g W e AFRICA Durban LESOTHO I n d i a n O c e a n Cape Town Port Elizabeth Scale 1:51,400,000 Azimuthal Equal-Area Projection TRISTAN DA CUNHA 0 800 Kilometers E Gough Island I S 0 800 Miles R 40 E 40 A P Boundary representation is C not necessarily authoritative.

20 0 20 40 60 803510AI (G00392) 6-12 Zoonoses & Flu Noses Misdiagnosis of Zoonoses Professor Jo Sharp (University of Glasgow), Professor Rudovik R Kazwala (Sokoine University of Agriculture, Tanzania), Professor Moshi K Ntabaye (Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre, Tanzania), Professor Sarah Cleaveland (University of Glasgow) and Professor John A Crump (Dunedin School of Medicine, New Zealand)

One of the major challenges in increased food security is ever more proportion of patients. addressing the burden of diseases pressing as a result of climate In recent years, there has been “…more that are transmitted from animals change and the increasing urban concerted effort by global aid to people is accurate diagnosis. This population. agencies and other institutions than 60% is often the result of the difficulties So why do these diseases to combat malaria. There has were of detecting pathogens, but can go undiagnosed? There are been support for everything from also result from misdiagnosis. In various explanations, information campaigns (on the clinically Tanzania, the term for fever, homa, demonstrating that this radio and TV) to bed-nets is often used interchangeably for is a complex issue. and malaria drugs, but diagnosed malaria. In a study of patients The symptoms of the relative availability and admitted to hospital with fever at these infections are of effective malaria the Kilimanjaro Christian Medical very common and drugs, the success treated for Centre in northern Tanzania, it can indicate many of information was discovered that more than different diseases, campaigns, and the malaria on 60% were clinically diagnosed and so a diagnosis pressure from patients admission, treated for malaria on admission, based on clinical for clinicians to act can whereas less than 2% actually signs alone is almost add to the over-prescription whereas less had malaria when tested in the impossible. Furthermore, of anti-malaria drugs. Many laboratory. This means that the vast these symptoms – fever, headaches, people, however, do not even go than 2% majority of severe fever illness in tiredness – are the same as those to doctors when they think they actually had this area is not malaria, and that presented by someone with malaria. have malaria, but will instead go to these other fever-causing diseases Malaria continues to pose a major purchase these drugs as soon as malaria.” are going untreated. threat to human health globally, but they feel the return of symptoms Around a third of those tested in many areas, including northern that they attribute to malaria. in the Kilimanjaro study had one Tanzania, the number of cases of One of the key responses to this of four zoonotic diseases that malaria has declined substantially. situation is to ensure that medical we believe are endemic to the However, many patients equate fever practitioners and patients alike region: brucellosis, Q-fever, spotted with malaria and seek care with learn of the problems associated fever group rickettsioses, and an expectation that anti-malarials with the failure to effectively treat leptospirosis. These infections will be prescribed, and from a non-malaria infections. Highlighting are transmitted variously by healthcare worker’s perspective, the causes of the transmission interactions with animals: during overlooking as deadly and common of zoonoses is important too, but birthing; contact with animal a disease as malaria they view as perhaps more important is the waste; bites from ticks that tantamount to professional failure. challenge of offering solutions that have fed on animals; and the There are highly accurate rapid work in the context of everyday life. consumption of poorly cooked meat tests for malaria diagnosis now, but For instance, in the focus groups or unpasteurized milk. there is a lack of quick and reliable we have held with livestock keepers F u r t h e r R e a d i n g In the communities tests for other causes of fever, so around the Kilimanjaro Region, Crump JA et al (2013), Etiology served by the hospital, doctors have few tools to diagnose almost everyone we spoke with of severe non-malarial febrile ownership of animals anything other than malaria. In knew that milk should be boiled, illness in Northern Tanzania such as cattle, sheep this situation, we have anecdotal and meat cooked well, to avoid (PLOS Neglected Tropical and goats is common evidence that doctors do not like disease transmission. However, this Diseases 7(7): e2324) and the consumption of the new rapid tests and that they was not always done for a variety of Hertz J et al (2013), Comparing raw and cooked animal do not trust the results (as they, reasons: lack of time or fuel to boil actual and perceived causes products is widespread. of course, will often give negative large quantities of milk; a belief of fever among community The zoonotic diseases results for malaria). The combined that boiling milk changes its taste members in a low malaria identified in the study effect of the doctors’ mistrust of or makes the production of yoghurt transmission setting in northern have substantial impacts the rapid tests, availability, patient impossible; and a preference for Tanzania (Tropical Medicine and on human health in expectations, and the lack of tests traditional foods that involve blood International Health 18(11): these communities. All for alternative conditions, leads to products, have all being mentioned. 1406-1415) cause fevers that can be the prescription of malaria drugs in Moreover, each community offered severe and may be fatal. most cases, even though a growing examples of cases where people These diseases therefore body of evidence indicates that had consumed uncooked products pose an important development this treatment is inappropriate and had been fine; ‘evidence’ that Kilimanjaro. © Mike challenge in the Global South where Robinson (and ineffective) for an increasing such diseases were not a threat. The Geographer 14-15 Winter 2013 -14 Ingredients of Potential Pandemics Scott H Newman and Ken Inui, Emergency Centre for Transboundary Animal Diseases (ECTAD) - Viet Nam, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

Approximately 60% of emerging to jump the ‘host bridge’ from to utilize human-modified wetland infectious diseases of humans the original hosts, where many systems, especially in Southeast “If mutations are zoonotic, and since the 1940s pathogens do not cause sickness, Asia where millions of domestic happened in approximately 70% originate into new human hosts, where they waterfowl are farmed. Furthermore, from wildlife. Recently, zoonotic can be deadly. with the recent growth in poultry viruses located pathogens (primarily viruses) On 31st March 2013, China notified production in this region and and diseases such as HIV/ the World Health Organization of elsewhere, farming system in separate AIDS, Henipah viruses, SARS, the first human cases of avian expansion and intensification is a geographic Streptococcus suis, Rift Valley Fever, influenza A (H7N9), an influenza dominant trend that will persist and pandemic influenza A (H1N1) virus that had never been detected into the foreseeable future to meet places, it have invaded human populations. in humans before. More than food security demands of a growing Concurrently, livestock-wildlife three-quarters of the initial 77 population. Finally, poverty remains is unlikely interface diseases (foot-and-mouth human cases had recent exposure a major global issue and results in that re- disease, African and classical swine to animals. Of these, 76% either high-risk behaviours that enable fever, bovine tuberculosis, peste had direct contact with chickens or transmission of pathogens across combinations des petits ruminants) can affect had visited live bird markets, with species. production, food security, and poultry exposure considered as the Unravelling the complexity of would ever livelihoods, while having negative most likely source of infection as these pathogen-host relationships, wildlife conservation implications. there was no sustained person-to- defining the epidemiology of take place Most recently, public and animal person transmission at the time. transmission among livestock, and become a health emergencies have focused Influenza viruses are sub-typed wildlife and people within an around the emergence of Middle on the basis of haemagglutinin ecological context, and identifying public health East Respiratory Syndrome (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) the drivers of disease emergence, (MERS)-CoV and influenza viruses, threat.” glycoproteins present on the outer are the foundations of the ‘One including highly pathogenic avian surface of the virus. Ordinary Health’ approach needed. If we influenza HPAI (H5N1) and avian strains of virus routinely circulate are only able to detect emerging influenza A (H7N9). in wild birds (mostly waterfowl) and viruses when they cross the ‘host Whether a zoonotic pathogen poultry. What makes H7N9 unique bridge’, we can only react to comes from livestock or wildlife, is that over time it has undergone these emergency events, and this global factors drive pathogen a series of genetic re-assortments often requires significant financial evolution to take place in two and mutations, leading to increased commitment and results in loss major systems: 1) human-modified replication and pathogenicity in of lives and impacts to livelihoods natural ecosystems where natural people. As with pandemic influenza and food security. If we are able resources are being consumed, A (H1N1) which emerged in to move further upstream, to biodiversity is being lost, and 2009, H7N9 is a combination of determine which progenitor viruses ecological services are not being progenitor viruses: H1N1 consisted are present in the modified natural sustained; and 2) agro-ecological of viruses derived from pigs, birds and agro-ecological systems, we systems where the need to meet and people; H7N9 results from at can move towards predicting and increasing global demands for least three different domestic and preventing new threats to global livestock-based protein leads to wild bird viruses. It is important health security. Not only is this a expansion or intensification of much more cost-effective approach, The views expressed in this to recognize that intensification, article are those of the authors farming systems. replication and co-circulation of it will prevent loss of human life, and do not necessarily reflect In developing countries, a multiple progenitor viruses in the safeguard livelihoods, and protect the views of FAO. Image food security. created by C Y Gopinath, combination of poverty and food same geographical area increases Regional Communication Co- insecurity often leads to people the risk of generating next stage ordinator, FAO ECTAD-RAP. sharing their living quarters viruses closer to pandemic strains. with livestock without proper If mutations happened in bio-security or hygiene, and viruses located in separate Stage 1: Ordinary strain – No mutations that increase subsistence-associated wildlife geographic places, it is pathogenicity in mammalians consumption. In developed unlikely that re-combinations – Only bird to bird transmission countries, cultural preferences would ever take place and and wealth enable consumers become a public health Stage 2: Progenitor strain to purchase exotic pets and threat. – Mutations being accumulated in a virus – Only bird to bird transmission food items from anywhere in the It is impossible to determine world creating an opportunity the extent to which for pathogens (and the animals human-modified natural Stage 3: Pre-pandemic strain they travel within) to travel across – Increased virulence in mammalians and agricultural systems – Occasional transmission from bird to humans the globe in less than 24 hours contribute to changes in – e.g. H5N1, H7N9 through globalized value chains influenza viruses that make and market trade. Ultimately, the them of greater risk to Stage 4: Pandemic strain characteristics of developed and human health, but we can be – Increased virulence in mammalians developing countries lead to higher confident that wild migratory – Efficient human to human transmission contact rates between people, waterfowl, farmed domestic Mutations that increase pathogenicity in humans livestock and wildlife, creating ducks, and farmed wild opportunities for pathogens waterfowl have no choice but Stages of virus evolution depicting how pandemic influenza strains can emerge. Vermin & Vaccines Rodents and Human Disease Risks in Urban Slums Dr Jo Halliday and Professor Jo Sharp, University of Glasgow

Historically the majority of the (eg, hanta- and arenaviruses), implement disease control efforts. “Many global human population has lived contact with rodent excreta (eg, We know that measures of the rodent species in rural environments, but this leptospirosis), rodent bites (eg, frequency of interaction between balance shifted in 2008 and more hantaviruses), and via ectoparasites people and rodents in their homes are highly than half of the world’s human such as fleas (eg, plague), biting are a good proxy for assessing opportunistic population now lives in cities. By flies (eg, leishmaniasis) or ticks the risk of exposure to several 2050 the proportion of humankind (eg, Lyme disease). Rodents also rodent-associated diseases. In the and resilient living urban lives will increase to act as hosts in the lifecycle of Kibera slum in Nairobi, more than an estimated 69%, when the global pathogens that humans acquire half of household respondents to ecological urban population is expected to through other indirect routes reported seeing groups of five or change… reach 6.3 billion. Almost all of this such as environmental exposure more rodents in their house on a urbanization and population growth to Toxoplasma oocysts. In all daily basis. However, the impact of providing will be in low-income regions, and cases, close spatial and temporal rodent-associated diseases on this opportunities most of this rapidly expanding association of human and population is largely unknown. urban population is expected to rodent populations contributes What we can do to control rodent for disease be housed in unplanned, informal to opportunities for disease populations in urban slums is settlements – slums. The number transmission. not a simple issue though. Telling transmission.” of urban residents living in informal Associations between rodents and people in a slum that contact with settlements in developing countries human disease in urban settings rodents is hazardous and should is expected to double to almost 2 are not new. The story of the Pied be avoided is not perhaps the most billion by 2030. Piper of Hamelin dates from the useful piece of advice, as there is Humans interact with other animal Middle Ages. In this tale, the piper little that an individual householder species in all settings, and these first lures the rodents away from can do to rodent-proof their home. interactions and their implications the town of Hamelin and then, The factors that contribute to for zoonotic disease risks vary when he is not paid for his services, increased risk of rodent-borne across different environments. he also leads the children away; diseases – poor sanitation and Although we think of urban the story is considered by many to limited access to healthcare environments as uniquely human, be a representation of the death of services – also contribute to a interactions between animals the town’s children from bubonic wide range of other infectious and and people occur even in these plague, which killed an estimated non-infectious threats to health. thoroughly ‘man-made’ settings. 25 million people across Europe. As the global human population Urbanization is often associated More recently, the International becomes more urban, our with a reduction in species diversity Red Cross has warned of the systems and approaches overall, but also with increases in potential for an outbreak of for understanding and the abundance of opportunistic, plague amongst prisoners tackling these diseases urban-adapted species. We have in Madagascar, living in need to adapt too seen this with the growth of urban overcrowded rodent- and to become more fox populations in the UK, and in infested jails. holistic. As well as the ubiquitous presence of rats Many of the defining understanding the processes and mice which thrive in urban attributes of today’s of disease transmission, environments and are found across urban slums, such we need to understand the the planet. The presence of these as overcrowding, economic and social factors different animal species can impact limited sanitation, and that govern the development upon the disease threats that urban waste disposal infrastructure, are of urban slums so that we can residents face. conducive to the proliferation of learn from past experiences and try Many rodent species are highly rodent species adapted to man- to mitigate the changing disease opportunistic and resilient to made environments. As the global threats that our increasingly urban ecological change, facilitating population becomes increasingly lifestyles will generate in future. frequent contacts between urban, the relative importance and people and rodents and providing relevance of rodent-associated opportunities for disease zoonoses is likely to increase. transmission. Different rodent- To tackle these threats we first borne zoonoses have different need to better understand their transmission routes, including importance and impacts, so inhalation of infected aerosols that steps can then be taken to The Geographer 16-17 Winter 2013 -14 One Health: Why we should be vaccinating cattle against E coli O157 Dr Louise Matthews, University of Glasgow

Identifying used in animals against the key A recent study (see Further the major outcome – the reduction in human Reading) looked at the links “The bodies sources illnesses – and this lack of data on between supershedding in cattle responsible of risk in impact hampers effective decision- and transmission risk to humans, disease making for policy change. and showed that only the relatively for licensing spread Our focus is on the understanding rare supershedding events (rather is key to of disease ecology and cross- than the more common low-level vaccines in designing species transmission dynamics shedding seen in most infected animals must effective needed to predict how E coli animals) contribute significantly means of control. However, O157 cases in people could to human risk. This new typically understanding of how disease be prevented by vaccinating understanding of animal to human spreads across species boundaries cattle. In the absence of direct transmission of this pathogen show that a is typically poor, making the design data, mathematical models of has important consequences for new control and evaluation of control methods transmission between animals and our assessment of the potential especially challenging for zoonotic people provide a tool to predict impact of cattle vaccines, which is not just pathogens. the success of interventions. not only reduce the frequency of E coli O157 is one such widespread However, because of the difficulty bacterial shedding by cattle, but safe, but that zoonotic pathogen, which causes in mapping the distribution of also reduce the number of bacteria it improves serious gastrointestinal illness in infection in the animal reservoir shed by infected animals when this people. Infection can lead to death onto disease incidence in the occurs. Consequently, the benefit the health or lifelong kidney damage and human population, few such to people of cattle vaccination is a major cause of acute renal models for zoonotic infections exist. should be substantially greater of animals failure in children. Cattle are the Because of variation in factors such than previously anticipated based main reservoir for E coli O157, as the infectiousness of cattle, on the impact on the frequency of receiving it.” and harbour the pathogen in their pathogen strains, and infection shedding alone. The recent study indicates that vaccines producing gastrointestinal tract without routes, simple measures of the F u r t h e r R e a d i n g suffering clinical disease. Although presence and degree of infection a 50% reduction in shedding Matthews L, Reeve it can spread between people, in animals may not always be a frequency in cattle could reduce R, Gally DL, Low the usual routes of infection are good predictor of risk to humans. human cases by nearly 85%, and JC, Woolhouse either by consuming contaminated Epidemiological models need to concludes that vaccination of MEJ, McAteer food and water, or by contact with be able to (or ‘can be used to’) cattle, the major reservoir for livestock faeces in the environment. represent the range of possible E coli O157, could be an especially SP, et al (2013), effective public health control Predicting the public Vaccines for cattle have been outcomes arising from these against a serious disease. health benefit of developed, but their adoption is sources of variation. vaccinating cattle being hampered by delays in their For E coli O157 the role of variation For zoonoses such as E coli against Escherichia licensing. These delays highlight in transmission from cattle is a key O157, where controls are coli O157 the particular challenges to issue. ‘Supershedding’ is the rare available in the animal reservoir control planning that are posed but epidemiologically important but the benefit is to the human (Proceedings of the by zoonotic infections. First, the situation where some individuals population, the challenges to the National Academy medical and veterinary agencies are responsible for much more design, evaluation and delivery of of Sciences of the have conflicting responsibilities. onwards disease transmission effective interventions for humans USA, 2013, 110 The bodies responsible for licensing than most others. In the case of can be added to by conflicting (40)) vaccines in animals must typically E coli O157, some cattle shed the responsibilities of veterinary and show that a new control is not just pathogen in faeces at unusually public health agencies. What this safe, but that it improves the health high concentrations. This is example has highlighted is the of animals receiving it; this poses important because, despite being need for a One Health approach to a problem for zoonotic pathogens relatively rare, supershedders policy that understands animal and that are benign in their reservoir appear to be the major source of human health to be fundamentally hosts, and demands greater deposition of pathogens into the integrated, rather than treated as co-ordination from medical and environment, from where other discrete issues to be dealt with by veterinary agencies. Second, it is animals and humans can become separate organisations with their not easy to test a control measure infected. own policy goals. Ticks & Travel Lyme disease Dr Lucy Gilbert, The James Hutton Institute

The tick, Ixodes ricinus, is a host type (eg, one is transmitted next 15 or so years (current land “Lyme fascinating and unusual parasite only by birds, one only by rodents), cover is around 17% woodland). disease… because it is a true generalist, each differing in ecology and Woodlands provide a mild, humid sucking the blood of almost every distribution, and each causing micro-climate that improves tick is the most type of terrestrial vertebrate, different symptoms. survival and activity, and mixed/ prevalent of including sheep, deer, mice, birds, Ticks are increasing in abundance deciduous woodlands in particular dogs and humans. Like other and distribution in much of are great for deer, small mammals all vector- generalists – gulls and crows Europe, as are cases of Lyme and birds. Deer are the most come to mind – this tick species borreliosis. Data published on important tick host, while small borne is highly successful and widely the Health Protection Scotland mammals and birds are reservoirs diseases in distributed around most of Europe website suggest an enormous for Borrelia spirochaetes. Recent and into Asia. One result of their increase, from only a handful in Scottish research showed that Europe.” catholic diet, unfortunately, is Scotland in the late 1990s to 285 unfenced semi-natural mixed/ that they can be infected with a in 2008. Since then, reported deciduous woodlands generally had wide range of pathogens that can cases have fluctuated around 230- more ticks and Borrelia than other cause disease in 300. This may not seem a lot, but habitats. humans, livestock, the majority go undiagnosed or In Scottish woods, 1-14% of ticks companion animals unreported, so this is only the tip contain Borrelia, but in warmer and wildlife. In fact of the iceberg. The increase may be continental Europe this percentage they are the most due in part to improved awareness, is much higher. As climate important vector of but environmental changes are warming, woodland expansion zoonotic diseases certainly also impacting on ticks and spreading roe deer increase (such as tick-borne and Lyme borreliosis. ticks and Borrelia in Scotland, encephalitis and Ixodes ricinus ticks suck blood from and as rising population growth Lyme disease) in their hosts for only a few days each and outdoor activities bring more Europe. year, so spend most of their lives people into contact with ticks, Lyme disease (or in the ground vegetation exposed how can Lyme borreliosis risk more correctly be controlled? Research shows Each stage of Ixodes to ambient conditions. Like most ricinus – larvae, nymphs, Lyme borreliosis) is the most invertebrates, ticks are increasingly that controlling deer numbers or adult female. Nymphs prevalent of all vector-borne more active as temperatures excluding deer from target areas cause most cases of diseases in Europe. It is caused (such as certain woodlands) using Lyme disease in people. increase but are not active when by spirochaete bacteria called it is cold: we rarely see them in a fencing can reduce ticks by up to Borrelia burgdorferi sensulato, which Scottish winter. However, climate 90%, which should greatly reduce have similarities to the syphilis change projections estimate that disease risk. At a personal level, spirochaete. The disease is named Scotland will warm by 3°C by people can reduce disease risk after the towns of Lyme and Old 2080 – how will this affect ticks? by being tick-aware, checking Lyme in Connecticut, where there You can mirror 3°C of climate themselves for ticks frequently was a spate of illnesses in the warming by walking down a Munro and thoroughly, removing them as 1970s, but it wasn’t until 1982 that into a Cairngorm glen at 450m in soon as possible with tweezers or a the spirochaete was identified as summer. Currently there are no ‘tick tool’ and seeking treatment if the cause by Willy Burgdorfer and ticks on the Munro tops; in fact symptoms develop. Alan Barbour. However, it is not a almost no ticks until below 500- new disease: Borrelia originated 550m, at which point they increase in Europe before the Ice Age, and dramatically as you descend into symptoms were officially described the relative warmth of the glen. in 1883 in Germany. The disease Therefore, in 2080, we may have often starts with a diagnostic to watch out for ticks while eating bulls-eye rash, lunch on a Munro summit, and I followed by flu-like shudder to think of the increase in symptoms. There tick numbers in the glens by then! is no vaccine, but it Recent studies predict that ticks is usually treatable will be not only more common at with antibiotics, higher altitudes but also active for although chronic one to two months longer in the and debilitating year. illness can As a carbon sink to mitigate occasionally climate change and to enhance develop if not biodiversity, the Scottish treated soon Government aims to increase enough. There are ‘Bullseye’ Lyme woodland cover to 25% over the disease rash. several different strains of Borrelia, each transmitted by a different

Walking through prime tick habitat. The Geographer 18-19 Winter 2013 -14 Globalization, pet dogs, and rabies Professor Sarah Cleaveland, University of Glasgow

Globalization has brought huge highly susceptible to rabies and can required, the waiting benefits and opportunities. We now easily spread the disease. We are time is now only expect to be able to eat tropical also used to the freedom of being three months after fruit every day of the year, even in able to walk our dogs in public a positive blood test the depths of a European winter. places and to move our dogs freely (www.defra.gov.uk/ We assume that we can travel to around the UK, freedoms that are ahvla-en/imports- almost any corner of the world likely to be severely constrained exports/pets). for both leisure and work. And, were rabies to appear in the UK. These changes have increasingly, we expect that this The economic consequences profound implications right to travel will extend to travel could also be enormous. People for disease risk, not for our pets. These expectations coming into contact with suspected only the direct risks have invariably led to demand for rabid animals are likely to associated with dogs greater freedom of movement of require a course of vaccinations coming in to the UK dogs and cats and, over the past and treatment, and while these from much higher-risk 13 years, this has resulted in treatments are very effective areas, but the indirect major changes to the regulations at preventing rabies, they are consequences of concerning the importation of extremely expensive and also in changing movement dogs and cats to the UK. These limited supply. There is no doubt patterns. Now that regulations are concerned that widespread exposure of people it is relatively simple principally with reducing the risk of to rabid animals would stretch the Rabies: a rabid dog and cheap to bring dogs and attacking a young girl. rabies coming into the UK. resources of our health service. cats into the UK, the dynamics Colour lithograph, 1977. © Rabies is a deadly and terrifying Initially, in 2000, the Pet Travel of the pet trade have changed Wellcome Library, London disease, and the UK is currently Scheme (PETS) was introduced dramatically, with massive free of the rabies virus (although to allow dogs and cats from expansion of a commercial trade some types of viruses causing specified countries (either free in dogs from rabies-endemic areas, rabies do circulate in British bats). from rabies, or considered very particularly pedigree dogs, for Not surprisingly, rabies is far from low risk) to enter the UK without sale in the UK. The ease of dog the thoughts of most people in the the six-month quarantine period movements has also led to an UK – some of us may remember that had previously been required. upsurge in the number of street the posters of snarling dogs This six-month period was dogs or shelter dogs that are being warning about the risks of rabies – considered necessary to detect adopted and re-homed in the but most people are probably not rabies in animals that may be UK, often from high-risk areas of aware that rabies still occurs widely incubating the disease, as rabies the world where people travel on “Now that it across the world. It is estimated can develop up to six months holiday. And while the risks are still that more than 60,000 people die after an animal is bitten, but the small if the regulations are followed is relatively from rabies each year, mostly in animal appears entirely healthy correctly, ensuring compliance Asia and Africa; this translates during this incubation period. with regulations is increasingly simple and to more than 150 people dying While removing the requirement for dependent on the legitimacy cheap to each day, mostly children from the physical quarantine, the original of paperwork, and there are most disadvantaged communities PETS regulations incorporated concerns that the huge commercial bring dogs in the world. This is a horrifying a six-month waiting period after opportunities now opening up statistic. But the disease is not vaccination, which achieved a may be spawning unscrupulous and cats into only a humanitarian concern, it similar outcome – dogs incubating practices. the UK, the is also of direct relevance to the rabies would be detected before The global connectivity between UK because of the risk of rabies entering the UK. Furthermore, supply and demand has created dynamics of to us as travellers, and the risk these regulations included new markets, which apply as much the pet trade of the disease being introduced mandatory blood testing to to supply of cheap puppies as to the UK through travelling pets. ensure that the dog had sufficient to cheap clothing. These clearly have changed This is no imaginary threat: the immunity from vaccination prior to present us with new challenges, disease is already very close to the six-month waiting period. and we need to be alert and vigilant dramatically.” our borders, with recent cases However, these regulations were to disease threats that may arise of rabies confirmed in puppies demanding, time-consuming and as a result. Our island that have been imported into the expensive, and not in line with our situation and animal Netherlands, and a kitten recently growing expectations and demands movement restrictions imported into France. for freedom to travel at short have protected us from While the UK still has a greater notice with our pets. As a result, rabies in the past. If degree of protection due to its since 2012, the regulations have we consider that the island geography, the consequences changed, with travel within the EU freedom of cheaper, of rabies introduction could be no longer requiring a blood test, simpler and more devastating in a country where and with a waiting period reduced flexible movement of very few pets are currently to 21 days. For pets travelling from pets is worth the loss vaccinated, and where we have a other countries, including the highly of this protection, we huge population of foxes. Most endemic countries of Asia and should at least do so of our towns and cities currently Africa, there is no longer need for with our eyes open. harbour very high densities of a quarantine period, and although foxes, and we know that foxes are vaccination and blood testing are Thai Forests Jungle jitters – Thailand’s efforts to protect its forest heritage Dr Brian J D’Arcy

The Jungle Book is a compelling birdlife is amazingly rich, and deer, Lan National Parks, the UNESCO “Globally, read. Not the Rudyard Kipling wild boar and elephants create designation is however under classic, but a compilation of essays and maintain paths through the threat, following the upgrading of the current first published in the Bangkok Post undergrowth below. Butterflies flit a strategic highway connecting the which reflect on politics and a between trees and flowers, and north-east with Bangkok and the search for range of recent issues in Thailand. epiphytic plants growing on the mainstream economy of the central sustainable Hydro-dams or forests? Electricity trees include remarkable orchids. region. The government is looking and irrigation, or sustainable A tropical forest in Thailand is still at ways to mitigate wildlife impacts renewable local economies dependent wonderful. of the dual carriageway that bisects energy on the natural Thailand has the designated area. forests? Tourism two UNESCO The establishment of community resources, as and recreational World Heritage forests was enabled by new development, or Sites gazetted legislation in 2007. It is heartening well as the pristine forest for natural to see an excellent example steady rise reserves? Thailand history established by local communities has experienced all importance at the north-eastern end of Khao in the value of those debates and Yai, protecting some old forest and has examples landscape. and healthy naturally-regenerating of each type of of wildlife Sign at Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary, making The larger site forest too, stabilising hill slopes development. clear the connection between protected forests has the Huai and protecting water resources, tourism, and water resources. The westernisation Kha Khaeng and encouraging income from threatens to of Thailand’s forestry economy over Wildlife Sanctuary at the heart of wildlife tourism. The pressure for the past 150 years was initially a the most extensive continuous area forest timber is still an economic reinvigorate process of unsustainable resource of protected forest in mainland consideration, but in other parts land-use exploitation, primarily focused Southeast Asia: the Western Forest of north-east Thailand, teak on teak extraction for European Complex. There, an estimated 100 plantations are being encouraged conflicts.” demand. Forest cover declined tigers still live in the wild, one of on a far smaller scale than would rapidly, from c75% in 1900, to 53% the largest continuous populations be usual for industrial forestry, as Teak plantation as a buffer by 1961, to only 28% by 1989, on Earth. There are three species part of securing more economic zone between farmland and of wild cattle – gaur (the world’s diversity for farming incomes, using protected forest reserve. when the government introduced a ban on logging. That was followed, largest wild ox), banteng, and funds for carbon sequestration however, by a focus on commercial water buffalo (one of only four wild planting to create small stands forestry practices exemplified by populations in the world). Malayan of teak. One novel application monoculture planting of even-aged tapir maintain a population, and of teak plantations has created exotic timber species, grown on rumours continue of rhinos. a buffer zone between farmland a clear-fell harvesting strategy. The regional fauna includes a and the forest reserve at Phu Sadly, there are real parallels with host of other wild animals, from Kradueng National Park, an Scottish forestry. In Thailand, elephants and primates to the example of ‘contiguous compatible the selected tree species for world’s smallest bat and longest investment’. Local community commercial planting were pine and venomous snake. Several different action and creative green enterprise eucalyptus, although only the latter forest types are present, including can work well alongside government proved economic. If a shift from dry deciduous dipterocarp forest in initiatives. The difficulties and the rain shadow of the mountains. the achievements in Thailand White-handed gibbon, forests with up to 20 tree species to Khao Yai National Park. just one or two seems regrettable The region drains southwards, deserve greater recognition and in Europe, such a move in a feeding reservoirs that flooded offer interesting ideas for wider Dr D’Arcy is tropical forest where there would tropical forests when created, consideration. leading an naturally be 160+ tree species was amid considerable controversy. But International probably the intellectual abyss of government policy prohibits further Water Association single purpose forestry philosophy. encroachment, underpinning project to develop Globally, the current search for the UNESCO designation, so the best practice sustainable renewable energy dams (damage done) now provide resources, as well as the steady a compatible protected land-use concepts for eco- rise in the value of wildlife tourism, as downstream neighbours of the business parks, threatens to reinvigorate land-use forest reserves. and is working conflicts, driven also by efforts to North-east Thailand, the country’s with officials escape from economic slow-down. poorest region, has featured in in Thailand to Wild elephant at salt-lick, Khao Yai National Park. The jungles of tropical Thailand many land-use conflicts over large develop more are remarkable places, where projects seeking to clear-fell forest F u r t h e r R e a d i n g sustainable lianas that would sustain dozens and either flood with a dam or Jungle Book, by Chang Noi (2009). means to protect of Tarzan movies hang down from replace with eucalyptus. But it Thai Forestry, by Ann Danaiya natural resources towering trees, where gibbons still has some excellent large and Usher (2009). and promote sing and swing high up in the biologically diverse forest areas, environmentally canopy, and giant squirrels the including the Dong Phayayen Forest Wildlife in the Kingdom of Thailand, sound ecotourism size of pussy-cats chatter from Complex, the other World Heritage by Bruce Kekule (2009), and www. projects. the security of forest foliage. The Site. Based upon the Khao Yai-Thap brucekekule.com. The Syrian Refugees Geographer 20-21 Winter 2013 -14 Emergency Mapping in Al Za’atari Camp Robert Trigwell, REACH Initiative

Introduction reliable information to make a real ensure my staff are safe and can “It is hard Al Za’atari Camp, located 15km difference to the residents of the work effectively. south of the Jordan-Syria border, camp. Each day I am in awe of the to make is the second-largest refugee camp What we have been doing resourcefulness and kindness of your way in the world and the fifth-largest Since November 2012, REACH the Syrian people. The residents city in Jordan, despite only having has been conducting regular alone have built a bustling market down one its first anniversary last July. At assessments regarding camp street, coined the the ‘Champs- one point it was home to 120,000 infrastructures and assessments Élysées’, with at least 600-800 of the 227 people; however, these numbers at the household level. All data is different shops and businesses. streets in have steadily decreased, with more collected on an open source mobile The falafel is out of this world. and more people finding refuge application called ODK (Open This market provides many items the camp… in the larger cities of Jordan, Data Kit) so all data collected to the camp that aren’t available as well as in Lebanon, Turkey can be available the same day. through official distributions, so without and Iraq. The REACH Initiative In an emergency environment, people are using their initiative to being invited has been applying novel ways to regular and up-to-date information serve their own community and make data from the ‘field’ in Al is pivotal to effective aid provide comfort at this difficult for chai tea Za’atari Camp accessible to the implementation, and therefore time. Each household composition somewhere.” international aid community, to exploring new technologies in order is slightly different from the other, support humanitarian planning and to implement this is a key point of despite having access to the same to meet information gaps in order the work done by REACH. Some of resources, another sign of the to improve the lives of people living the work REACH has been doing resourcefulness and initiative of in Al Za’atari. over the past year has been the the residents. It is hard to make your way down one of the 227 Setting the context following: weekly assessments of the communal bathrooms to ensure streets in the camp, each with a Al Za’atari is a chaotic environment, regular maintenance; household- self-appointed street leader (street not through mismanagement level assessments for equality mayor) without being invited for but through the ever changing of living standards; the mapping chai tea somewhere. The self- situations and contexts in the of street leader boundaries; the resilience of the Za’atari residents camp, which are largely dependent mapping of the infrastructure in gives me hope for Syria, despite on what is going on north of the camp; as well as the start-up what may be waiting for them when the border in Syria. Population of the first ever cadastral system in they return. influxes are extremely dependent the camp and all the corresponding on locations of hostilities within data analysis. areas of Syria for instance, and with every new person into the The focal point for REACH’s camp, the context changes. activities in Jordanian camps Therefore, with the population of Al Za’atari is not an easy place to Al Za’atari refugee camp changing work, but it is a rewarding one. over time, humanitarian actors are People from all the UN agencies constantly challenged to plan and and the NGO community are doing implement life-saving services. The a fantastic job to try and help the purpose of REACH (implementing Syrian people at this terrible time partner of UNHCR) is to ensure for them. The camp is dynamic, evidence-based programming and and as a result there isn’t really an to make data accessible to all on ‘8-5’. Of course we try and keep to open data platforms, so that when our work plan for the week, but you interventions are happening, the never know what is going to come decision-makers are not doing them up that day. Being on top of the ‘data-blind’ but instead are using security situation is a good way to Population density (individuals per hectare) of Al Za’atari Camp. RSGS Education A Year of Success!

“We all really enjoyed our visit to the Fair Maid’s House. Many of the children were enthusiastic to make a return visit and do more Primary school pupil taking part in a mapping exercise. work with you in the future. A fantastic resource, thank you so much.” Primary School Teacher

Travelling with the reindeer at a Stories in the Land public event.

Over the past year, the RSGS’s Playground Map Project. We are Education Officer, Dr Joyce now providing Stories in the Land Gilbert, has been developing, project materials to schools in managing and promoting a Aberdeen, Edinburgh, Falkirk and broad-ranging and imaginative Oban, and will support them in Stories in the Land exhibition at the Scottish Storytelling Centre, Edinburgh. service, working with teachers adapting the resources to suit and outdoor learning their own local areas. We will practitioners, continue to “I just wanted developing work with to say thanks resources universities very much for and activities on action organising with partner research the geology organisations, projects. conference, offering a range We are Scotland Rocks. of professional continuing to It was a fantastic development press for the experience for opportunities, retention of [my son] and hosting visits to Geology as Climate Change Story Mat for early years. Storymaking workshop with Claire Hewitt. it is the most our education a taught and centre at the Fair Maid’s House, examinable subject in secondary enthusiastic I “Through the Stories in the running outreach programmes schools; we are also planning have seen him Land project there is a great for primary and secondary to run a second Scotland Rocks for a long time! opportunity to encourage schools, promoting the use geology conference in March He talked non- people, especially young stop all the way of playground maps in school 2014, and hope that this will become an annual event. And people, to develop their home from Perth grounds, creating the engaging and much-admired Stories in we hope to start work on some awareness of their culture and yesterday about the Land project, managing creative new ways of engaging heritage...” how much he several public community events, young people with geography. Principal Museum Officer, Highlife Highland had enjoyed it organising the Scotland Rocks and how much geology conference, working he had learned.” The key achievements of the year are: with two universities to support Parent • 2 academic research projects, which will be published their action research projects, and representing geographical • 3 case studies developed interests in several policy forums. • 6 projects underway or near completion • 6 sets of educational materials produced or being developed Over the next year, we plan • 6 events to inspire young people (primary & secondary age) to consolidate and develop • 9 CPD sessions for primary and secondary teachers our educational work at both • 9 conferences and workshop sessions to share good practice practical and policy levels. We will continue to develop educational • 17 key partner organisations involved (not counting participating materials and resources, to schools and funders) run CPD sessions for teachers, • 25 schools (primary & secondary) with playground maps to invite school groups to visit • 30 school visits (primary & secondary) to the Fair Maid’s House the Fair Maid’s House, and to • 35 schools (primary & secondary) involved in projects, CPD sessions encourage schools to join in the and attending RSGS talks • 120 teachers involved in projects and CPD sessions • 220 hours contributed by volunteers • 1,200 children engaged face-to-face, through projects and visits to the Fair Maid’s House • 6,000 children engaged through broader activities and resources The Geographer 22-23 Winter 2013 -14 Entrepreneurship in Homes and University of Edinburgh University of St Andrews Businesses University News Greenland’s tidewater glaciers Q-Step Quantitative Methods A new seminar series, starting in Programme A new project will investigate how January in Glasgow, aims to advance variations in ice sheet runoff perturb Prof Stewart Fotheringham and Dr knowledge on entrepreneurship, fjord circulation and thus the Urska Demsar, of the Centre for space and place. International submarine melt rate and dynamic GeoInformatics, have been selected researchers will come together behaviour of tidewater glaciers in for an award under the £19.5m to gain a better understanding Greenland. This research, led by Prof Q-Step Quantitative Methods of the roles of homes and Pete Nienow, is important because Programme, which is designed to neighbourhoods for firm formation promote a step-change in and entrepreneurship, and to inform quantitative social science enterprise and housing policy and training, with expertise and practice. See www.st-andrews.ac.uk/ resources shared across the Primary school pupil taking part in a mapping exercise. homebusiness or contact Dr Darja higher education sector, and Reuschke ([email protected]) links forged with schools for more information. and employers. The award will enable the appointment PhD Studentship Opportunities of two permanent lecturers, See www.st-andrews.ac.uk/gsd/ and will extend the teaching news/title,231018,en.php for of Quantitative Methods and details of ESRC-funded PhD Geographic Information Science studentship opportunities for 2014 (GISc), building upon significant commencement, and www.st- investment in this area by the andrews.ac.uk/gsd/opportunities/ university. pg/ for topics that staff would be Laurel Award interested in supervising. Interested Prof Allan Findlay has been candidates should get in touch with awarded an honorary doctorate Dr Louise Reid (lar9@st-andrews. (signified by a laurel crown ac.uk). and a gold ring) observations suggest that the delivery by Sweden’s University of Stirling of warmer ocean waters to the University of margins of the Ice Sheet may be the Buddha’s birthplace Umeå, for his major driver for the recently observed Stirling geoarchaeologists Ian contribution acceleration in marginal ice sheet Simpson and Krista Gilliland joined to population thinning. an international team led by Durham geography and University and the Pashupati Area Forest pests and diseases demographic Development Trust in Nepal, to Susan Davies is being seconded research. Prof uncover evidence of a sixth century to the Forestry Commission for six Findlay has BC structure at the birthplace of months from December 2013, as a served for seven the Buddha. Pioneering excavations NERC PURE Associate developing a years on the better model for assessing pest and international within the Maya Devi Temple at disease risk to forests. The model board of Sweden’s research council Lumbini uncovered a timber structure will have its initial application in that guides work on ageing and under a series of determining the size of buffers for wellbeing; the University of Umeå is brick temples; further the Woodland Carbon Code, but is home to the Linnaeus Demographic geoarchaeological expected to have wider application in Database that underpins much of tests confirmed the the NERC-sponsored Forest Finance this research. presence of ancient tree roots. The findings, Risk Network. Erskine Fellowship the first to link the life Plants and Fire Prof Colin Ballantyne was awarded an of the Buddha to a Caroline Lehmann, with Sally Erskine Fellowship by the University specific century and Archibald from the University of of Canterbury in New Zealand, to the nativity story, Witwatersrand, is organising a five- enabling him to spend seven weeks are reported in the day catalysis meeting in February working in Christchurch, teaching December 2013 issue 2014 in Durham, North Carolina, a summer school course in applied of Antiquity; a documentary, Buried to examine the co-evolution of geomorphology, and developing a Secrets of the Buddha, will premiere in plants and fire. They seek to bring new research project designed to February on the National Geographic together a diverse establish the Channel. group, from links between phylogeneticists earthquakes, to remote sensors climate and Earth system change scientists, to and large The RSGS’s academic develop a unique landslides in Scottish understanding the Southern journal is available from of how fire varies Alps. Geographical Taylor & Francis on-line across the globe Journal at www.tandf.co.uk/ both now and journals/RSGJ or in hard in the past, the copy. All RSGS members processes that are entitled to receive have generated the Scottish Geographical these changes, and Journal for free. If consequences for you are not currently the Earth system. receiving the SGJ but would like to, please contact us by emailing [email protected] or phoning 01738 455050. The Philippines Typhoon

Super-Typhoon Haiyan “...an extremely powerful ‘super-typhoon’, perhaps the strongest ever recorded at landfall.”

A tropical cyclone is the generic landfall can cause considerable term for a low pressure system damage and loss of life. over tropical or sub-tropical waters, Early in the morning of 8th with organised convection (ie, November 2013, Typhoon Haiyan thunderstorm activity) and winds struck the central Philippines at low levels circulating either municipality of Guiuan at the anti-clockwise (in the northern southern tip of the province of hemisphere) or clockwise (in the Eastern Samar. Haiyan made southern hemisphere). The whole landfall as an extremely powerful storm system may be five to six ‘super-typhoon’, perhaps the miles high and 300 to 400 miles strongest ever recorded at landfall, wide, although sometimes it can with sustained winds estimated be even bigger. It typically moves at 195mph by the Joint Typhoon forward at speeds of 10-15mph, Warning Center. (Previously, but can travel as fast as 40mph. Hurricane Camille, which struck At its very early and weak stages the northern Gulf Coast in 1969, it is called a ‘tropical depression’. held the record with 190mph When the winds reach 39mph sustained winds at landfall.) After it is called a ‘tropical storm’. If striking Samar, Haiyan quickly the wind should reach 74mph or crossed Leyte Gulf and the island more, the tropical storm is called a of Leyte as it cut through the ‘hurricane’ in the Atlantic and the central Philippines. As it weakened north-east Pacific, or a ‘typhoon’ from a typhoon to a tropical in the north-west Pacific, or a storm, Haiyan made a second ‘cyclone’ or ‘tropical cyclone’ in landfall in north-eastern Vietnam other parts of the world such on 11th November, with maximum Super-Typhoon Haiyan moving over the central Philippines at 05:10 UTC on as the Indian Ocean and South sustained winds of 75mph, and 8th November 2013, as seen from the MODIS instrument aboard NASA’s Aqua Pacific. Around 80 to 100 typhoons then continued moving north- satellite. © NASA Goddard MODIS Rapid Response Team develop globally each year; many east through southern China, of them form and dissipate over with heavy rain causing extensive Data from the Met Office and NASA the ocean, but those that make flooding.

What Geography Means To Me An insight eography and its thematic maps. When Pinpoint Bute, and we use GIS to manage meaning to me has was taken over, geography meant the farmland. We have also worked into the life changed over time. learning to run my own company; with Community Energy Scotland G making sales, delivering jobs, on plans to build three mid-size of a working At A-level it meant learning classics of the subject; central installing software and manipulating wind turbines at the site. Map-based geographer analysis and visualisation have place theory or plate tectonics. data. At Business Geographics, we worked with clients such as the been used together with a range of For my BA thesis it meant taking Financial Times and Daily Mirror to ecological, archaeological and built soil cores from Romney Marsh refine their wholesale distribution environment studies, all of which to conduct pollen analysis networks, Camelot to plan for the have a geographical component. and interpret paleoclimatic national lottery re-bid, and MORI Away from the farm, I am working conditions. At MSc level it and NOP to define sample frames part-time towards a PhD in meant using GIS software to for face-to-face interviewing. We also Geography, researching use of geo- manipulate data, make maps did a lot of work on the Web. located social media posts during or perform analyses. At O-level the 2012 US presidential election After selling Business Geographics campaign. I did not know how much it in the late 1990s, geography came Adrian Tear holds a As computer hardware, software would all come to mean! But my to mean postcodes and proximity, as BA (Hons) in Geography and the Web have developed, children’s work for their GCSEs my co-founders and I stumbled into from the University of geographical applications that shows there is still a lot more to developing a series of online dating Durham and an MSc in appeared left-field in the early 1990s the subject than simply knowing sites at Allegran. In online dating, Geographical Information are now mainstream. Many people knowing that a prospective partner is Systems from the what is where. worldwide are now better connected nearby is one of the key components University of Edinburgh. My geographical education has to the concept of place through of search. Our five sites grew rapidly He is conducting research provided me with theory, skills online maps, web applications, to serve over 25% of the UK market, for a PhD in Geography and tools which have helped me satellite navigation and smartphone at the University of address a variety of questions. At generating multi-million pound apps. More importantly, there is Portsmouth, and is an Pinpoint Analysis in the 1990s, I revenues. The company was sold a growing realisation, through Honorary Fellow in the used geography for market research; some five years ago. mash-ups and mobile media, that University of Edinburgh’s plotting stores, profiling customers, I am still using geography today. geography really can tie many School of GeoSciences. planning territories and producing My family owns Ascog Farm on aspects of life together. The Geographer 24-25 Winter 2013 -14 “...an extremely powerful ‘super-typhoon’, perhaps the strongest ever recorded at landfall.”

No single weather event can be than that, I speak for the countless must assert definitively attributed to climate people who will no longer be able to is connected change. However, all climate speak for themselves after perishing to the kind models do anticipate more intense from the storm. I also speak for of pursuit storms. Typhoon Haiyan hit the those who have been orphaned by of economic Philippines just before a major this tragedy. I also speak for the growth that UN climate summit convened in people now racing against time to dominates Warsaw. Yeb Saño, lead negotiator save survivors and alleviate the the world; for the Philippines, addressed the suffering of the people affected by the same opening session of the summit with the disaster. kind of an impassioned speech in which he “We can take drastic action now to pursuit of called for urgent action to prevent a ensure that we prevent a future so-called economic growth and “Disasters are repeat of the devastating storm. where super-typhoons are a way unsustainable consumption that has never natural. The following is extracted from his of life. Because we refuse, as a altered the climate system. speech. nation, to accept a future where “Now, if you will allow me, to speak They are the “It was barely 11 months ago in super-typhoons like Haiyan become on a more personal note. intersection Doha when my delegation appealed a fact of life. We refuse to accept “Super-Typhoon Haiyan made to the world… to open our eyes to that running away from storms, landfall in my family’s hometown of factors the stark reality that we face… as evacuating our families, suffering and the devastation is staggering. I then we confronted a catastrophic the devastation and misery, having struggle to find words even for the other than storm that resulted in the costliest to count our dead, become a way of images that we see from the news physical.” disaster in Philippine history. Less life. We simply refuse to. coverage. I struggle to find words to than a year hence, we cannot “We must stop calling events like describe how I feel about the losses imagine that a disaster much bigger these as natural disasters. It is and damages we have suffered from would come... Even as a nation not natural when people continue this cataclysm. familiar with storms, Super-Typhoon to struggle to eradicate poverty “Up to this hour, I agonize while Haiyan was nothing we have ever and pursue development, and waiting for word as to the fate of my experienced before, or perhaps get battered by the onslaught of very own relatives. What gives me nothing that any country has every a monster storm now considered renewed strength and great relief experienced before. as the strongest storm ever to hit was when my brother succeeded in “The picture in the aftermath is ever land. It is not natural when science communicating with us that he has so slowly coming into clearer focus. already tells us that global warming survived the onslaught. In the last The devastation is colossal. And as will induce more intense storms. two days, he has been gathering if this is not enough, another storm It is not natural when the human bodies of the dead with his own is brewing again in the warm waters species has already profoundly two hands. He is hungry and weary of the western Pacific. I shudder changed the climate. as food supplies find it difficult to at the thought of another typhoon “Disasters are never natural. They arrive in the hardest hit areas… hitting the same places where are the intersection of factors “We can fix this. We can stop this people have not yet even managed other than physical. They are the madness. Right now… Let Poland to begin standing up… accumulation of the constant be forever known as the place we “We have entered a new era that breach of economic, social, and truly cared to stop this madness. demands global solidarity in order environmental thresholds. Most of Can humanity rise to the occasion? I to fight climate change and ensure the time disasters are a result of still believe we can.” that pursuit of sustainable human inequity, and the poorest people development remains at the fore of of the world are at greatest risk the global community’s efforts… because of their vulnerability and “I speak for my delegation. But more decades of maldevelopment, which I

Karen L Nyberg, an astronaut aboard the International Space Station, captured this photo of Super-Typhoon Haiyan from space on 9th November 2013. © NASA/ISS/Karen Nyberg Book Club The Falling Sky No Time to Lose Words of a Yanomami Shaman A Life in Pursuit of Deadly Viruses Davi Kopenawa, with Bruce Albert Dr Peter Piot (W W Norton & Company, July 2012) (Harvard University Press, November 2013) The story begins in a laboratory in Belgium in In the first book ever written by a 1976, where the newly qualified Dr Piot and his Yanomami Indian, Davi Kopenawa, colleagues receive mysterious blood samples shaman and leading spokesman for from victims of a lethal new disease in the his people, describes the rich culture, equatorial forest of Zaire. Having identified a history and ways of life of the Yanomami of the Amazon new virus later named Ebola, Piot is dispatched rainforest. Davi recounts his initiation as a shaman to the quarantine zone to track the outbreak and his first encounters with outsiders – including the to its source and discover its transmission gold miners who flooded Yanomami land during the mechanisms. Living and working among dying 1980s and caused the death of one in five Yanomami villagers and terrified missionaries deep in through disease and violence. He vividly describes his the rainforest, Piot repeatedly risked his life impressions of western culture on trips abroad, such as to collect blood samples and understand the his first journey outside Brazil when he visited Europe spread of the Ebola epidemic. Back in Europe, he set out to work with at the invitation of Survival International. Davi’s book, vulnerable communities from Antwerp to Nairobi. As one of the few written in collaboration with French anthropologist Bruce researchers in sexually-transmitted diseases with knowledge of Africa, Albert, Research Director at France’s Institut de recherche pour le développement (IRD), is an impassioned plea he was among the first to understand and respond to the burgeoning to respect his people’s rights and preserve the Amazon AIDS epidemic there. rainforest. Behind the Beautiful Forevers The Canoe Boys Life, Death and Hope in a Mumbai Slum The First Epic Scottish Sea Katherine Boo (Portobello Books, June 2012) Journey by Kayak Annawadi is a slum at the edge of Mumbai Alastair Dunnett (In Pinn, May 2007) Airport, in the shadow of shining new “It’s too late in the year!” they luxury hotels. Its residents are garbage were advised, but they still did it. recyclers, construction workers and economic By canoe from Bowling to Kyle migrants, all of them living in the hope that of Lochalsh with numerous stops a small part of India’s booming future will along the way, Alastair Dunnett and Seamas Adam spent eventually be theirs. But when a crime rocks a heady autumn in 1934 meandering up the glorious the slum community, and global recession west coast of Scotland. Their account, first published in 1950 as Quest by Canoe, later republished as It’s Too and terrorism shock the city, tensions over Late in the Year and again as The Canoe Boys, makes religion, caste, sex, power, and economic fascinating reading and is one of the classics of sea envy begin to turn brutal. Boo spent three kayaking literature. Varied escapades, from running the years with the residents of Annawadi, infamous tide-rush of the Dorus Mhor to a balmy harvest documenting the dreams, disappointments working on Calve Island off Mull, are related in superb, and inspired improvisations of the families who call the place home. lyrical style. Fully illustrated with archival material and Getting to know those who dwell at Mumbai’s margins, she evokes contemporary press cuttings, this is an adventure story an extraordinarily vivid and vigorous group of individuals flourishing of youthful exuberance and of how life once was lived against the odds amid the complications, corruptions and gross before the war changed everything for ever. inequalities of the new India.

Readers of The Geographer can purchase Life for only Reader Offer - save 15% £15.30 (RRP £17.99) with free postage. To order, Offer ends 31st March 2014 phone 020 7845 8585 and mention The Geographer. Life In 2000, world-renowned wildlife photographer Frans Lanting set out on a personal journey to photograph the evolution of life on Earth. He made A Journey pilgrimages to true time capsules like a remote lagoon in Western Australia, Through spent time in research collections photographing forms of microscopic life, Time and even found ways to create visual parallels between the growth of organs in the human body and the patterns seen on the surface of the Earth. The Frans result is a glorious picture-book depicting the amazing biodiversity that Lanting surrounds us all. Lanting’s true gift, beyond his technical mastery, is his eye (Taschen, for geometry in the beautiful chaos of nature that allows him to show us June 2012) the world as never before. From crabs to jellyfish, diatoms to vast geological formations, jungles to flowers, monkeys to human embryos, this book is a testament to the magical beauty of life in all its forms. on Cocoon Preprint 120gsm paper. 100% FSC certified recycled fibre using vegetable based inks in a 100% chemistry free process. chemistryfree process. based inks in a 100% vegetable using 100% FSC certified fibre recycled 120gsm paper. on Cocoon Preprint www.jtcp.co.uk Printed by

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