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Microfossils and Biostratigraphy Chapter 3 Microfossils and Biostratigraphy FIGURE 3.1. Four species of planktic foraminifers from the tropical western Atlantic: upper left: Globigerinoides ruber, upper right: Globigerinoides sacculifer, lower left: Globorotalia menardii, lower right: Neogloboquadrina dutertrei. Scale bar = 100 µm (100 µm = 0.1 mm). Photo courtesy of Mark Leckie. SUMMARY Microfossils are important, and in places the dominant constituents of deep sea sediments (see Chapter 2). The shells/hard parts of calcareous microfos- sils can be geochemically analyzed, for example by stable isotopes of oxygen and carbon, which are powerful proxies (indirect evidence) in paleocea- nography and climate change studies (see Chapter 6). Microfossil evolution Reconstructing Earth’s Climate History: Inquiry-Based Exercises for Lab and Class, First Edition. Kristen St John, R Mark Leckie, Kate Pound, Megan Jones and Lawrence Krissek. © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. NAME has provided a rich archive for establishing relative time in marine sedi- mentary sequences. In this chapter you will gain experience using micro- fossil distributions in deep-sea cores to apply a biostratigraphic zonation and interpret relative age, correlate from one region of the world ocean to another, and calculate rates of sediment accumulation. In Part 3.1, you will learn about the major types of marine microfossils and their habitats; you will consider their role in primary productivity in the world oceans, their geologic record and diversity through time, as well as the relationship between microfossil diversity and sea level changes through time. In Part 3.2, you will explore microfossil distribution in a deep-sea core and consider microfossils as age indicators. In Part 3.3, you will apply microfossil first and last occurrences (datum levels) in a deep-sea core to establish biostrati- graphic zones. In Part 3.4, you will use these same microfossil datum levels to determine sediment accumulation rates. In Part 3.5, you will explore the reliability of microfossil datum levels in multiple locations. Microfossils and Biostratigraphy Part 3.1. What are Microfossils? Why are they Important in Climate Change Science? While there are many types of tiny animals and microorganisms living in the sunlit surface waters of the ocean, at depth in the water column and on the seafloor, most of these organisms do not possess the hard parts necessary for them to be preserved on the sedimentary record as fossils. However, recalling from Chapter 2, there are some groups of organisms that have mineralized shells or other hard parts consisting of carbonate (CaCO3) or silica (SiO2), and others that possess a tough organic wall. The vast majority of the “microfos- sils” preserved in deep-sea sediments are single-celled protists belonging to the Kingdom Protoctista (i.e., not plants, not animals). Many of these protists reside in the upper water column and passively drift with other types of plank- ton at the whim of ocean currents (planktic habitat), mostly within or near the photic zone (the upper part of the water column where there is enough sunlight available to drive photosynthesis). Some of these shelled protists are able to photosynthesize and they are called phytoplankton, whereas those that do not are called zooplankton. Examples of phytoplankton include the calcareous coccolithophorids (calcareous nannofossils) and siliceous diatoms; examples of zooplankton include the calcareous planktic foraminifers (“planktic forams”; Figure 3.1) and the siliceous radiolarians (Figure 3.2). In addition to planktic microfossils, there are a number of important micro- fossil groups that live on the seafloor benthic( habitat), including the benthic foraminifera and ostracods. Benthic “forams” live at all depths and all lati- tudes, from coastal salt marshes and estuaries to the deepest parts of the MICROFOSSILS AND BIOSTRATIGRAPHY 81 NAME FIGURE 3.2. Calcareous microfossils (calcareous nannofossils and planktic forams) and siliceous microfossils (diatoms and radiolarians). All are single-celled protists with mineralized hard parts. The calcareous nannofossils (x400; polarized light) and diatoms (x100; plain light) are photosynthetic primary producers (i.e., autotrophs). The planktic foraminifera (x50; reflected light) and radiolarians (x100; plain light) are consumers (i.e., heterotrophs). Planktic foram photomicrograph courtesy of Dave Walker; all other photomicrographs from the IODP School of Rock 2005. ocean, and from tropical coral reefs to frigid polar waters. Ostracods are tiny crustaceans (i.e., true animals) with two calcareous valves (shells) that super- ficially resemble microscopic clams. Earth scientists study modern living organisms and the microfossils left behind. Micropaleontologists specialize in the study of microfossils, those fossils that are small enough to require the use of a microscope to identify the features of specimens and recognize species. 1 In Chapter 2, Seafloor Sediments, you learned that there are a variety of marine microfossils found in deep-sea sediments. Why are microfossils found in deep-sea sediments? Explain. _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ Trophic Levels and Productivity 2 What types of organisms make up the base of the food chain (i.e., food webs, food pyramids) on land? 82 MICROFOSSILS AND BIOSTRATIGRAPHY NAME _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ 3 Why are these organisms at the base of the food chain? _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ 4 What types of organisms make up the base of the food chain in the ocean? _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ 5 How might these organisms be similar, and how might they differ from those on land? _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ 6 It is very cold and pitch black on the seafloor below 1000 m water depth. Speculate about the types of organisms that make up the base of the food chain in the deep ocean. _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ MICROFOSSILS AND BIOSTRATIGRAPHY 83 NAME _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ MARINE MICROFOSSILS AND PRODUCTIVITY The siliceous diatoms and calcareous coccolithophorids (and other cal- careous nannofossils) are similar to plants, in that they contain chloro- phyll and, like plants, they are autotrophs (“self-feeding”; Figure 3.2). These autotrophs synthesize organic molecules (e.g., carbohydrates, pro- teins, and fats) from inorganic molecules (CO2, water, and nutrients) using solar radiation. In other words, they make organic carbon from inorganic carbon. Such organisms are considered to be primary producers because they manufacture the organic materials that other types of organism require as food; thus, primary producers form the basis of many marine food chains/food pyramids. The process of organic carbon production in the sunlit surface waters is called photosynthesis. Free oxygen (O2) is produced by the reduction of CO2 and water during photosynthesis. The generalized reaction below describes the process of photosynthesis: 6CO2 + 6H2O + inorganic + solar energy → C 6H12O6 + 6O2 nutrients carbon water nitrates, phosphates, glucose free oxygen dioxide trace elements & vitamins (a simple sugar) The siliceous radiolarians and calcareous planktic foraminifers (Figures 3.1 & 3.2) are similar to animals in that they are consumers, and like animals, they are heterotrophs (“other feeding”; Figure 3.2) and depend on other organisms, either autotrophs or other heterotrophs, for their food. The dinoflagellates are a diverse group of organic-walled protists that include both autotrophs and heterotrophs. The process of organic carbon consumption is called respiration. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is released as a product during respiration. The generalized reaction for respiration is the reverse of that for photosynthesis: C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + solid waste + chemical energy & nutrients ‘food’ oxygen carbon water to be broken-down for metabolic (carbohydrates, dioxide further
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