CYCLING TRAINING SECRETS ride faster, stronger and longer for winning performance Cycling Training Secrets ride faster, stronger and longer for winning performance CyCling Training SeCreTS ride faster, stronger and longer for winning performance
© Green Star Media Ltd Green Star Media Ltd Meadow View, Tannery Lane, Bramley, Guildford, Surrey, GU5 0AB. United Kingdom. ISBN: 978-1-905096-26-8 editor Andrew Hamilton Designer Charlie Thomas The information contained in this publication is believed to be correct at the time of going to press. Whilst care has been taken to ensure that the information is accurate, the publisher can accept no responsibility for the consequences of actions based on the advice contained herein. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the permission of the publisher. Contributors
Andrew Hamilton BSc Hons, MRSC, ACSM is a member of the Royal Society of Chemistry, the American College of Sports Medicine and a consultant to the fitness industry, specialising in sport and performance nutrition: www.andrewmarkhamilton.co.uk
Joe Beer is a multisport coach (JBST.com), author of Need to Know Triathlon and a successful multisport athlete in triathlons, sportives and time trials
Andy Lane is professor of sport psychology at the University of Wolverhampton. He is part of the Emotion Regulation of Others and Self (EROS) research network; www.erosresearch.org
Alicia Filley, PT, MS, PCS, lives in Houston, Texas and is vice president of Eubiotics: The Science of Healthy Living, which provides counselling for those seeking to improve their health, fitness or athletic performance through exercise and nutrition CONTENTS
9. t ime trial pacing: why you shouldn’t be a ‘steady Eddie’!
15. Aerodynamics I: how better riding aerodynamics can give you more dash for less cash
25. Aerodynamics II: does your kit go with the flow?
35. t our de France psychology: learn from the pros how to conserve mental energy
45. Back health for cycling: don’t get saddled with injury!
55. cycling efficiency: peddling myths and pedalling facts
61. cycling and health: is there a bone of contention?
67. GPS for cyclists: make technology your master, not your slave
75. s trength training for cyclists: why resistance isn’t futile! PEAK PERFORMANCE cycling training secrets From the editor
n the first decade of the new millennium, the popularity of cycling as a mass-participation sport has exploded and it’s not hard to understand why. Cycling is a sport that can develop and maintain extremely high levels of fitness Iand the rise and rise of ‘sportive’ type events offers a new way of setting (and accomplishing) new personal challenges for elite and amateur riders alike. The icing on the cake is that high-end featherweight bikes dripping with the latest technology have never been more affordable! The good news doesn’t stop there however because in this special report on cycling we’ve gathered together the very latest research showing how you can ride faster, longer and more comfortably whatever your goal. Among its contents, you’ll find cutting edge research on how to attain that new time-trial PB using the latest thinking on pacing and aerodynamics. It also shows you how you can exploit the technology of GPS to make your training more rewarding and enjoyable, harness psychological techniques used by the pro rides, use the latest findings from strength and condition research to steal a march on your peers and do all this while staying in peak riding health! The famous and prolific science fiction author HG Wells once said “Cycle tracks will abound in Utopia”. However, with the information in this special report, you don’t have to resort to fiction; you can use the latest science facts to attain your personal cycling Utopia today!
Andrew Hamilton BSc Hons MRSC ACSM
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page 8 Time trial pacing
Cycling: avoiding those time- trial pacing tribulations!
At a glance
This article: ●●Explains the traditional approach to pacing time-trials ●●Looks at new research on ‘variable effort pacing’ in undulating terrain ●●Makes a number of practical recommendations for cyclists seeking a personal best in their chosen event
When the racing season comes around, many cyclists hit the roads in search of a time-trial or sportive personal best. Andrew Hamilton looks at what the science says about pacing and comes up with some surprising conclusions…
When it comes to pacing yourself through a time-trial or sportive, you probably already know that tearing off like a bat out of hell might get you a good time for the first few miles, but as that fatiguing lactate accumulates in your legs, you’ll pay the price later. But then setting a leisurely pace that enables you to feel good right to the end might leave you wondering just how much faster you could have been if you’d pushed harder, earlier on? So how should you judge your effort and pace to maximise your overall performance? A popular method for shorter time trial events is to think about mentally splitting the distance up into four quarters and deciding the relative effort you’re going to put into each quarter (see box 1). However, if the event involves your first ever 100- mile sportive, your main pacing strategy is likely to be one of taking it nice and steady, just to make sure you get to the end!
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Box 1: The quarters approach A commonly used approach in time trialling (including the cycle leg of triathlon) is to think about how you’re going to pace each ‘quarter’ of the event. It’s often recommended that you hold back on your effort a little bit for the first quarter in order to ‘find your cycling legs’ and build a foundation for the next three quarters. The second quarter is one where you increase your speed somewhat to hit your desired pace while in the third quarter, the goal is to try and dig in mentally to try and maintain that pace. In the final quarter, the end is in sight so the goal here is to gradually increase your effort further (if you can) as you approach the finish line.
Even effort versus variable effort Regardless of the distance involved in a particular event, much of the advice out there suggests that your best strategy is to maintain a steady, even level of effort throughout the ride, adjusting your work rate to ensure you’re working near your maximum sustainable capacity for that distance. However, while an ‘even effort’ strategy sounds intuitively correct, recent cycling research, suggests that when it comes to the real world with hills and tail/headwinds, it might not be best after all. A few years ago, evidence derived from mathematical modelling suggested that varying power outputs according to conditions could produce faster times (see box 2). Now recent research carried out on real cyclists riding real time trials seems to confirm these earlier findings(4). Another group of British scientists looked two different pacing strategies performed by 20 experienced cyclists over an undulating time trial course. These strategies were: ●●To maintain a constant power output of 255 watts throughout; ●●To maintain an average power output of 255 watts over the course as a whole but allow for variations in power output at different parts of the course according to gradient.
The cyclists completed four separate trials over a 4km course, with two trials at an average constant power and two trials where power was varied in response to gradient. As in the
page 10 PEAK PERFORMANCE cycling training secrets mathematical simulations, the results showed that the fastest pacing strategy was one where the power output was allowed to vary according to the gradient (ie an increase in power during climbs and a reduction of power during descents). In fact, the time taken to complete the 4km course was reduced by 12 seconds (2.9%), which was very significant.
Box 2: Variable pacing theory Back in 2007, a group of British researchers began modelling variable versus constant power strategies during simulated cycling time-trials of 10km and 40km distances to see how different the pacing strategies coped with tailwinds, headwinds of up to 10m per second and gradients of up to +10% and –10%(1,2). Among the race scenarios were: ●●A 10-km time-trial with alternating 1km sections of 10% and -10% gradients; ●●A 40-km time-trial with alternating 5km sections of 4.4m per second headwinds and tailwinds. The results showed that at a hypothetical average power output of 290 watts, allowing power to vary between 260 and 320 watts (rather than maintaining a constant 290 watt output) resulted in a time saving of 26 seconds over a 40km course. Even larger timesavings were found at lower average power outputs (as would be found in weaker riders) providing there was enough capacity to produce large power variations. The researchers then went on to test their theory using real cyclists who rode a bicycle ergometer that simulated uphill and downhill sections during a time-trial course(3). Each rider rode the course as quickly as they could with no constraints and from this, their average power was calculated. They then had to complete the simulated course using two pacing strategies: At a constant power equivalent to the average power achieved during their initial ride; ●●Using variable power, increasing power output by 5 % over the average when travelling uphill and decreasing the power in the downhill sections (so that overall power was equivalent to that in the constant ride). The results showed that although some riders struggled to stick to the variable pacing strategy, the times for the variable pacing strategy were significantly faster (up to 4.3%) than the constant strategy – ie in agreement with the mathematical model.
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Headwinds These findings on varying power output as a function of gradient also seem to be in agreement with some earlier findings on variable pacing with simulated headwinds and tailwinds(5). Seven cyclists rode their own bikes on a Computrainer cycle ergometer, which was programmed to simulate a 16.1 km time trial on a flat course with an 8kmh headwind in the first half of the race and an 8kmh tailwind in the second half. All the subjects rode an initial time-trial at a self-selected pace to the best of their ability and the average power output from this trial was then used to calculate the pacing strategies in the subsequent two trials, A and B: A. Variable – riders rode the first headwind section at a power output 5% higher than their average and then reduced the power output in the last 8km so that their overall average power output was the same as in the initial time trial. B. Constant – riders rode the whole time-trial keeping their power output exactly the same as the average power output they obtained in the initial trial;
The results showed that both the constant and variable pacing strategies above produced faster times than the initial self- paced trial. This is because left to their own devices, the riders habitually set off too fast in the first couple of kilometres then paid the price later on! This is in agreement with the ‘quarters approach’ explained above. They also found that the variable strategy (A) was slightly faster than constant pacing (B). The researchers concluded that: “Riders should choose a constant power when external conditions are constant, but when there are hilly or variable wind sections in the race, a variable power strategy should be planned. This strategy would be best monitored with power-measuring devices”
Theory into reality So how can we translate these findings into the fastest possible pacing? Here are a few tips that translate this research into practical recommendations:
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Why does variable power make sense? A variable power strategy seems to improve cycling performance over a given distance where the gradient is not constant and when you think about it, this makes sense. Firstly, it can be very difficult to maintain a constant power output during cycling. Even on the flat, winds continuously change in direction and strength, which means for a steady speed, your effort is constantly changing. Then of course, when the going gets hilly, it’s even harder to maintain a constant effort, even with intelligent use of the gears. This is partly because on short and gentle uphills, it feels more natural to try and maintain a constant speed and pedalling cadence without dropping a gear, even though power demand can then rise dramatically. Secondly, working harder on an uphill section and saving energy on a downhill section can reduce energy losses due to wind drag, which on the bike at least, is your main enemy. The power needed to overcome wind drag increases as the cube of your speed. For example, raising your speed from 16mph to 24mph equates to a speed increase of 50%. However the power requirement to achieve this jumps by a massive 335%! Varying your effort and working harder to maintain your speed on an uphill section produces only small amounts of extra wind drag compared to staying at constant power and slowing down as you climb (because either way, your speed is relatively low). But by backing off on the downhill section (thereby slowing down compared to an even power output), the energy losses due to drag are considerably less than a faster descent (which would occur under constant power). Remember, energy expenditure due to wind drag increase as the cube of speed – ie they become very much more significant at higher speeds!
1. For time-trialling on a very flat course in completely calm conditions, a fairly constant power strategy is likely to yield the best results. 2. In undulating conditions, allowing your power to increase by up to 10% on the uphill sections and drop a similar amount on the downhills is likely to produce a faster time. The same applies (to a lesser degree) in headwinds and tailwinds respectively. 3. Although power output can be monitored with power meters, you can also use a heart rate monitor. Don’t try
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and keep your heart rate constant but expect to see it climb 10-15bpm during harder sections and fall by a similar amount during easier sections. However, try and maintain the same average bpm over the event as a whole; 4. For very long events (eg where you’re pushing your body over a much greater distance than normal), it’s best to play safe by taking it nice and steady the whole way, making sure you get to complete the distance. 5. Regardless, always listen to your body is telling you regarding your pace!
References 1. J Sports Sci. 2007 Jul;25(9):1001-9 2. J Sports Sci. 2008 Aug;26(10):1123 3. Int J Sports Med. 2007 Feb;28(2):157-63 4. Int J Sports Med. 2011 Feb;32(2):132-6 5. Ergonomics. 2000 Oct;43(10):1449-60
page 14 Aerodynamics I
Rider aerodynamics: more dash, less cash!
At a glance
l The fundamentals of the bike rider’s position and aerodynamic efficiency are outlined; l The importance of finding optimum arm and torso positions are explained and the uniqueness of each rider’s body characteristics is emphasised; l Practical advice for improving riding aerodynamics is given.
Cyclists seeking maximum speed are rightly concerned with the aerodynamic efficiency of their bikes. But as Joe Beer explains, buying aerodynamic efficiency with the latest gizmo is no substitute for attending to something even more important – rider aerodynamics
Check out pictures and footage of the great riders of yesteryear, hunched over their bikes, head down with arms on the lower ‘drops’ of the handlebars. These riders knew they could alter speed with body position long before ‘wind tunnel drag scores’ and ‘outdoor power-to-speed data’ showed us that the rider on the bike contributes more than two-thirds of the drag at competition speeds. In the 21st century, bicycle wheels, aerobars and rocketship- like frames are often sculpted to aid transit through air – but sadly, this does nothing for the rider. Cyclists come in varying shapes, sizes and with differing biomechanical eccentricities. So, while you can pick your wheels based on the known data about a standard box rim versus a dimpled deep-section rim, your body is a unique non-formulaic shape. You are a ‘limited edition’ human being; an aerodynamics and biomechanics
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Cycling body aerodynamic fundamentals There are three fundamentals of improving your own aerodynamic efficiency, which can help to identify what you may need to consider in your quest for optimised aerodynamics: 1. You mustn’t ignore your body’s individualities; you are unique and so should be your riding position. To know yourself is to know what does and doesn’t suit you. Unless you exactly match a pro-rider’s physiology (unlikely), you shouldn’t try to mimic their exact riding position; 2. You need to be able to achieve the ideal position(s) for the full length of your events, not just the first half or when someone is watching you; 3. You need to be able to adapt to significant life events (eg car crash, overuse injury, etc), over time, and to your goals as they evolve; keeping the same riding position that you used 20 years ago is generally not an option!
Here are some examples that illustrate these fundamentals perfectly: ●●An amateur rider racing against the clock in a time trial and who has a bit of a ‘belly’ should not try to ride as low as an elite time-trial specialist, but should instead consider standing on the bathroom scales once a week, looking and thinking about some long-term weight loss, which will not only increase performance anyway, but will also improve aerodynamics by making for a smaller head-on silhouette; ●●If you need to sit up frequently to ‘ease out’ your back in a sportive, or you get repeated cramps during training, you may be better off attending to these issues (for example by using massage, stretching, etc) than by dabbling with a new bit of aero kit or trying to ‘work through the cramp’; ●●Getting cramping in the stomach area during a long event because you are trying to ride in the same position you did 10 years earlier, despite using a tried- and-tested feeding regime, indicates that this riding position may no longer be suitable for you.
experiment of one! Even cycling professionals who use aerodynamic handlebars, helmets and sculpted frames have riding positions that vary widely. You shouldn’t aim to be Armstrong, Hoy or Boardman, but your own perfected aero solution. Most pro riders take years to find their optimum riding position, often by working around body function or shape
page 16 PEAK PERFORMANCE cycling training secrets limitations, such as lower spine inflexibility or overly muscular shoulders, but with their end goal clearly understood. Ironically, the drop-handlebar record holders and winners in the pro peloton (before the 1980s’ aero revolution) rode lower than many current amateur time triallists and triathletes on so-called aerobars! The reality is The yesteryear phrase of ‘being on the rivet’, meant, quite that‘ each rider literally, moving onto the front of the saddle (where saddles has an once had a rivet holding the leather to the seat cradle), tucking optimum riding down and going like billy-o. So, for many riders new to cycle position and competition or yet to realise their full potential, body position is you’ll never the real key to dropping effort and increasing speed – not some aero component, which by itself will have a negligible effect! truly know that We know that equipment choice, such as frame, helmet and without super- clothing, affect the aerodynamic drag of the bike and rider accurate drag ‘unit’, but it does this by significantly altering the rider’s shape data and efficiency. Equipment has its own drag but it also allows a ’ rider to find his or her own aero ‘sweet spot’. So for example, aerobars make riders faster not because the drag of the bar is lower than a conventional handlebar but, rather, they enable the rider to achieve a lower, narrower and more aerodynamic position.
Your personal needs The bottom line is that you need to consider your personal situation. It’s difficult to list an exact hierarchy of needs but here are some variables to consider, and examples which, together with the basics already mentioned, can help you find your optimum aerodynamic position. It’s also a good idea to try to get an accurate assessment of your own body characteristics from a cycling coach, professional bike fitter or an experienced rider who is capable of offering objective advice. Torso angle – In a time trial position, taller riders shouldn’t place their forearms just above the front wheel like shorter riders (though a few unique people do manage it). The drop from the top of the saddle to the handlebar or aerobar cups needs to ensure a low torso and, most importantly, the ability
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Tried-and-tested products for improving aerodynamics For you to get the most from yourself and your bike, here are some tried and tested investments and methods that can reap good paybacks: The sportive rider ●●Accurate bathroom scales, possibly with a body fat percentage feature, which can help you to monitor and reduce body fat and so reduce aero and gravitational drag caused by your body; ●●A comfortable position that allows climbing on the hoods or tops of the bars, plus a good descending ‘fighting the wind’ tuck; ●●Small to medium depth V-shaped aero wheels, which will save a few watts reducing overall energy use and increasing speed; ●●Clothing that is comfortable but hugs the body (not loose or baggy), especially so for rain capes and gilets. The time triallist ●●An indoor trainer to hone your riding position and practise workouts in optimum position at race-power outputs; ●●Hydration/feeding equipment options (eg front-mounted aero bottle); ●●A tight skinsuit and snug-fitting aero helmet to minimise body and head drag; ●●Regular bodywork, such as massage, to ensure any postural problems arising from long periods spent in a tucked position can be ironed out and problems nipped in the bud. The triathlete/duathlete ●●You have similar needs to the time triallist above, except: ●●Any variations in effort or positions tested on the bike may impact on the subsequent running leg; ●●Your choices of equipment and riding positions tend to be more variable, as courses tend to be much more hilly than a standard time trial, being more like ‘sporting’ courses.
page 18 PEAK PERFORMANCE cycling training secrets to maintain this position. Too big a saddle-to-bar drop and the rider will feel uncomfortable and be forced to slide the hands backwards along the aerobar extensions. However, average to short riders who are moderately lean can often achieve lower drag from stems with significant vertical drop. Data from wind-tunnel trials show that dropping a rider’s shoulder and head height, nearer to a horizontal torso angle, results in less power being needed to maintain the same speed (anything from three to 15 watts, equating to around two seconds per kilometer at race speed). However, those already close to the horizontal torso position may actually experience drag increases of around seven watts or more when trying to ride even lower. This indicates that for every rider, there is a sweet spot and ever- lower is not always faster. Torso-leg proportions – Riders with longer legs often gain comfort and a more sustainable riding position by having a shorter than conventional reach from the saddle to the ends of aerobars or brake levers on drop bars. Riders with long bodies need to ensure seat height is not excessive because, after all, they aren’t as long in their legs as most other riders of the same height. Again the aim is to hold an aero position on the drops or aerobar that is comfortable, sustainable and yielding the most speed ‘bang’ for the rider’s pedalling ‘buck’. Arm position – This is a notoriously difficult area in which to give an exact prescription. Some riders on aerobars maintain narrow horizontal forearms while others ride with forearms pointing upwards by anything up to 45 degrees, placing their hands in front of their face. It turns out that this ‘front of the bike and rider unit area’ alters the interactions of airflow over many subsequent body parts as you move rearwards. This is where wind tunnel time pays for itself many times over. The ability to know from tunnel data that a particular arm tweak helps rider efficiency, though it is sometimes counter-intuitive, can still reap some extra speed (see figure 1 overleaf). In the 1990s, Chris Boardman’s ‘low forearms’ position during his record-breaking time trial rides set a precedent that many riders seeking better times subsequently followed. However, the
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Figure 1: Arm position and aerodynamics
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Data above shows the power in watts required to cycle at 23mph by a rider using a road bike tested in the Drag2Zero wind tunnel. By lowering the bars, narrowing the elbows and concentrating on form, the rider saved seven watts, equivalent to 45 seconds faster over 25 miles.
emergence of a new ‘Landis-Leipheimer 45-degree forearm position’ in the new millennium seemed to break those widely- accepted rules. The reality is that each rider has an optimum riding position and you’ll never truly know that without super- accurate drag data. Get saving for wind tunnel time! Weight – Few overweight riders, with an expanded waistline, will be able to actually attain personal bests. Although desirable ranges of body fat are much higher for the average sedentary person than those for elite athletes, there is an ‘amateur middle- ground’, where body fat levels are lower than your sedentary peers, but not at super-low values attained by the pros, whose body level levels may dip below 5%. The bottom line is that if it jiggles or it stops you getting low on your bars, there is still some weight to lose. Be honest with yourself and you may unearth a performance increase that exceeds anything possible with new equipment. Flexibility – We’re not all born to be dancers or gymnasts.
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Also, unfortunate life events and the rigours of training and racing may impair our flexibility. Yet, working on this often- neglected element of performance can be very fruitful. Excessive stretching is unnecessary but routine body maintenance with the help of a professional (eg a masseur), and perhaps supplementary classes such as Pilates or yoga, may highlight areas of significant tightness and imbalance to focus on. Technique – Aside from buying speed through aero equipment, you can execute techniques in training and racing that positively affect your gains and performances. For example, practising drafting in group sessions can improve your ability to gain ‘free’ speed by riding close to other riders. The drop in drag can be achieved by letting others do the work, saving you the vital energy needed to complete the climbs, where the pull of gravity must be overcome using your own effort alone. Road racers are the kings of saving energy by ‘sitting-in’, so they can be great mentors for the keen sportive rider wanting to learn the tricks of the increased aerodynamic efficiency through drafting. Alternatively, effective pacing for the time triallist, triathlete or sportive rider going it alone (eg on climbs or solo into the wind) is best achieved by attaining a power output or heart-rate goal properly matched to the desired effort. Being aero early on but running out of fuel due to poor pacing in the last quarter of an event is never going to be a fun or rewarding way to complete competitions. An experienced rider on a lower- budget bike really can beat the headstrong rider who has the bike but is unable to execute a smart race-day ride. Add to this the possible ramifications of feeding effectively and you can see that pacing and feeding must also be optimised to maximise the aerodynamic benefits of a good position on an aerodynamically optimised bike.
The quest never ends There’s never a time to assume you have done everything you can to be ‘aero-efficient’. The mighty Lance Armstrong sought changes to his riding position after a three-year lay-off from
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Figure 2: Head position and aerodynamics
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Data above shows a rider tested in the Drag2Zero wind tunnel, using an aero helmet, at 26 miles per hour wind speed; it’s clear that the rider’s head position is critical to make the most of the helmet’s wind-cheating properties. However, the individual nature of rider wind-tunnel data means that the exact optimum position is impossible to know without repeated and optimised tunnel testing – the devil really is in the detail!
top-level time trialling. Things had changed, rules had changed and knowledge had changed. Lance’s new 2009 riding position was wind-tunnel tested for several hours, behind closed doors. Seeking extra speed meant his time trial (TT) set-up was longer from backside longer from backside to fingertips, narrower from elbow to elbow and complemented by equipment upgrades such as a possible ventless aero helmet (see figure 2 for data on aero helmets and head position). It’s important to remember you need to train to be fitter and to be able to ride in the optimal position for comfort, speed and efficiency. From sportives to time trials to triathlons to ultra- endurance rides, it should be part of your preparation to optimise your body position, not just the equipment that lies beneath it. This may mean more time on your race bike indoors over winter or at specific intervals, to check that a position change still lets you give full effort.
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Being aero is about training to be able to ride in an aerodynamic position, and learning from experiences like equipment testing and wind tunnel sessions. As you go for new goals, you must be mindful that many of your methods and or equipment will probably have to adapt. To finally show that the tunnel is the only true place to separate truths from gimmicks, we need to look back in time: Chris Boardman once rode with forearms upwards, hands in front of his face. We all scoffed at the ski-tuck once the flat forearm position took hold. But, fast- forward five years and armed with tunnel data knowledge, riders such as Michael Hutchinson and Levi Leipheimer have now adopted the ski position because it works better for them – as proven by the wind tunnel!
Practical implications ●●It takes time on an indoor trainer, in a wind tunnel or road testing, to discover the best riding position – but these can help in all spheres of racing. You should get to know your ‘sweet spot’ position by making measurements and by using indoor training/ race pictures. ●●Personal observations suggest that in triathlon (and also to some degree in time trials and road races), women riders should spend more time honing their riding position. This is because women typically generate less power than men and therefore small changes in aerodynamic efficiency can make a large difference. ●●Comfort is part of being fast and efficient, so try to find your optimal body position before shelling out on expensive equipment. As the rider, you contribute at least two-thirds of total wind drag, so optimising riding position is often a much better cost-benefit option than many of the tempting innovations and equipment upgrades.
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page 24 Aerodynamics II
Cycling – does your kit go with the flow?
At a glance
l The fundamentals of aerodynamics and drag in cycling performance are explained; l The role of the bike and bike components in reducing aerodynamic drag is examined and new data presented; l Recommendations are made for improving bike aerodynamics.
When it comes to high-performance cycling, aerodynamic innovation is paramount. Joe Beer explains the role of wind tunnel testing to improve bike aerodynamics and how it can be used to improve cycling performance
As early as the 1880s, cyclists sought a high-altitude track, known as a velodrome, in order to ride a greater distance during record attempts. This was possible because of the lower density of air reducing wind resistance acting on the rider. However, despite the adoption of the drop handlebar bike and riding in protective ‘groups’ or peletons in the early part of the 20th century nothing much changed until the 1970s. It was then that the legendary Eddy Merckx visited a wind tunnel prior to his 1972 ‘hour’ record in order to hone his bike and riding position. However, it took the Renault-Gitane team and a host of aerodynamic innovations in the late 1970s and early 1980s to put wind tunnel testing into the ‘must-have’ toolbox of pro teams and Olympians seeking maximum speed. Francesco Moser famously used two disc wheels, a special skinsuit and up-turned handlebars to break Merckx’s record, causing a rulebook change and transforming the sport. The floodgates
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Figure 1: Power in watts required to overcome air drag at 22mph(2)
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opened at the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics, fuelled by huge American investment in aerodynamics, which became the driving force behind all aspects of bike technology. Today, all contemporary pro teams and countries with performance programmes include wind tunnel testing.
Mere mortals For mere untrained mortals, provided the wind conditions are calm, it is relatively easy to pedal at say 10mph and for the rider to maintain a comfortable upright position. Excluding the effects of hills (where gravity comes into play) there are two forces resisting the rider’s forward motion; the main force is wind resistance and there’s also the lesser force of rolling resistance. However, as the rider increases speed to competitive efforts the wind resistance increases dramatically. At 20mph for example, 80% of your effort goes into fighting wind resistance. This resistive force is a product of the impeded airflow
page 26 PEAK PERFORMANCE cycling training secrets produced both by the rider and the bike. There are other forces, resisting progress, principally drive train friction, but this is low and often ignored due to its lack of significance. In cycling, A simple example of how wind resistance affects a rider (and hence the best position to adopt on a bike) can be best ‘ man and illustrated by comparing a commuter in an upright position to machine are a a fully crouched racing position. At 22mph, the upright partnership commuter would require over 340 watts of power output to that works maintain this speed whereas the crouched racing cyclist would together to require just 170 watts!(1). attain a goal When you consider that the world hour record (set by Chris ’ Boardman, who covered 56.375km) required over 400 watts, while the average club cyclist does not even produce 300 watts for a 10-mile race, you can see that 340 watts is a considerable effort. This explains why upright cyclists don’t travel to the shops at over 20mph and why competitive racers crouch to reduce drag and maximise speed. Figure 1 left shows the power in watts required to overcome air drag at 22mph for different bikes and riding positions (2). If you check out the images of the successful Olympic cyclists from the 2008 Beijing games, whether from road race, time trial or track events, it’s clear that one factor is consistent across all the disciplines; aerodynamics counts when speed is high. Exactly where this low-speed/high-speed division actually occurs is academic – if you want to be faster against the clock you are fighting wind resistance and aerodynamic drag is your enemy.
Man and machine In cycling, man and machine are a partnership that works together to attain a goal. The bike can be altered to change the rider’s position; similarly the rider’s goal will govern the choice of machine. For example, on the indoor track or velodrome, single speed geared ‘fixed wheel’ (no ability to ‘freewheel’) machines with no brakes are used. However, in road race and time trial events, multiple geared machines with the ability to brake are chosen. The bare bike (without rider) contributes around a third to a quarter of the drag a rider has to overcome.
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Table 1: Fork/frame combinations and drag Approx. power (watts) Scenario required at 40kmh Fully aero 2008 triathlon/time trial frame and forks* 56 Fully aero 2007 triathlon/time trial frame and forks* 61 Round-tube 1980s time trial frame and forks 82 Aero 1999 triathlon/time trial frame and forks* 78 Entry-level 2008 road bike with round frame tubes 82 * UCI approved frame and forks.
Yes, it’s significant, but the rider is the still the biggest object to hit the air (see previous article in this report). A bike is comprised of the frame and forks, wheels, drive train and other components such as brakes, handlebars, water bottles. Importantly, unlike a car that has a shell covering most of its parts, a bicycle has many components that interact with airflow producing a complicated and as yet still not fully understood series of perturbations. One example of this is the front brake, which can affect the air colliding with the head tube, the seat tube, seat stays and rear brake. It’s a messy interaction, which is only simplified if a full fairing covers the bike. A fairing is a full or partial covering for a bike, which both reduces aerodynamic drag and protects the rider from the elements. Fairings are more commonly used on recumbent bikes, where the rider is reclined into a near horizontal position. However, such designs are banned in normal cycle racing, triathlons and track racing. (If you’re interested in the politics affecting the technology adopted in cycling, read up on Oscar Egg’s 1932 Velocar, the UCI ban on fairings and Graeme Obree’s innovations that changed the rulebook.) So what could changing you equipment do for your speed? Well, during trips to the wind tunnel and with the help of Formula One aerodynamicist Simon Smart (the man behind the Team Columbia Giant prototype bike seen in action at the 2008 Tour de
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France and Olympics), various riders and machine were tested to see their varying contribution to rider effort when riding at 25mph. Table 1 shows data which compared varying frame-fork combinations excluding the drag on the wheels. The data shows that ‘old-school’ round-tube frames compare less favourably to modern aerodynamically shaped carbon framesets. Round cylindrical shapes, such as frame tubes, spokes and forks create drag as airflow separates in the downwind side of the cylinder. Take a wing-like shape, such as a shaped frame All tube, spoke or rim and this produces less separation and manufacturers‘ turbulence, resulting in a smoother flow. The upshot is less test other drag holding back the bike and the rider’s forward progress. company’s Road bikes may have started with round tubes for strength frames and and low cost but flared carbon frames are now used by many know each road racers, time triallists and track cyclists. There are limitations set down by the governing body (UCI) that affect other’s data but professional cycling; however, triathletes, time triallists and getting anyone fitness riders can buy speed via no holds-barred bike to commit to aerodynamics. providing exact Hypothetical data from mathematical calculations by ‘aero numbers is gurus’ Jim Martin and John Cobb suggest that an impossible aerodynamically shaped frame can save 1.5 to 2.5 minutes over 40kms compared to a standard round-tube frame (3). The because trade bottom line is that the biggest part of the bike – the frame – secrets are just can be used to make the rider faster. Tubes that are profiled that in the into wing-like shapes, rear wheels shielded by flaring shapes world of wind and smooth lines throughout the modern aero frames all tunnel testing provide benefits. ’ No head-to-head data on frame and fork combinations, and for that matter most other items, exist for presentation here. All manufacturers test other company’s frames and know each other’s data but getting anyone to commit to providing exact numbers is impossible because trade secrets are just that in the world of wind tunnel testing. For example, it’s common to see manipulated images of rider drag figures, blurred images of equipment being tested or a total press ban from testing of an athlete or a new product!
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Twenty-first century toys Watching the 2008 Olympics provided a clear illustration of how all teams are seeking aerodynamic advantage and using the very latest insights from wind tunnel testing and equipment advances. Here are some examples: l Women’s time trial winner, the American Kirsten Armstrong, used what are reported to be the lowest drag producing commercially available handlebars, the Tula, produced by UK based USE; l Gold medalist Nicole Cooke used a skinsuit in the women’s road race to reduce drag, while many others used typical road jerseys with pockets and flapping material; l Time trial winner, Fabian Cancellara opted for one of the deepest Zipp front wheels (sans decals) for the time trial and he also used deep rim wheels for the road race where he got a bronze medal; l Insider sources claim that the Adidas skinsuits worn by some British riders were hand made and custom produced for each rider. Details of how good the suits are have been kept secret, but with the rider accounting for two-thirds of overall drag, what he or she wears obviously makes a difference.
Wheels and forks Because the fork that attaches to the front wheel is right at the front of the bike (a so-called ‘leading edge’) it is thought by some to be in ‘clean air’. However, the front wheel actually throws up disturbed air, so it’s not a clear-cut interaction, though big round fork tubes are a definite no-no. Manufacturers have attempted to smooth this dirty air by including slots in the fork. Of note, Oval Concepts sold the patent to this slotted- technology to Ridley and this aerodynamic gizmo was included in the 2008 Tour de France runner-up Cadel Evans’s time trial bike. That said, experts don’t all agree if it actually makes any significant difference or not. Independent testing by BikeTechReview.com found fork choice and front wheel type interact to produce variations of one second per mile from worst to best-case scenario (4). It’s an interaction yet to be fully understood; some combinations of
page 30 PEAK PERFORMANCE cycling training secrets forks and wheels lose half a second per mile, yet to the naked eye they look similarly aerodynamic. This is where wind tunnel testing is invaluable as it reveals more than the human eye can Field testing ever visualise. ‘with athletes The data shown in figure 2 illustrates the gains that deep- suggests that at rimmed aerodynamic rims can give over standard box-shaped least 2-3 rims. By keeping the wind attached to the rim for longer the drag is reduced significantly. Keen watchers of the Tour de seconds per France, the Olympic road races and many stages races will see mile for the professional riders using deep rimmed wheel sets, which were same power until now used for just the time trial discipline. input by the Why are deep rims used more often now than in the past? rider can be Data presented by Zipp, a manufacturer of aerodynamic gained with wheels and a big investor in wind tunnel testing, suggests they can offer one to one and three quarter minutes advantage over aerodynamic conventional box-shaped rims. When seconds count talking wheels ‘minutes’ should get the competitive-minded rider to sit up and ’ take notice. This advantage equates to saving the rider 15-30 watts, or 50-100 calories per hour of effort for the same speed,
Figure 2: Power (watts) required to ride at 25mph
350
300
250
200
150 294 312 Power Watts Power
100
50 18 0 Disk (Rear) /101mm Standard box-shaped rims Difference deep rim (Front) (20Rear/18Front spokes)
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which is a very useful way to save energy in road races of three to six hours. My own testing and field testing with athletes suggests that at least two to three seconds per mile for the same power input by the rider can be gained with aerodynamic wheels. Other data suggest that aerodynamic wheels such as a rear disc and front three-spoke carbon wheel can make a rider 60-90 seconds faster over 40 kilometers(3). Again, in line with commercial data and my own, the result equates to 2.4-3.6 seconds per mile. If you are vying for a personal best, are training correctly and considering an aerodynamic advantage, don’t ignore the rolling resistance of your wheels and tyres. This is often quoted as being 10% of work required or around 30 watts, but the power required to rotate just one tire at 25mph (40kmh) may vary from 12 to 22 watts, depending on brand, model and what inner tube or gluing methodology is used. Twenty watts more effort for the same speed seems small for an elite male athlete but this could be significant to a smaller female rider putting out 220 watts at maximum race effort. If the over-used moniker every second counts is your mission statement then be mindful that this comes from every watt that you can produce and every reduction in equipment drag you can buy.
Summary In a wind tunnel with extremely high testing accuracy, you can reveal how the slightest change in equipment (or rider position) affects energy demand and performance. This gives the consumer, or professional athlete a good chance to make wise purchasing decisions to suit riding style/event based on the latest technological advances in equipment. However, before rushing out with your hard-earned cash, be sure to know what likely dividends you will gain. Don’t expect any element to do the work for you. You still need to be maximising your power and following an optimum pacing strategy to make the most of aerodynamics. No bike is fast; it’s the rider that makes it so!
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Practical implications l The frame, forks, handlebars and components of your bike should be chosen to ensure minimal aerodynamic drag; l Aero wheels also help to reduce energy expenditure or raise your speed for the same effort. Very deep versions (>80mm) can be unsteady in blustery conditions but those in the 40-60mm depth are fast and very versatile; l You are the biggest object, therefore the frame, handlebars and aerobars, if applicable, must deliver a perfect platform on which you can maximise your position, comfort and power delivery. Take time to hone your position and note all measurements for the future.
References 1. Wilson (ed) (2004) Bicycling Science. MIT Press. 187-189 2. Ibid, p188 3. Martin, Cobb (2002) in High Performance Cycling. Human Kinetics. 120-123 4. BikeTechReview – Independent aerodynamic testing at MIT 2003
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page 34 Tour de France psychology
Energy conservation: don’t squander it on emotions!
At a glance
l The physiological and psychological demands of the riding in the Tour de France are outlined; l Ways of actively regulating emotions during demanding cycling events are proposed; l ‘If-then’ planning designed to anticipate potential stressors is proposed as a more efficient strategy.
Riding the Tour de France places enormous psychological and physiological demands on the participants. In particular, keeping control of emotions can be especially difficult. Andy Lane suggests strategies based around ‘if-then plans’ designed to help manage emotions for all cyclists competing in multi-stage or long duration events.
The Tour de France involves cycling over 3,500km in 20 days, during which riders must perform to near maximal effort for a long duration on a daily basis(1). The need to perform to high standards on a consistent basis is a concept that rings true for many athletes and in this article, we’ll use the Tour de France as an example of a task with excessive physiological and psychological demands, suggesting ways in which individuals can cope with the demands involved.
The size of the challenge The Tour has three major challenges. Riders who perform well in the event must be effective in long distance mass peloton stages, individual time trials against the clock (10-60km range) and uphill mountain climbing (either as a mass start or as a time trial).
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For the majority of the race, riders will be part of a large peloton of riders where riders can enjoy the benefits of drafting. Drafting can lead to a 40% reduction in energy requirements due to a decrease in air resistance. The benefits of drafting leads to bunching, and significant gaps between competitors are few and far between. This in turn leads to riders placing greater emphasis on performance in the hill stages (where wind resistance is less of a factor) and the time- trial, where they ride independently. It has been suggested that potential winners must excel in the individual time trials or the hill stages, where riders can break their opponents by putting large time gaps between them (1). There are 4-6 mountainous peloton stages in the French and Swiss Alps, as well as the French Pyrenees, where cyclists must overcome the major opposing force of gravity. A high power to weight ratio at near maximal intensities (above 6 watts per kilo of body weight – around 400 watts!) is a prerequisite for superior climbing (1). High values of pedalling efficiency and cycling economy at high workloads are also important for Tour success. For example, Miguel Indurain cycled 53km in an hour, averaging 509.5 watts for an ‘entire’ hour! (1).
Preserving energy Tour cyclists expend up to 9000kcals of energy per day, and can lose between 2 and 5kg of body mass and 1-2% body fat over the course of the race(2). Evidence indicates that the carbohydrate intake on the bicycle during Tour stages is low (average 25g per hour) and below recommended levels (30-60g per hour) for the intensity of the exercise (3). Since consuming additional fuel is difficult, getting the pacing strategy right from the outset is vital. A review of studies examining factors that influence cycling performance ascertained that maintaining an even power output is desirable (4). Attempting to ride in this way is different to most riders’ intuitive approach racing, where the tendency is put more effort into the hills and then to cruise down them. Competition between riders influences this further and the competitive
page 36 PEAK PERFORMANCE cycling training secrets nature of athletes means they tend to react when being passed during races, increasing effort. The notion of maintaining an even power output is a difficult strategy to execute during multiple stage races such as the Tour de France. Although you can plan for the expected riding conditions, it’s far more difficult to plan for the tactics of your fellow competitors. Riders seeking overall victory must determine whether to respond to sudden bursts of pace and also decide which riders they can allow to break away and which riders need to be tracked. Determining the pacing strategy is therefore complex and given the severity of the course, strategies to conserve energy are vital to performance. While an even power output is desirable, this needs to be considered in the context of the race situation.
The man in yellow In the Tour, the leader is given the prestigious yellow jersey – a prize asset for cyclists. The wearer of the yellow jersey is identifiable to other riders, and therefore becomes the person to beat. He must guard against attacks, and pace himself accordingly, a strategy involving support from team members. As is often the case in teams, developing a cohesive team is not so straightforward. While team members might benefit from being part of a leading team financially, there can be a sense of resentment at doing a great deal of hard work while having to play second fiddle. Team members can shield the main rider from wind resistance, cover attacks, and support the leader in times of trouble. It is not surprising that team members can develop a feeling of frustration and believe that they could be the team leader. With this in mind, the team leader needs to set the mood of the team, inspiring team- mates to give that bit extra.
Emotional boiling pot People get emotional when pursuing important tasks and athletic competition such as the Tour is no different (5). Emotions are heightened at the start of the race and at each stage,
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Figure 1: Use of regulation (grey bars) increases resource use compared to not using emotion regulation (black bars)
6 Key point: Emotion regulation 5 strategies add to 4 resource depletion
3
2
1
0 Use of resources (arbitrary values) Time to exhaustion
Resource usage during intense Resource usage during intense exercise – using emotional exercise – no effort of emotional regulation regulation
characterised by anticipatory emotions such as anxiety and excitement. During the race, feelings of fatigue will develop and these feelings provide feedback to the rider on whether he can cope with maintaining the necessary power output (see figure 1). Riders know that these feelings will unfold during the race, and consider ways in which they will cope. For example, if a rider gets frustrated that he is not in the position he desires, or becomes annoyed that he is more fatigued that he should be, he may possibly start blaming himself for starting too quickly. Equally, some riders will struggle to cope with being overtaken, or slowing down while ascending a hill, and the notion of being patient and preserving resources will be difficult to accept. Getting into the right mindset and anticipating the emotions you believe will help you achieve your goals is a key part in the preparation of elite athletes. Numerous studies demonstrate that emotions associate with successful performance in numerous sports(6). Individuals develop beliefs on what emotions are helpful and what emotions are unhelpful. While the general rule of thumb is that pleasant emotions tend to facilitate, and unpleasant emotions tend to be unhelpful, this is not always the case (6). For example, feeling energetic can be considered
page 38 PEAK PERFORMANCE cycling training secrets helpful in some events or for some individuals, but not others. More controversially, anxiety or anger can be helpful for performance in some individuals but highly dysfunctional for others. Because emotions experienced in sport influence goal attainment, strategies to manage emotions during competition are important (5).
Regulating emotions Recent research has found that the process of regulating emotions requires effort and uses physiological substrates such as glucose (7). The notion that emotion regulation uses the same physiological resources needed for performance is intriguing. Sport psychologists typically argue that athletes should engage in strategies to regulate emotions. However, if active strategies to regulate emotions use glucose, and if these resources underpin sport performance, then it raises the question as to whether active efforts to regulate emotions hamper performance through resource depletion? Figure 2 attempts to depict graphically a hypothetical example of two cyclists working at the same intensity. In it, resources being used are represented by the red and black lines. The area between these lines represents additional resources being used to regulate emotions. As you can see, active efforts to regulate emotion contribute to increased use of
Figure 2: Effect of emotion regulation on time to exhaustion in two athletes
25 Athlete A: Resource
depletion when actively 20 regulating emotion
15 Athlete B: Resource depletion when not 10 actively regulating of emotion Use of resources (arbitrary values) 5 Key point: Individual who actively 0 regulate emotion deplete their Time to exhaustion physiological resources earlier than those who don’t
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resources. If resources are in limited supply (and in many cases they will be) then efforts made to regulate emotions could be influential to performance. We tested this hypothesis in a recent study (8). We hypothesized that cyclists who experience unpleasant mood characterised by feeling depressed and confused during performance would concurrently experience a depletion of physiological resources due to their attempts to (unsuccessfully) regulate their emotions. The cyclists completed a 100-mile cycle test in laboratory conditions at a speed equivalent to lactate threshold. The riders were asked to cycle at a hard intensity similar to one that they ride in during a race. We assessed riders before, during and post the ride using a standard scale (9). As Figure 3 shows, riders who felt confused, depressed, angry and tense increased their ventilation rate Because during the middle and later stages and became exhausted regulating‘ earlier, suggesting that earlier emotion-regulation efforts were emotions costly. By contrast, among individuals reporting positive mood, requires effort, ventilation rates were lower during exercise and increased sharply, with a final burst for the finish before exhaustion set in. thus depleting The implication is that riders who did not experience resources, it is unpleasant emotions had something left in the tank for a final important to sprint finish, and in a race situation, could draw on these try to limit the resources. Findings suggest athletes regulate their mood number of through increasing effort, depleting physiological substrates emotions you needed for goal attainment. Athletes who maintained positive mood states during performance were able to increase efforts work with to achieve performance goals. ’ The implications from this work are intriguing and have a number of practical applications. Riders should be aware of the effects of mental fatigue and particularly, those aspects of the race that are especially challenging. As indicated earlier, pacing strategies can become complicated by attacks from riders and course conditions; however, riders must weigh up the extent to which maintaining an even power output will be beneficial to overall performance. An additional consideration may be the interaction between
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Figure 3: Ventilation rate and mood state (9)
Unpleasant mood was associated with a significant increase in ventilation rate during the middle and later stages and reduction shortly before exhaustion, suggesting that earlier emotion-regulation efforts were costly. By contrast, among individuals reporting positive mood, ventilation rates were lower during exercise and increased sharply before exhaustion.
100 95 90 85 Depressed mood 80 75 Positive mood
VELitres/min 70 65 60 30 60 90 120 150 180 exhaustion Time
team-mates. The leader needs to set the emotional climate and act in a way that creates the belief that he is able to perform well in the race. The leader needs to convey a message of being a serious competitor. However, it’s possible that the leader will need to act in a way that conveys positive emotions even if these are not the emotions he is feeling. In short, he will need to act positively, even if he does not feel positive. However, research suggests that ‘acting of emotion’ is effortful, and thus uses resources (10).
Interventions to keep ‘fuel in the tank’ Regulating emotions works on a timeline. At one end, the individual anticipates situations or interactions between people that will cause unwanted emotions, and tries to do something about the situation. This could involve changing how the person thinks about the situation, or changing what he or she is doing. At the other end of the scale are strategies designed to deal with emotions once they have manifested. These strategies focus on changing the emotion rather than the situation. Athletes such as cyclists use a mixture of reappraising situations and managing emotions. As indicated previously, cyclists will often seek to get themselves into an optimal emotional state for performance, which may typically involve
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thoughts that raise positive emotions and suppress unwanted emotions. However, because regulating emotions requires effort, thus depleting resources, it is important to try to limit the number of emotions you work with. One intervention strategy that is effective in a number of areas of psychology is the use of an ‘if-then’ plan. Research shows that if-then plans are more effective than general goal setting at initiating and sustaining changes in behaviour because they identify the standard required for that goal and direct the person as to how they will attain the goals. Previous research has demonstrated the effectiveness of this strategy in a diverse range of tasks including helping players manage anxiety (11). The focus box below shows a number of examples: The if-then process should start by considering factors that could be stressful or raise emotions. It’s worth trying to think of as many as possible and list these; these are the ‘if’ component and useful in this context as they establish the stressor. The
Focus box: ‘if-then’ rules for anticipating situations that might lead to unwelcome emotions in cycling
If Then ‘If I feel I have run out of then I’ll focus on a moving image of train wheels’ energy,
‘If I get passed by a rider, then I’ll focus on relaxing and cycling efficiently’
‘If I start feeling angry, then I’ll attempt “stop” that thought by declaring it unwarranted’ ‘If I feel tired and angry, then I know that I must challenge why I am angry and let it go. I’ll do this by focusing on the emotions I believe help performance’. Or ‘I’ll concentrate on my technique and use self-talk to change thinking towards excitement’
‘If I feel nervous, then I will welcome these feelings as part of performing on the big stage – I’ll tell myself that nerves are part of performance and welcome them like I welcome tired legs during the ride’
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‘then’ part is how you would like to address the stressor. For example, if situation X is encountered, then I will perform behaviour Y. The idea is that if-then plans can help by influencing the process at the early stages rather than trying to deal with emotion once fully blown, thus increasing the depletion of vital resources. When developing if-then plans as an intervention it is important that they are repeated daily, so that over time they become ingrained. Cyclists should place the if-then plan in a prominent place and regularly repeat each statement to themselves.
Conclusion Sustaining performance is dependent on interaction between physiological, nutritional and psychological factors. Maintaining high power output and developing an appropriate pacing strategy is key to sustaining resources. Emotions can drain resources. If-then planning can help manage emotions and save resources required for performance.
References 1. The Sport & Exercise Scientist, 4-5, 2007 2. Sports Medicine, 24, 73-81, 1997 3. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 19, 62-67, 1998 4. Journal of Sports Sciences, 25, 1001-1009, 2007 5. The Rise and Fall of the Iceberg: Development of a Conceptual Model of Mood-Performance Relationships, in Mood and Human Performance: Conceptual, Measurement, and Applied Issues, Lane, Editor, Nova Science: Hauppauge, NY. 1-34.2007 6. Emotions in Sport, Champaign, Ill.; United States: Human Kinetics Pages 2000 7. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1252-1265, 1998 8. Physiological Correlates of Emotion Self-Regulation During Prolonged Cycling Performance. International Society for Research on Emotion Leuven, Belgium 2009 9. Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 4, 125-139, 2003 10. Work & Stress, 21, 30-47, 2007 11. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34, 381-393, 2008
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page 44 Back health for cycling
Back health – don’t get saddled with injury!
At a glance
This article l Explains the causes of low back pain and the related injuries that many cyclists may suffer; l Helps you to determine which injuries are likely respond to conservative treatment and when you can return to activity; l Shows how you can evaluate your cycling position to improve performance and decrease the strain on your low back.
The saying goes, ‘an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure’ and with this in mind, Alicia Filley looks at how to keep your back in top condition, paying special attention to the demands of cycling
Studies reveal that 60% to 80% of the general population experiences low back (lumbar) pain at some point in their lifetime(1). Despite their level of fitness, cyclists are no exception and even elite cyclists show an incidence of back pain similar to the general population(2). The structure of the spine arises from a set of stacked bones running from the skull to the pelvis, called vertebrae. These stacks of bone have a hole in the centre of them through which passes the spinal cord. Nerve roots branch off of the spinal cord between the bones and send a network of nerves throughout the body. Filling the spaces between those stacked bones are gelatinous discs that cushion the vertebral bones and absorb the forces that travel along the spine (see figure 1). Connecting the vertebrae are many tiny ligaments, muscles and tendons.
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Figure 1: Anatomy of the spine
Fracture of a vertebra (usually the 5th lumbar vertebra) at the pars interarticularis results in spondylolysis. When the unstable vertebra slips forward onto the one below it, spondylolisthesis results.
The larger muscles of the back attach to the vertebrae and span to the scapula ribs and pelvis. There are four basic origins of dysfunction that athletes with back pain should consider: pathology, musculoskeletal strain/ sprain, injury to the disc, and spondylolysis or spondylolisthesis. Pathological causes of back pain include tumour, infection and fracture. Any back pain accompanied by fever, chills, weight loss, a history of trauma, or neurological symptoms (numbness or loss of bowel or bladder control) should be evaluated by a physician.
Oh, my aching back The most common cause of back pain in cyclists however is lumbar strain or sprain. Any of the tiny ligaments (sprain) and muscle tendons (strain) that connect the vertebrae can be injured through acute trauma or by overtraining. Usually the cyclist recalls some traumatic event (lifting something heavy, a fall, or an unanticipated tackle) that triggered the pain, however, there may have been underlying weakness or prolonged stress that made the area vulnerable. Pain and stiffness (muscle spasm) result, and are usually worse the following day.
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When there is pain, a cycle of immobility begins. Even if you continue your sporting activity, you develop compensations to avoid using painful muscles. Weakness and muscle wasting in these muscles result from lack of use. A muscle imbalance occurs, leading to further compensations, weakness, and increased risk for further injury. Most low-back strains/sprains improve within two weeks, and 90% of patients are pain free within two months(3). The key to the management of lumbar strain/sprain is pain control. Over-the-counter, non-steroidal, anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS) relieve pain and decrease inflammation. Prescription muscle relaxants help if there is significant spasm. Physiotherapy modalities such as ice, heat, and ultrasound improve the pain and allow early initiation of therapeutic exercise. Early return to light activity is advised, since taking more than two days of rest results in muscle atrophy. A cyclist can return to full activity once he or she demonstrates pain-free, full range of motion. A further evaluation is necessary if pain and function do not improve with conservative treatment within two to three weeks.
The slippery disc The discs between the vertebrae cushion the bones of the spinal column and absorb the shock of movement. The outer rings of the disc are composed of cartilaginous fibres that provide stiffness and form to the inner jelly-like substance. The outer rings are innervated by pain receptors that generate pain when the inner disc is forcibly squashed against them, as in forceful flexion and rotation movements. Continued stress to the disc may result in a tear of the outer fibres (see figure 2). As you can see, the disc does not actually ‘slip’, but rather herniates or leaks through the outer fibres into the space occupied by the spinal cord or its nerve roots, causing a radiating pain to the hips and legs. The irritation caused by this intrusion is more evident upon trunk flexion (bending forwards) as the disc is forced against the sensitive nerves. Diagnosis of a herniated disc is achieved by clinical exam and
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Figure 2: Anatomy of the spine at the vertebral level, showing a herniating disc
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Again, pain control is achieved through NSAIDS and physiotherapy. Most people respond well to conservative treatment, consisting of limited rest and initiation of a therapeutic exercise programme under the supervision of a physiotherapist. Surgery may be required for those who do not. A discectomy, or excision of the offending protruding disc, is performed via small incisions in the back (called a percutaneous discectomy) or through a traditional open incision. For either procedure, the return to play for the typical cyclist with a single level disc protrusion is two to three months(3).
Cycling and back pain The British Cycling Federation reported the frequency of injuries for over 500 elite cyclists who were evaluated by squad medics(2). Sixty percent of the injuries reported were in the low back. Further analysis revealed that the distribution of injuries were equal among track riders, road riders, and those who did both, indicating that actual hours in the saddle may not be a contributing factor to low back pain in cyclists.
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Recommended exercises for healthy backs No matter how fit you are, you may experience back pain during your athletic career. Whether it’s due to lack of core strength, decreased range of motion, faulty technique, or overtraining, back pain usually responds to a conservative treatment of pain management and exercise. The following exercises isolate the core muscles of the trunk. Conditioned athletes may be able to substitute larger muscles to perform more advanced balance manoeuvres, yet struggle with the exercises below.
Pelvic clock Lie on your back with feet supported on a chair and hips and knees each at 90°. Imagine the face of a clock on your abdomen. Six o’clock is toward your pubic bone; 12 o’clock is toward your nose. Pull your pelvis down toward six o’clock in an anterior pelvic tilt and hold for five seconds. Now pull your navel toward your nose, using only your abdominal muscles, in a posterior pelvic tilt. Hold for five seconds. You may need to place your hands on your thighs to keep the muscles in your legs relaxed. Repeat the sequence five times. Progress to holding each contraction for 10 seconds.
Heel touch Lie on your back with your knees bent and feet on the floor. Press your navel to the floor. Keeping that position, bring both knees to your chest. Continue to press the small of your back against the floor as you slowly straighten one hip, keeping the knee bent, and lightly touch your heel to the floor. Return that leg to the starting position. Keep your chin tucked, but head on the floor as you repeat with the opposite leg. Repeat slowly, three times on each leg, for three sets. When you reach eight to ten reps without fatigue, begin to perform the exercise while straightening the knee until it is fully extended.
Superman Lying on your stomach, stretch your arms forwards of your head. Begin with floating each arm, then each leg upward, and holding each for five seconds. Progress to lifting the opposite arm and leg simultaneously and holding for five seconds. When ready, add difficulty by lifting arms and legs together, keeping face down and neck long, and hold for eight seconds. Do 10 reps of each exercise.
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So why do so many cyclists experience back pain? Physicians at the Eisenhower Army Medical Centre in Georgia believe the primary cause is lower back weakness(5). In cycling, the low back is the powerhouse for generating forward momentum and controlling the bike. If the back is not well conditioned, fatigue sets in quickly and muscles are strained. This repetitive strain begins an inflammatory process that damages local tissue. Over time weakness, loss of flexibility, and pain become more prominent. What might seem like an acute backache brought on by moving some furniture may actually be the result of chronic stress from overuse.
Finding the right fit Overuse injuries result primarily from using faulty equipment or progressing a training schedule too quickly. Often something as simple as a minor adjustment to the riding position can ameliorate the problem. The total reach of the rider from the seat to the handlebars is called the virtual top tube length. Getting this distance right is the most important factor for preventing low back pain. Unfortunately, there is no set formula for finding the magic fit for every rider. There are however, a few general guidelines: Researchers Riders find proper reach when they can’t see the front hub found‘ that (because it is obscured from view beneath the handle bars) tilting the seat while riding in the drop handlebars. In this position, elbows angle 10° to 15° should be bent 65° to 70°. The distance from the elbows to the increased the knees should be two and a half to five centimetres at the top of pelvic angle each pedal stoke. With hands comfortably placed on the brake hoods, a plumb line dropped from the nose should intersect the and decreased bicycle stem. Most importantly, forward lean should come the forces at the from the pelvis rotating at the hip, rather than bending the lumbar spine back, which should remain as straight as possible. and pelvis Handlebar height plays a role in rider comfort as well. ’ Handlebar height should be even with, or just slightly lower than, that of the seat. Setting the handlebars lower than four centimetres below the seat places increased pressure on the low back unless the rider is extremely flexible and able to rotate
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Figure 3: Diagram of conventions used to specify angular displacements (θ) about the pelvis (P) and the trunk (T)(7)
his or her pelvis forward. While tilting the pelvis forward at the hips rather than flexing the lumbar spine decreases the strain to the low back, it increases the pressure on the perineum. Researchers at Utah State University hypothesised that if female cyclists could achieve a greater pelvic tilt while riding, without increasing pressure on the perineum, their incidence of low back pain would decrease(6). To test this hypothesis, 20 female volunteers rode a stationary bicycle ergometer using three different saddles: standard, partial cutout design and complete cutout design. The pelvic angle and trunk angle were recorded while on each saddle (see figure 3). Subjects rode on each saddle for four minutes with their hands on the tops of the handlebars and four minutes with hands in the drops. The results showed a greater pelvic angle with the partial
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and complete cutout design than the standard saddle; however, the complete cutout design also slightly increased the overall trunk flexion angle. The majority of the subjects found the partial cutout saddle to be the most comfortable. Both cutout designs decrease pressure on the perineum while allowing an increased pelvic angle. Investigators at the Chaim Sheba Medical Centre in Israel found that an increased pelvic angle could also be achieved by tilting the saddle angle forward 10° to 15° from horizontal(7). Using fluoroscopy, they evaluated 10 healthy adults on different types of bicycles using different seat angles. They found that tilting the seat angle 10° to 15° increased the pelvic angle and decreased the forces at the lumbar spine and pelvis. They then adjusted the seats of 40 volunteers from a local cycling club who reported low back pain. Follow up after using the new saddle position for six months revealed that 72% of the cyclists no longer had back pain, and 20% reported a significantly decreased incidence and intensity of pain. The limitations of this study are the small sample size and the fact that most back pain resolves within two to three months anyway. However, the fluoroscopic results cannot be ignored; cyclists with low back pain should consider experimenting with a slightly forward saddle angle to achieve a better back position. You can also improve your pelvic angle by increasing your flexibility. Try adding yoga or Pilates to your cross training to increase both pelvic flexibility and core strength. Remember to use any flexibility you acquire and change your habitual riding posture. If you don’t have a coach or riding club, have a friend video tape you on a trainer. Evaluate your posture and work to increase the bend at the hips and flatten the low back. Minor adjustments to your bike, your training and your posture can have big payoffs in your comfort and performance.
References 1. Curr Sports Med Rep, 2004 Feb;3(1):35-40 2. Br J Sports Med, 1996;30:349-353 3. Clin Sports Med, 2004 Jul;23(3):367-79
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4. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med, 1995;149:15-18 5. Curr Sports Med Rep, 2005;4(5):271-4. 6. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 2003 Feb;35(2):327-32 7. Br J Sports Med, 1993;33:398-400
Practical implications l Regardless of the source, back pain usually responds to conservative treatment and most athletes can expect to return to their prior level of play; l Specific trunk strengthening exercises are needed to condition your core and help prevent back injury; l Cyclists with low back pain should evaluate the fit of their bike and consider using a saddle with a partial cutout, angled forward 10° to 15°.
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page 54 Cycling efficiency
Cycling: peddling myths or pedalling facts?
At a glance This article l Investigates pedalling action during cycling, cadence and cycling efficiency; l Makes a number of practical recommendations to increase cycling efficiency.
You’d think that when it comes to technique, cycling is a delightfully simple sport. But over the years, a number of theories have been advanced about the best way for cyclists to pedal and maximise their pedalling efficiency. Joe Beer looks at the evidence and tries to separate fact from fiction.
From a clinical perspective, the bicycle holds the moving limbs of the lower body in a fixed arc; you have your foot in a rigid shoe, fixed to the pedal with a shoe cleat, which essentially attaches your foot to the end of a crank arm. When spinning the cranks (pedalling), this ‘closed circuit’ provides a fairly predetermined movement pattern, which allows for very little personal flair or style. In effect, when studying the movement patterns during pedalling, all cyclists’ legs look fairly similar to one another, regardless of the level of exertion, the terrain, or whether the rider is in or out of the saddle. This is in marked contrast to the huge variations that can be seen in runners’ leg gait or freestyle swimmers’ arm movement patterns. The key question, therefore, is whether and how can you become better at pedalling?
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Foot action There are many ways that riders have attempted to improve cycling efficiency (the amount of power produced for a given level of oxygen consumption), most notably trying to pedal in a way that accentuates the upward lift of the foot, and varying the pitch of the ankle in various ways. The exact method, terminology and descriptions of this technique depend on whose interpretation you read. Suffice to say there is no evidence that these methods produce any significant improvements in efficiency over the normal, simple method of simply concentrating on the ‘press- down’ phase of each pedal revolution(1). The best riders push down harder than the slower riders and therefore go faster – it’s as simple as that!
Rule #1: push the pedals and don’t over-analyse any special foot action
Copying the pros It’s hard to know whether pro riders are fit, good at pedalling efficiently or fit and good at pedalling efficiently! Few studies have properly tracked the career of elite cyclists so if there are any changes in economy over time, the data to support this The best notion are virtually non-existent. riders‘ push However, there is a famous paper, on a certain Lance down harder Armstrong, which suggests the measured gains in efficiency in than the slower his early years (see box 1) were due to changes to the muscle (2) riders and structure as a result of training and maturity . However, this data has been challenged by some researchers(3,4). They have therefore go suggested that the time periods examined don’t show year-on- faster – it’s as year comparisons, that VO2max and body mass changes were simple as more significant than riding economy and, most importantly, that! that fundamental problems in data collection make the data ’ impossible to compare over a seven-year period. Granted, the data presented by Coyle(2) show improvements in Armstrong’s fitness; however, this improved efficiency may have been an indirect observation rather than the actual cause of his subsequent success.
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Five things NOT to do to increase efficiency! 1. Focus on lots of turbo trainer drills – it’s unlikely to help efficiency. Instead use rollers for balance, coordination and a smoother pedal action; 2. Place a lot of emphasis on high intensity intervals in spin classes – there’s no proof this helps. A fixed wheel bike on the road or lower intensity coordination spin-bike riding will likely be more productive; 3. Buy independent ‘Powercranks’ (where left and right cranks can spin independently of each other) These have been tested and have shown no benefits(6); 4. Significantly cut down on carbohydrates or restrict feeding on longer rides to force your body to adapt and become more efficient. This is just likely to cause illness and burnout; 5. Do excessive high cadence (speed of pedal rotation) riding in an attempt to be able to spin at 110 or even 120rpm. Unless you can match this up to a 400-450 watt sustained efforts or greater you are just making yourself great at pressing down on air, not forcing the pedals downwards!
Box 1: Lance: builds a better engine(2) Efficiency level Power output (watts) at an oxygen Year (% power conversion) consumption of 5 litres per min 1992 21.18 374 1993 21.61 382 1997 22.66 399 1999 23.05 404
Likewise, a study using 69 cyclists from recreational to world-class level suggests that there are not significant differences in cycling economy between such widely varying subjects(5). So rather than their superb pedalling efficiency, the key to being a top dog cycling pro may instead be the maximum power, aerobic fuel efficiency, tactical awareness and fatigue resistance.
Rule #2: your potential maximum riding economy is likely already innately fixed. However, lower body fat levels and bike weight, increased strength and power, better tactics and correct sports nutrition can all make you a much better rider
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Four ways to get more efficient 1. Ride rollers: these consist of a simple three-barrel device, which is becoming increasingly overlooked now widescreen training systems can be connected to an indoor trainer. However, efficient track cyclists, time trialists and cyclo-cross riders use rollers as part of their efficient riding programme. Short-term observations suggest the smooth pedal style that balancing on such an unforgiving surface gives can equate to 1-2% improvement in efficiency measures. 2. Ride more: though we don’t have a direct mileage verses efficiency table to prove more miles means better efficiency, good riders do ride their bike several times per week. A minimum level of riding must be adhered to (like any skill). Varying the cadences used, the type of bike (fixed wheel, night riding, off-road mountain bike, etc) and developing handling all helps to eke out a more efficient rider/bike partnership. 3. Use non-circular chain rings (like the Cervelo test team!). The variable circumference Q-Ring front chain rings can give improved pedal efficiency(11). By increasing the resistance on the down-stroke and easing up across the bottom and top of the pedal stroke, non-circular rings can make pedalling easier without having to think about a new pedalling style, especially when climbing. 4. Vary cadence deliberately, from very low cadence hills (eg 50rpm in a big gear with smooth, controlled pressure) up to fast spinning brief eight- second sprints to ignite lots of muscle fibres. There’s more than one cadence sweet spot or one speed of riding. By keeping it varied, the nervous system, muscles and energy systems have to adapt.
Fitness first A common assumption is that elite riders must share similar traits in order to get to the top. One of these assumptions is that elite riders must be efficient because they ride huge distances every year (circa 25,000-45,000km). However, this is debatable. Data from professional teams has shown that across a batch of 12 world class riders cycling at around 400 watts (around 5 watts per kilo of body weight) gross efficiency can vary from 20.9 to 28% – in other words average to super-human efficiency(7). This is a huge variation considering these riders had all shone at elite level and all ridden massive distances. Interestingly, data presented by the Spanish team that did the research actually suggests that those with a lower maximum aerobic capacity (VO2max) can adapt and make up for such
page 58 PEAK PERFORMANCE cycling training secrets shortcomings with increased riding efficiency(7). Interestingly, this phenomenon (of modest VO2max but superior efficiency) has also been hinted at by some researchers from the field of running biomechanics.
Higher cadence? Many people have examined Lance Armstrong’s riding ability and (mistakenly) deduced that for all riders, the best way to pedal well is to spin the cranks at 95-100rpm. However, lets make a couple of things crystal clear: 1. The higher cadences used by professional riders is because they are producing as much as 400-500 watts in time-trial efforts or climbs of 20 to 60 minutes; 2. Recovery from day-to-day ‘tour’ riding is easier with higher cadence riding, so riders chose this as a matter of energy conservation(8). So while Lance may ride a time trial at close on 100rpm, he is sustaining over 450 watts. Lesser mortals can probably only sustain around 250-350 watts, so cadence can be significantly lower – say around 75-85rpm. This is especially so when climbing where many cyclists can find improved efficiency (and ability to climb) at around 70rpm. Macintosh and his co-workers have shown that optimal cadence for 100, 200, 300 and 400w cycling occurs at 57, 70, 86 and 99rpm respectively(9). This casts some doubt on the age-old advice that cyclists should aim for 95rpm because ‘that’s what the pros do’. Sadly though, we don’t all generate 400 watts in time trial and fast climb efforts! In fact, in a review of studies in this area, scientists concluded that ‘the choice of a relatively high cadence during cycling at low to moderate intensity is uneconomical and could compromise performance during prolonged cycling’(10).
Rule #3: choose a cadence that mirrors your power output; slower riding and warm ups should use a lower cadence while high-effort time trials should use a higher cadence. Unless you’re an elite rider, it’s unlikely you’ll benefit from using cadences exceeding around 85rpm
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References 1 Med Sci Sports Exerc 2007; 39(6):991-995. 2. J. Appl. Physiol 2005; 98:2191-2196 3. J. Appl. Physiol 2005; 99: 1630-1631 4. J Appl Physiol 2005; 99: 1628-1629 5. Int J Sports Med 2004; 25(5): 374-379 6. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2009; 4: 18-28 7. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2002; 34(12):2079-2084 8. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001; 33(8): 1361-1366 9. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000; 32(7): 1281-1287 10. Int J. Sp. Phys Perf 2009; 4: 3-17 11. J Physiol Anthropol. 2009; 28(6):261-7
page 60 Cycling and health
Cycling and health: a bone of contention?
At a glance
This article: l Discusses the link between exercise, bone mineral density (BMD) and health; l Looks at new research on BMD in road cyclists and explains why they may be at greater risk of bone health problems; l Makes practical recommendations.
Cycling has traditionally been regarded as one of the healthiest sports around, and its impact-free nature has made it particularly appealing to those concerned about their joint and skeletal health. However, recent research on bone density in pro cyclists makes for uncomfortable reading. Andrew Hamilton explains
During the height of the cycling season, many fans’ attention switches to the big tours such as the Giro d’Italia and Tour de France. During these events, the professional cyclists typically churn out hundreds of kilometres per week under race conditions. Meanwhile, even lesser mortal such as club and sportive riders will be upping their mileages, spurred on by forthcoming races and events. Assuming that cyclists undertake a properly structured training programme with manageable increases in training volumes and intensity, and that they allow adequate time for recovery with good nutrition, the physiological and health effects of increased cycling performance will almost always be beneficial. For example, research shows that increasing the intensity of aerobic type exercise such as cycling confers several
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health benefits such as: l Enhanced insulin sensitivity(1); l Reduced blood pressure(2,3); l Improved blood cholesterol profile(2,3); l Reduced body fat(4); l Reduced risk of coronary heart disease (as the result of the above)(5,6); l Better quality of life in older age(7);
However, one area where (unlike many other forms of exercise) cycling might not deliver health benefits is bone health, or more specifically, increasing bone mineral density (BMD – see box 1).
Bone loading exercise Research has shown that the higher the muscular and impact load (gravitational) forces, the higher the BMD produced; so for example, gymnasts whose sport requires high loadings and impacts tend to have higher BMDs than endurance runners(9). By contrast, those who participate in sports with plenty of muscular motion, but without substantial loading (eg swimming) do not achieve the high BMDs of sports with higher loading(10). There’s also evidence that activities which develop strength (such as weight training) are particularly effective at producing high BMDs in the hip and spine(11,12). So how does cycling fit into the equation? Well, muscular loading during cycling can be very high, especially during sprinting – for example on the track. On the other hand, the smooth spinning nature of the pedalling action and the fact that cyclists are supported by their saddle means there’s virtually no bone loading associated with gravitational impact (unlike the shock of foot-strike during running or field sports). In distance road cycling, therefore, where sprinting is only a minimal component, the degree of total bone loading is likely to be quite low, which has prompted researchers to look at the issue of BMD in cyclists more generally. Overall, the balance of research suggests that road cyclists do not benefit from increased BMD in the same way that other
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Box 1: Importance of bone density Why are high levels of BMD important? In very simple terms, this is because low levels of BMD are associated with an increased risk of osteoporosis. Osteoporosis is a disease that affects mainly (but not exclusively) older people, in which bones gradually become more fragile and likely to break. These broken bones are also known as fractures and typically occur typically in the hip, spine and wrist. Osteoporosis (which quite literally means ‘porous bones’) is often known as the ‘silent crippler’ because it often progresses painlessly and unnoticed, until a bone actually breaks. Although any bone can be affected, fractures of the hip and spine are particularly problematical because they can produce a number of long-term complications including loss of ability to walk and permanent disability, loss of height and severe back pain. Although the precise mechanisms are poorly understood, the hallmark of osteoporosis is a reduction in skeletal mass caused by an imbalance between bone breakdown (resorption) and bone formation. This results in reduced bone mineral density. Although osteoporosis is poorly understood as a disease process, we do know that being physically inactive is a major risk factor for developing osteoporosis. This is because vigorous ‘bone-loading’ physical activity is very effective at stimulating the uptake of calcium into bones, thereby helping to build bone mass in earlier years, and reducing the loss of bone mass in later years(8). sportsmen and women do (see box 2). But, more worryingly, some studies indicate that road cycling could actually have a detrimental effect on BMD. For example, French scientists found recently that compared to healthy non-cycling males, road cyclists had lower levels of BMD, and this was despite the fact that they were consuming significantly more dietary calcium (considered essential for bone health) than their sedentary counterparts(13). The researchers speculated that the combination of high training volumes of these cyclists
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Box 2: Road and mountain biking Unlike road cycling, bone loading from shock absorbing impact is a factor in mountain biking. So do mountain bikers have higher BMD levels than roadies? A US study compared the BMDs of 16 mountain bikers, 14 road bikers and 15 active non- cyclists (controls), where they looked at the femur, lumbar spine, and total body bone mass using a technique called DXA(15). The cyclists were training for an average 11 hours per week and had been cycling for around eight years. The results showed that (when adjusted for body weight and controlled for age), BMD was significantly higher at all sites in the mountain cyclists compared with the road cyclists and controls. The researchers concluded that ‘endurance road cycling does not appear to be any more beneficial to bone health than recreational activity in apparently healthy men of normal bone mass’. Meanwhile, another DXA study by Brazilian scientists found that while well trained young cyclists were aerobically fitter and had more muscle mass, their bone BMDs were no higher than sedentary controls of the same age(16). Other studies have also found that the BMD of road cyclists is no higher than in sedentary adults of the same age (17-19), which is obviously less than desirable from a bone health perspective.
combined with lack of bone loading might be a factor and now another study on pro cyclists appears to bear this out (14).
Pro cyclists In the study, scientists in Sweden, France and the UK compared the BMD at several skeletal sites of 30 male professional cyclists with 30 similarly aged males (controls), using DXA. The cyclists were all racing in professional teams at the time of the study, and had participated in at least one of the main 3-week stage races (Giro d’Italia, Tour de France or Vuelta a España) in each of the previous three years. The controls were all healthy but had cycled less than one hour per week and had
page 64 PEAK PERFORMANCE cycling training secrets not performed weight-bearing exercises (ie running or resistance training) for more than one hour per week for three years prior to the time of the study. The results showed that overall, the pro cyclists had significantly lower levels (9.1% less) of BMD than the control group; more worrying was that in the lumbar vertebra of the lower back and femoral neck (ball joint at the top of femur), BMDs were 16% and 18% lower respectively. The researchers commented that although their study examined pro cyclists training and racing for upwards of 22-25 hours a week, the findings could have implications for road cyclists more generally. Of particular concern is that cyclists are at risk of traumatic injuries from falls or collisions, something that can easily lead to fracture.
Conclusion and recommendations So where does this leave cyclists who are concerned about longer-term bone health? Well, it’s important to emphasise that reduced BMDs in road cyclists seems to be associated with large volumes of training (over 20 hours per week). The majority of recreational and club riders will not fall into this category. However, even recreational cyclists are unlikely to be benefiting from the increased BMD associated with many other forms of exercise and which can help prevent osteoporosis later in life. The good news according to Frederic Campion, one of the researchers involved in the study above(19), is that resistance training and running are both excellent bone mass builders; adding small amounts of these activities into your weekly programme is not just an excellent bone health insurance policy, recent research suggests that they could even help improve your cycling – but that’s another story!
References 1. Diabetes Care. 1996;19:341-9 2. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2004;36:533-53 3. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2001;33:S438-45
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4. J Clin Densitom. 2010 Jan-Mar;13(1):43-50 5. GAm J Cardiol. 2000;86:53-8 6. N Engl J Med. 2002;346:793-801 7. Arch Intern Med. 2002;162:2285-94. 8. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2001 33: S551-S586 9. J Bone Mineral Res. 1995 10:26-35 10. J Bone Miner Res. 1995 10:586-593 11. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1993; 25:1103-1109 12. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1990; 22:558-563 13. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2009 ; 49 : 44 – 53 14. Int J Sports Med. 2010 Apr 29. [Epub ahead of print] 15. Bone. 2002 Jan;30(1):281-6 16. J Clin Densitom. 2010 Jan-Mar;13(1):43-50 17. Int J Tissue React 1996; 18 : 121 – 124 18. Sports Sci 2004 ; 22 : 645 – 650 19. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1997 ; 29 : S5
page 66 GPS for cyclists
GPS for cyclists: making technology your slave, not your master!
At a glance
This article: l Looks at GPS technology for cycling and the benefits it can offer; l Shows how GPS data can be harnessed effectively to improve cycling performance; l Makes recommendations for potential GPS purchasers.
Using global positioning systems (GPS) technology to enhance cycling performance may sound futuristic. But as Joe Beer explains, the use of GPS information technology to investigate, monitor and refine cycling training and racing is becoming commonplace and importantly, can make your training far more productive
We live in an age where mobile phones have morphed into smart phones with amazing processing ability. And this technology is finding its way onto bike computers, many of which can now measure the rider’s heart rate, power, altitude and even position on the Earth’s surface. The so-called global positioning system (GPS) uses a batch of satellites to pin point a sensor within a device to within a few metres. Cyclists are now able to find out not only know where they are but also exactly how far they’ve been or need to go. The Garmin Slipstream team has been using this system for several seasons in pro racing to very good effect. If this truly is the ‘information age’ then cycling really has grabbed the bull by the horns to harness it for maximum effect.
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There are several reasons why the marriage between cycling and information systems has been so successful, outgrowing other sports. First, there is a tactical advantage for professional teams of being able to know a rider’s physiological effort, power output and position in a race. Second, the rise in popularity of satnav systems among professionals has produced a trickle-down effect to amateur cyclists, keen to kit their bikes out like their car. As the sport of cycling embraces many other expensive technologies to reduce drag, weight and enhance rider efficiency, there’s little psychological barrier to fitting bikes with expensive GPS systems!
Smart phones and sport applications Medicine is the most important source of the technologies now embracing sport. As healthcare costs spiral, remote body sensors and positioning systems provide a method of reducing manpower and empowering the medical experts with critical real time data, despite the fact the subject may be hundreds of miles away! Even the Apple iPhone has applications for healthcare professionals (mostly in the US at the moment) which link positioning systems (GPS, GPRS) with feedback to doctors on patient health. The now commonplace heart rate monitor (HRM) had its origins in medical applications, so what else is out there? Polar has been working with Nokia to supply its 5140 phone with cyclists’ data. Users can upload data from the heart rate monitor (up to 50 sessions in total), store them, see the data on the mobile phone screen and send summary data as an SMS message. Australian rowers are already using personal digital assistants (PDAs) that pick up boat velocity, oar angle and forces being applied by the rowers and then beam it to a shore- based laptop for real time data analysis(1). In the same vein, technologies from Hong Kong and Japanese universities have been pioneered to measure the movements of athletes and send the data wirelessly over short distances directly to coaches. For several years, it’s been possible to see data in real time from Tour de France riders. Power, heart rate and speed data
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Box 1: Four ways technology can make you a better rider Correct route choice – If you’re training base endurance with low to moderate effort, a super-hilly course will defeat the session very quickly. By setting up courses to deliver the right type of training, your GPS is in fact acting like a ‘Director Sportif’, who sets the route for the day to match the day’s training goal. This should not be a coincidence but a planned conscious decision, which GPS can take care of by helping you construct the right kind of route. Altitude data – GPS give you maps but more importantly, these systems also give you ascent during training. GPS combined with an altimeter means you get exact altitude data where every foot up or down is measured. Power to weight ratio is a vital measurement of fitness in cycling, which means that climbing (where you have to haul your weight against gravity) is much more tiring that flat riding. With GPS, it’s no longer a case of ‘it was a rolling one’ or ‘quite hilly yesterday’. Instead you can quote ‘1550m climbed’ or ‘went flat and never rose more then 50 feet’! Route familiarisation – It’s all too common for riders to ride a route only to find on race day its actually different to what they had thought. Similarly, unmarked long distance time-trials, sportives or triathlons are often hard to navigate. As GPS use increases, course details are often provided on the race websites allowing you to ride and practice the exact routes. Accuracy – GPS gives you better data to ensure that the distance you ride is accurate and not just a speculative guess that may be way out. This in turn allows you to calculate average speeds far more effectively and in races you can also check on actual race distance (who ever admits it’s short?) so that your steady training speed can be compared to full-throttle racing. were beamed from selected riders onto the worldwide web for fans to watch. Early in the new millennium, prototypes of bluetooth to GPRS (a beefed-up version of normal mobile communications
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methods) offered promising transmission of position, altitude and heart rate for cross-country skiers British Cycling and other teams have proprietary systems that capture data on both rider and bike functioning, which is stored onboard and may also be sent in real time to trackside coaches for review. As the sport It seems that cycling is truly embracing information of‘ cycling technology wherever possible. Power-monitoring systems embraces (PowerTap, SRM, Quarq, Polar) used to be professional-only many other options; now serious amateurs are willing to invest up to $2,000 expensive on power meters and, coupled with GPS, they are now riding technologies like the pros! to reduce drag, Benefits weight and Whilst playing with gimmicks should never interfere with enhance rider training time, heart rate, GPS, power and the analysis of these efficiency, data must be seen as part of ‘training smart’. It’s no longer a there’s little case of just riding miles to produce results – you need to use this psychological information to train smarter. This not only means use of information about performance during your training session barrier to but also post-session assessment to see what can be done to fitting bikes make things better the next time. with expensive GPS systems Developing sessions ’ GPS provides information, but it is the application of this knowledge that gives riders who embrace the technology the full benefits. Just to have a GPS on your bike is not empowering in itself. The three ways you can learn and develop are:
1. Route tailoring – If you have a weakness then training sessions must be employed to overcome that weakness and the courses you ride must give you the right stimulus. If your heart rate is way too high to qualify for ‘steady’ or ‘base training’, it’s time to think about your routes. The heart rate (or power) that you’re trying to attain during a session comes more easily when the route is right. By using GPS to make better route assessments, you can tailor your routes to help match your training goals.
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Box 2: Cheaper alternatives to GPS systems
If you’re tempted by GPS technology but have limited funds, all is not lost. A number of free online mapping resources are available that can help you plan your route and provide you with valuable data for analysis. Examples include Mapmyride.com, Bikehike.co.uk, Routeyou.com etc. If you want to plan a new route, you can bring up a map of your area, click around the route you’re interested in and hey presto – it will show you distance elevation gained and gradient. There’s also the option of storing routes online (if you register yourself as a user), which then allows you to share them with friends. Although you don’t have real-time data this way, the distances and altitudes given by online mapping tend to be pretty accurate; combine this with a simple stopwatch and you can calculate accurate average speeds and (using the ‘elevation gained’ data) relate these speeds to the severity of the course. The image above shows data from a route compiled by Bikehike. On the right hand panel, you can toggle between elevation and gradient; on the left hand panel, you can display the terrain you’ve traversed as a simple route map, satellite image, terrain or detailed Ordnance Survey map.
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2. Route evolution – It’s likely that your route habits have come about as a result of other riders showing you routes and the routes you take when you drive to places. However, you can evolve your routes by experimentation – turning down roads often missed and exploring with GPS as your pathfinder. You need to ‘ Finding new and more varied routes can often give ‘stuck in a be sure that rut’ riders a fresh lease of enthusiasm. GPS technology 3. Alternative outlook – Riders who train in a new location or doesn’t cloud are extending the training distance of the big rides up to a key your riding event often struggle to find the best routes. A GPS can give you goals ideas of what is around the bend or better still, you can take ’ someone else’s route and ride it with a different outlook. Yes, this is possible with a map, but it’s harder to stop and read one and how can you easily share or try others ideas?
Choosing a GPS system 1. Know why you need it – Just seeing a map of your training session soon loses its novelty and makes you realise that GPS can be overkill technology. You need GPS if you follow race routes you don’t know or if you regularly follow someone else’s route- guides or travel a lot and thus train in different locations regularly. If you train on the same routes and are happy with heart rate, power or perceived exertion, leave GPS alone and stick to a free internet mapping service (see box 2).
2. Be sure you’ll be a downloader – The merits of GPS and the data bundled with it (such as altitude, distance time etc) need to be used – not just collated. By uploading to one of the many online systems (eg Garmin Connect – http://connect.garmin. com) you can not only check the desired effort was applied and the route was correct, but also compare your session to past sessions or send it to your coach/training friends. If you won’t be using the data to refine what you do, then this is not for you.
3. Don’t get out of your depth – It will soon be possible to share your GPS details by posting at Googlemaps or even taking a
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Box 3: User thoughts on GPS mapping and riding High-tech training isn’t just for professionals. Three everyday athletes who compete in endurance events from 1-10 hours give their experiences of different mapping and GPS systems:
Steve Marsh, Enduro mountainbiker on Free maps I use ‘openstreetmap’, which is a free map of the world that can be downloaded onto your Garmin (see http://openmtbmap.org for MTB maps). I find the maps pretty good and better than the standard Garmin offering. You can also actually edit the base map so I have added new paths and bridleways onto it. These are then marked on my map and anybody else’s map on future downloads. Martin Hirst, sportive rider on Garmin Connect I use ‘Garmin Connect’ as I like the way I can share it with my friends and compare numbers long after the race. It takes time but once you get on top of the system, it’s no more time than any other analysis tool really. I am planning to ride L’Etape this summer and a recce in June will be helpful, aided by GPS data on the route. The only downside of being a fairly early adopter of this technology is that not all the routes are online to download. However, I guess it will get better over time. Alan Cardwell Ironman triathlete on MapMyRide I use ‘Map my ride’ (free online), which is a very useful tool for planning longer rides that are unknown or new – especially long ones when upping the distance. It's very accurate when compared to the data on mileage from the Powertap hub. It’s generally easy to use but occasionally has the tendency to crash during the mapping process. However, it's great to be able to share info with people who might want to use the same route or join in with your planned ride. I don’t personally see the point in GPS as an aid for cycling when I can get power, heart rate, speed and distance from the Powertap. The only advantage I could see is in the altitude function, but living in Scotland every ride is hilly so it’s not really telling me something I don't already know! road session and repeating it indoors (eg using the new Saris Joule non GPS system), for example. However, be sure that this technology doesn’t cloud your riding goals. If you just want to play with gadgets as part of fun cycling, enjoy. If you want to ride faster, longer or both – be sure you use this technology to maintain time efficiency in your riding and analysis.
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4. Consider cheaper alternatives – A full-blown GPS system need not be required. Applications like MapMyRide for the iPhone allow tracking of rides with a free (or very low cost) download. It is also possible to calculate ride distance and terrain with online browser applications like GoogleMaps (http://maps. google.co.uk). These will only get more and more elaborate with no extra outlay, except the time to map your rides.
Summary GPS (and whatever future mapping options lie around the corner) is being aggressively embraced by professional and amateur athletes. Combine this with the expanding connectivity of the web/sharing of data and the savvy cyclist is clearly going to be empowered with correct use of such data. Examples include tailoring courses to give exact training distances, accurate determination of ascent/descent, race- route simulation and even sharing favourite routes with other riders living in far-flung corners of the globe.
References 1. Brit J Sports Med. 2007 41(5): 285-289.
Practical implications l Using GPS to plan and execute routes is becoming an essential tool for race-day readiness and should be considered by serious cyclists; l Triathletes and sportive riders preparing for hilly courses can use GPS to track altitude gains during training and ensure readiness for their events; l As mapping options increase and technologies drop in price, the competition will inevitably start to use this powerful information tool even if you do not, so be prepared!
page 74 Strength training for cyclists
Cycling performance: resistance isn’t futile!
At a glance This article: ●●Explains the general benefits of strength training for cycling ●●Looks at new research on strength training to boost endurance performance ●●Makes a number of practical recommendations for cyclists seeking apply this research in their own training routines
Many endurance athletes believe that strength training is only really worthwhile for injury prevention. However, there’s growing evidence from research on cycling that strength training can actually enhance endurance performance. Andrew Hamilton explains…
Many cyclists spend endless hours on the road in the hope that they can squeeze a little bit of extra cycling performance from their cardiovascular system. However these same cyclists are reluctant to spend just a couple of hours a week in the gym. But as this article will explain, mounting evidence on the benefits of strength training for cyclists suggests that this is a flawed approach that could put you at a serious disadvantage compared to your peers. Let’s start by discussing what’s already been well established about strength training for endurance athletes such as cyclists. A correctly balanced training program can improve muscular power and strength to weight ratio in cyclists without producing significant increases in body weight, even when very heavy weights are used(1). This not only leads to improved cycling
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performance (eg better sprinting ability and more power to overcome headwinds) but can also help to prevent injury – the ultimate performance killer! Despite these benefits, far too many cyclists believe that strength training will lead to performance-sapping gains in bulk and loss of flexibility. This in turn can produce a mindset where maximising the volume of miles clocked up in training becomes the main goal rather than reaching a PB in a race, time-trial or sportive. Unfortunately this is a flawed approach, not least because there is a mass of research showing that high volumes of endurance training are a major cause of overtraining and injury(2,3).
Strength training for endurance? If the (very significant) benefits of strength training outlined above haven’t been enough to get you out of your saddle for the odd session in the gym then maybe what follows will, because in recent years, a growing body of evidence suggests that adding strength training into a cycling programme can increase aspects of cycling performance normally associated with endurance training! Specifically, it seems that combining strength and cycling training can increase ‘cycling economy’ (how efficiently you use oxygen – see box 1) and consequently significantly improve endurance performance. The story began back in 2005 when scientists in New Zealand studied the effects of explosive training and very high intensity cycling sprints on endurance and sprint performance(4). In the study, 18 road cyclists were assigned to an experimental or control group for 5 weeks of training. The experimental group replaced part of their usual cycling training with twelve 30-minute sessions consisting of three sets of explosive single- leg jumps, alternating with three sets of high-resistance cycling sprints; the control group meanwhile simply maintained their normal cycling training. The results showed that compared to the control group, the riders in the strength/sprinting group showed dramatic increases in power and endurance capacity (see table 1).
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Table 1: Performance changes produced by 5 weeks of strength/ sprint training(4)
1km power Increased by 8.7% 4km power Increased by 8.1% Peak power Increased by 6.8% Power at lactate threshold Increased by 3.7% Cycling economy Increased by 3.0% (ie oxygen cost at given workload was 3.0% less)
The results above speak for themselves but what particularly surprised the researchers was that the strength/sprint training improved cycling economy – an aspect of performance that most scientists had previously thought would only respond to endurance training.
Box 1: The economic truth Economy refers to how efficient the muscles are (in terms of oxygen usage) at producing force during sub-maximal exercise (ie not flat out). The better the economy of your muscles during exercise, the less oxygen you need to use to propel yourself along at a given speed. Note however that economy is not the same as technical efficiency. You can swim faster for the same effort by improving your technical efficiency in the water even though your actual muscles aren’t contracting more efficiently. Muscle economy on the other hand is related to the chemical and biomechanical efficiency of contracting muscle fibres. The good news is that your cycling, running or swimming economy is not fixed – by improving your fitness, muscle economy also rises. So for example, suppose you improve your cycling economy by 3%. This means that for the same level of oxygen consumption, perceived effort and cycling speed, you now require 3% less oxygen, which also means less fatigue, particularly over longer events – akin to switching from standard to fancy aero carbon wheels, but far cheaper!
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The benefits of strength training were by no means clear cut however; a study by US scientists on 23 club cyclists two years later compared the effects of high resistance/low repetition and low resistance/high repetition strength training programme with a cycling-only protocol(5). At the end of ten weeks, both resistance-training groups increased their strength but neither performed any better than the cycling-only group in a subsequent graded cycling test. One caveat to add however is that in this study, those who performed resistance training did so in addition to their usual cycling training rather than by reducing cycling training a little in order not to become overtrained (we’ll return to this later – see box 2).
Runners too About the same time as the above study, scientists were also looking into the effects of strength training on running economy. Brazilian scientists studied the effect of different strength training protocols on running economy in sixteen well- trained runners(6). The runners were randomly assigned two groups: an ‘explosive’ strength-training group or a ‘heavy weights’ strength-training group. Both groups used the same training equipment, but the heavy weight group used heavier resistance and slower movements while the explosive group used faster more explosive movements with lower resistance. The results showed that while the heavy weight-training group significantly improved their measured running economy, there was no such improvement in the explosive strength- training group. So here was further evidence (albeit from a different endurance sport) that strength training could enhance endurance performance by boosting economy. Then last year, another study provided yet further evidence that strength training can boost cycling endurance by enhancing cycling economy. Norwegian researchers took sixteen competitive road cyclists and randomly assigned them into two groups(7): ●●An intervention group who performed half-squats, four sets of 4 repetitions maximum, 3 times per week for eight weeks, as
page 78 PEAK PERFORMANCE cycling training secrets a supplement to their normal endurance training. ●●A control group who continued their normal endurance training during the same period with no strength training.
As expected, the strength training group showed significant improvements in muscular strength; What was surprising however was that strength training decreased the oxygen cost of cycling at 70% VO2max (maximum oxygen uptake) by 4.8% (indicating improved aerobic efficiency). It also increased the time to exhaustion at maximal aerobic power by
Box 2: How should I add strength training into my cycling routine? The evidence that strength training can enhance cycling performance and endurance is persuasive and growing. But how should you integrate strength training into your existing cycling routine? The key point from studies seems to suggest that it should not be added in a way that pushes you into an exhausted or overtrained state. Or to put it another way, if your cycling routine is pushing you to the limit already, rather than add a couple of strength sessions a week, you need to replace or shorten a couple of your riding sessions with strength sessions to ensure that your overall workload isn’t increased. The evidence for this comes from a meta-study (a study that pools data from a number of other studies in the same subject area) carried out last year(9). It looked at five randomised controlled studies where the subjects were highly trained road cyclists (training more than 7 hours or 150kms per week) and who had been training consistently for at least 6 months. It found that in the 2 of the 5 studies where strength training didn’t produce a significant performance improvement, the strength training was added on top of the cyclists’ existing riding training. In the 3 studies where strength training did improve cycling performance, strength training replaced a portion of the cyclists’ existing riding training. The authors concluded that ‘while cyclists may be hesitant to incorporate strength training with their endurance training, it is likely that replacing a portion of a cyclist’s endurance work with strength training will result in improved time trial performance and maximal power’.
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17.2% despite there being no changes in VO2max or body weight of the strength-trained riders. And while the control group exhibited an improvement in work efficiency of 1.4%, this improvement was significantly smaller than that in the strength group.
The Norwegian connection The evidence was mounting that adding heavy weight training to a cycling programme could indeed boost cycling economy and performance and another Norwegian study published just a few months ago adds further weight. In the study, the scientists investigated the effects of heavy strength training on the average power output in a 5-minute all-out time trial following 185 minutes of sub-maximal cycling at 44% of maximal aerobic power output in well-trained cyclists(8) (the demands of this kind of test are similar to those encountered in some road race situations, where riders sit in the peleton for the majority of the race but try and drop the pack and break for the finish line with an all-out effort). Twenty well-trained cyclists took part in the study and were split into two groups: ●●Eleven subjects performed their usual endurance training but with the addition of heavy strength training (three sets of 4-10 reps to failure of four lower body exercises, which were performed twice a week for 12 weeks) ●●Nine subjects performed their usual endurance training without any strength training. Compared to the endurance-only group, the ‘endurance plus strength’ group experienced greater reductions in oxygen consumption, heart rate, blood lactate concentration, and rate of perceived exertion during the last hour of the prolonged cycling phase (in line with the earlier studies mentioned above). However, the benefits didn’t stop there; the ‘endurance plus strength’ group also recorded a very significant increase in mean power output during the 5-minute all-out trial (up from 371 watts to 400 watts), while no change was observed in the endurance-only group.
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Box 3: Why all-year round strength training could be best Conventional wisdom says winter is the perfect time for strength training because it doesn’t interfere with in-season training or competition. Besides, it’s hard to get quality miles in when the mercury heads south. But more Norwegian research indicates that all year-round strength training could be a better option for cyclists seeking maximum performance(10). In the study, twelve well-trained cyclists were split into one of two groups: ●●Strength and endurance – this group performed cycling endurance training supplemented with heavy strength training twice a week during a 12-week preparatory period followed bya strength maintenance training once a week during the first 13 weeks of a competition period in their cycling season; ●●Endurance only – this group performed cycling endurance training only for the whole of the 25-week period. Compared to the endurance-only group, at 13 weeks into the competition period, the endurance plus strength training group not only preserved their strength gains but also significantly increased their maximal aerobic power, the power they could sustain at a blood lactate concentration of 2 mmol/L (ie the approximate point at which muscular fatigue begins to set in) and their average power output in the 40-minute time-trial. The message seems to be that if you train in the gym to build strength over the winter, you could do worse than to put aside a little time the following season to maintain your hard-earned gains. As the result of other studies outlined above show, mixing strength training and cycling seems to be a recipe for success!
Practical application Hopefully, even the most sceptical cyclist can begin to see that incorporating some strength training into his or her programme can reap real dividends; not just in terms of injury prevention and more power for sprinting, but also for increasing riding endurance performance – the holy grail of most cyclists! In terms of how to execute a strength-training plan, box 2 explains why replacing some of your current road mileage with
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Box 4: Key principles of strength training for cyclists ●●Strength train once or twice a week – no more; ●●Keep strength sessions short but fairly intense (quality rules over quantity); don’t waste energy by performing endless sets of exercise (save as much energy as you can for the bike!); ●●Choose 4-5 lower body strength exercises that involve cycling muscles (eg squats, leg press, lunges, glute machine, calf raises, leg curls etc.); ●●Add balance to your workout by incorporating some core muscle work (eg multifidus of lower back and transversus abdominis of tummy) and one exercise for each for upper back, shoulders and chest and biceps/ triceps of arms; ●●Sets should consist of fairly high intensity, low volume (4-10 reps) reps with the resistance/weight adjusted to induce failure at the end of the set. Perform no more than 3 sets per muscle group with a rest of 2-3 minutes between each set; ●●Maintain good form at all times; ●●If you’re new to strength training, build into any programme gently to avoid post exercise muscle soreness; ●●Eliminate strength training during the week immediately preceding an important race or sportive as part of your taper. ●●If in doubt, consult a qualified strength and conditioning coach before commencing a strength programme.
strength work is probably a better strategy for those who are clocking up big mileage. The reasoning is simple; any gains in cycling economy and power produced by additional strength training are likely to be more than wiped out if that additional training load tips you into exhaustion or a chronically overtrained state. If on the other hand, your current cycling training load is fairly modest, you can probably afford to simply add some strength training and still be sure of reaping the benefits. Box 3 goes on to explain why strength training shouldn’t just be consigned to the winter months (the traditional approach). After all, if strength training during the competitive season can help you ride faster for longer then why not? In terms of the kind of programme that’s most suited to enhancing cycling performance, each of us is unique so it’s
page 82 PEAK PERFORMANCE cycling training secrets beyond the scope of this article to provide detailed strength programmes applicable across the board. However, what we can outline here are the general principles that should be used to put together any programme (see box 4). If you’re an experienced strength trainer, you may already have a good knowledge of how to combine a variety of exercises to achieve the desired effect. For others however, it’s probably worth seeking some professional advice from a qualified and experienced strength and conditioning coach (preferably someone with a strong interest in cycling) or a cycling coach. He or she can get you started on the right kind of programme that will produce the results you want safely and efficiently.
References 1. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2010 Mar;108(5):965-75 2. Int J Sprts Med; 1996 17(3): 187-192 3. Med Sci Sports Ex; 1999 31(8): 1176-1182 4. J Strength Cond Res. 2005 Nov;19(4):826-30 5. J Strength Cond Res. 2007 Feb;21(1):289-95 6. Int J Sports Med. 2009 Jan;30(1):27-32 7. J Strength Cond Res. 2010 Aug;24(8):2157-65 8. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2011 Apr;21(2):250-9 9. J Strength Cond Res. 2010 Feb;24(2):560-6. 10. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2010 Dec;110(6):1269-82
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