FOUNDATION RITUALS AND THE CULTURE OF BUILDING IN ANCIENT GREECE Gloria R. Hunt A dissertation submitted to the faculty of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Art. Chapel Hill 2006 Approved by Advisor: Donald C. Haggis Reader: Jaroslav Folda Reader: Robin F. Rhodes Reader: G. Kenneth Sams Reader: Mary C. Sturgeon ©2006 Gloria R. Hunt ii ABSTRACT GLORIA R. HUNT: Foundation Rituals and the Culture of Building in Ancient Greece (Under the direction of Donald C. Haggis) This dissertation examines the evidence for foundation rituals in post-Bronze Age Greece while investigating their function and meaning in ancient Greek culture. Foundation rituals are prescribed rites known throughout the ancient Mediterranean that marked the initiation of a buildings’ construction, usually with a combination of prayer, sacrifice, and the burial of foundation deposits containing offerings of various types and/or sacrificial material. These distinctive deposits were ritually interred during the beginning stages of construction, usually within the fabric of the structure itself. The discovery of foundation deposits in association with cult architecture from all over the ancient Greek world and from every historical period attests that foundation rituals were regular features of sacred building. This dissertation presents all published foundation deposits in their archaeological contexts and identifies patterns in placement, method of deposition, type of material deposited, and geographic distribution. Reconstructed from the archaeological evidence, ancient Greek foundation rituals are related to the broader history of foundation rituals in the ancient Mediterranean, especially to the traditions of Egypt and Mesopotamia. Of particular importance are the formal similarities Greek foundation deposits share with those of Near Eastern cultures, an affinity which appears especially intense in East Greece and other areas where contact with the Near East was strongest. This dissertation argues that Greek foundation rituals iii are Near Eastern in origin and were likely developed through contact with these cultures, further illustrating the impact of eastern traditions on Greek sacred architecture. The archaeological and historical context of Greek foundation deposits provides a foundation for the investigation of the meaning and function of foundation rituals in ancient Greek culture. One of the principal functions of Mediterranean foundation rituals was to forge the public perception of a socially advantageous link between patrons of buildings and the gods they honor. This dissertation maintains that Greek foundation rituals similarly underscored a close relationship between human patrons and divinities through the topos of building, in which the sanction and assistance of the gods were perceived to play major roles. This view is substantiated by the portrayal of building and builders in Greek myth, where the procurement and elaboration of sacred space frequently result from divine guidance or miracle, and not human industry. This study argues that foundation rituals describe a “culture of building” in ancient Greece, that is, they reveal ancient perceptions about building and builders by reflecting the cultic responses these perceptions elicited. In investigating these important rites, this dissertation offers new insight into the process of constructing sacred architecture and the role it played in Greek society. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I have been the lucky recipient of various kinds of support from many individuals and institutions. Their generosity has made the development of this project an enriching final stage of my graduate studies, and to all I give my heartfelt thanks. It is difficult to express the many ways in which this dissertation has profited from Robin Rhodes, who first introduced me to Greek art and archaeology as an undergraduate at the University of Notre Dame. My experiences as his student and as a member of his 7th-Century Temple Project at Corinth inspired the direction of my graduate studies and this dissertation. I continue to draw upon his guidance, his friendship, and his infectious love of all things Greek with affection and gratitude. I also thank the rest of the talented “block and tile” crew and associates in Corinth, especially Phil Sapirstein, Nick Rynearson, Alexis Belis, Ed Deegan, Celeste Lovette Guichard, Chris Stackowitz, the Kratz family, and the staff of the American School of Classical Studies Corinth Excavations. I would like to thank Mary Sturgeon, whose path I also happily crossed in ancient Corinth and at the University of North Carolina. Professor Sturgeon has been for me an interminable source of knowledge and support both academically and personally, and I can think of no one who has delighted in my successes more than she. In addition to the benefit of her distinguished scholarship and strong leadership, one of her many gifts to me was the use of her lovely little apartment in Athens which I called home for two years; a part of me still does. Many thanks are also due to my advisor Donald Haggis, whose ideas, insights, and genuine enthusiasm have inspired my work in many ways. For his unwavering dedication to my cause and for the perfectly balanced direction of this dissertation I am deeply grateful. I would also like to thank him, Margaret Mook, and the rest of the expert staff of the Azoria Project for the opportunity to have learned the nuts and bolts of archaeological investigation with them. I feel honored to have worked with each of these and other distinguished scholars at the University of North Carolina, especially Jaroslav Folda, G. Kenneth Sams, and Gerhard Koeppel. I know that any competence I may have acquired in my field is the direct result of the guidance and encouragement I’ve received from each of them. Support for my research in Greece and America has come from several fellowships and grants generously bestowed by the University of North Carolina, the Fulbright Foundation, the American Institute of Archaeology, and the American School of Classical Studies at Athens. For my time spent at the American School I thank in v particular Director Stephen Tracy and Mellon Professor James Sickinger. I can think of no other institution so tirelessly dedicated to the development of young scholars and am profoundly grateful for the exceptional opportunities for travel, research, excavation, and fellowship the School has afforded me. Many thanks are due to the Art Department at the University of North Carolina for much practical support. I also thank the excellent and charitable staff of several libraries, including the Joseph C. Sloane Art Library at UNC, the Blegen Library of the American School at Athens, and the staff at the Stephen Chan Library at the Institute of Fine Arts in New York. Personal thanks go to my parents, who always encouraged me along this path, even knowing it would take me far away from home. While in Athens and Chapel Hill, I was fortunate to have been surrounded by many supportive and engaging friends and colleagues, especially Andrea Bottaro, Maureen O’Brien, Jessica Sponsler, Benjamin Harvey, Melissa Eaby, Sheri Pak, and Douglas Park. Finally, I thank my husband James Hunt, my sine quo non, upon whose love and support this and all my endeavors are built. This dissertation was begun shortly before we met as students at the American School in Athens; it was completed soon after the birth of our first son, Vincent. The present work therefore chronicles, in a sense, the foundation of our new family and is the more enriched for it. Me agãph, June 15, 2006 vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page List of Illustrations............................................................................................................ xii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................1 Foundation Rituals in the Ancient Mediterranean: Phenomenology..........................................................................................1 The Greek Evidence.....................................................................................5 Goals, Scope, and Organization...................................................................6 History of Scholarship: Literary Evidence ..................................................9 History of Scholarship: Archaeological Evidence.....................................14 Problems in Identification: Modern Terminology .....................................16 Problems in Identification: Archaeology...................................................18 II EAST GREEK TYPE FOUNDATION DEPOSITS ..........................................21 Ephesus, Temple of Artemis “Earlier Basis” Deposit ...............................22 ‘Pot Hoard’ Deposit .......................................................................35 Sardis, Temple of Artemis .........................................................................38 Priene, Temple of Athena Polias ...............................................................41 Perachora, Temple of Hera ........................................................................44 Kastabos, Temple of Hemithea..................................................................45 vii Xanthos, Letöon, Temple of Leto..............................................................46 Delos, Temple of Artemis (Temple E) ......................................................47