RINGKASAN DISERTASI

SUPPORT FOR ETHNO- IN INDONESIA1

Y. Tri Subagya Universitas Sanata Dharma, Yogyakarta E-mail: [email protected]

Diterima: 2-11-2015 Direvisi: 23-11-2015 Disetujui: 7-12-2015

ABTRACT This study focused on the relationship between ethno-religious identification and support for intergroup violence in Indonesia. It employed a cross-cultural comparative research design involving Muslim and Christian respondents from different ethnic groups in two research areas. One of these areas, Ambon, experiences frequent eruptions of inter-group violence, while the other, Yogyakarta, is relatively peaceful; while disputes have occurred occasionally, they have not led to massive intergroup violence. This research used a mixture of quantitative and qualitative approaches This study finds stronger identification with than with ethnicity. Muslims show greater ethno-religious identification than Christians. It also presents evidence for the proposition regarding religiocentrism in which a positive evaluation of the religious in-group is related to in-group identification and induces derogatory attitudes towards out-groups. The findings are also consistent with propositions concerning nationalistic attitudes which suggest that increased ethno-religious identification reduces .

Keyword: ethnicity, religion, ethno-religious identification, support for violence, perceived group threat, religio- centrism, nationalism

ABSTRAK Kajian ini menguji hubungan antara identifikasi etnik dan agama dan dukungan terhadap kekerasan antarkelompok di Indonesia. Penelitian dilakukan dengan menggunakan perbandingan lintas budaya yang melibatkan responden Muslim dan Kristen dari berbagai kelompok etnik di dua wilayah penelitian. Ambon, yang merupakan salah satu wilayah penelitian, sering mengalami letupan kekerasan antarkelompok, sedangkan di Yogyakarta kondisinya relatif tenang; walaupun permusuhan kadang-kadang terjadi, hal tersebut tidak meledak menjadi kekerasan antarkelompok yang masif. Penelitian ini menggunakan pendekatan campuran antara kuantitatif dan kualitatif. Studi ini menunjukkan lebih kuatnya identifikasi agama dibandingkan etnisitas. Muslim memperlihatkan identifikasi agama dan etnik yang lebih kuat dibandingkan Kristen. Studi ini juga menyajikan bukti terkait teori religiosentrisme bahwa orang cenderung mengevaluasi secara positif kelompoknya sendiri dan cenderung merendahkan kelompok lain. Temuan studi ini juga konsisten dengan proposisi terkait sikap nasionalisme yang memperlihatkan bahwa meningkatnya identifikasi etnik dan agama mengurangi nasionalisme.

Kata kunci: etnisitas, agama, identifikasi etnik dan agama, dukungan terhadap kekerasan, ancaman yang diper- sepsikan kelompok, religiosentrisme, nasionalisme

INTRODUCTION of research from a wide range of theoretical Ethno-religious violence got a serious scholarly frameworks and the application of a variety of attention in Indonesia when the collective vio- methods. Some have focused on its historical lence started to escalate widely in the country roots, while others have paid more attention to its in 1990. An enormous amount of literature on impact. They have presented various arguments ethno-religious conflicts has emerged as a result from different perspectives while looking at its

1 To be defended in Radboud University Nijmegen, Netherlands, on 28 September 2015

191 context and escalation. Some have paid atten- relationship, and the third tested whether the tion to the legacy of violence from the colonial relationships are affected by intermediate deter- era and the authoritarian state (Colombijn and minants such as perceived group threat, salience Lindblad, 2002), the contestation of power in of identity, intergroup contact, memory of past times of political transition (Bertrand, 2004), violence, perceived discrimination, religiosity, the competition of local contenders for resources nationalistic attitudes and distrust. The set of ex- (Van Klinken, 2006) and the global growth of ter- planatory questions can be formulated as follows: rorism networks (Sidel, 2006; ICG, 2011). Most 1. To what extent is there a relationship between studies have concentrated on historical factors, ethno-religious identification among Chris- the dynamics of structural transformation and the tians and Muslims in Ambon and Yogyakarta elites who have competed for power as the ele- and support for intergroup violence? ments that have led to the emergence of collective violence. Individual attitudes at grassroots level, 2. To what extent is there a relationship such as those of villagers, religious communities between ethno-religious identification or students who have supported the violence, among Christians and Muslims in Ambon have been factored in less, if not neglected, in and Yogyakarta and support for intergroup their analyses. violence considering other individual-level determinants? This study adds new insights to this body of knowledge by focusing on the relationship be- 3. To what extent can we explain the relation- tween ethno-religious identification and support ship between ethno-religious identification for intergroup violence. It examines the relation- among Christians and Muslims in Ambon ship between ethno-religious identification and and Yogyakarta and support for intergroup the ways in which people support different levels violence with particular intermediate deter- of violence perpetrated by their own group, such minants? as protest, intimidating demonstrations, the de- struction of property or the injuring or killing of METHOD people belonging to other ethno-religious groups. This study employs a cross-cultural comparative It conducts micro-level analyses of individuals’ research design involving Muslim and Christian support for ethno-religious violence. Support for respondents from different ethnic groups in ethno-religious violence was viewed as a dimen- two research areas. One of these areas, Ambon, sion of the exclusionary reactions that arise from experiences frequent eruptions of inter-group vio- rational intergroup competition and the dynamics lence, while the other, Yogyakarta, is relatively of ethno-religious identification. peaceful. In Ambon, the social border between The substantial questions of the research Muslims and Christians clearly defines their liv- included both descriptive and explanatory ing space and their social activity. Both groups aspects. The descriptive questions asked about have established boundaries, and seldom interact the presence of ethno-religious identification and across the demarcation of religious belonging. support for intergroup violence among Muslims Their ethno-religious identification is so strong and Christians in Ambon and Yogyakarta; also that tensions between Muslims and Christians about the ways in which ethno-religious identifi- have repeatedly led to intergroup violence. In cation and support for intergroup violence among contrast, the relationship between ethno-religious Muslims and Christians is observable in the two groups in Yogyakarta is relatively peaceful; while cities. The explanatory questions addressed three disputes have occurred occasionally, they have issues. The first examined the relationship be- not led to massive intergroup violence. tween ethno-religious identification and support This research uses a mixture of quantitative for intergroup violence. The second assessed the and qualitative approaches. It provides a large influence of social characteristics such as gender, data set stemming from a survey that included re- parents’ occupation or household income on this spondents who were followed up with qualitative

192 | Masyarakat Indonesia, Vol. 41 (2), Desember 2015 interviews. The research sample was randomly Christians. In Ambon, Muslims spoke their ethnic drawn from the student population of six univer- language more often than Christians; this was sities. At each research site, I chose one Christian particularly the case in traditional ceremonies in university, one Muslim university and one state Muslim villages. Christians used the Indonesian university. Overall, 1,500 respondents, equally language more frequently than their ethnic distributed over these universities, became the tongue. The qualitative data also showed that research sample. The key informants for the religious identification was stronger than ethnic interviews were selected from both respondents identification in both Ambon and Yogyakarta. and non-respondents of the survey; for the re- The interviews revealed that personal religious spondents, the interviews were conducted after expression and religious practices have become they had agreed to follow up their statements. increasingly important over the last decade. They were asked to expand on their reasons Most of the interviewees confirmed that they and give additional explanations concerning the participate in traditional ceremonies and religious research topics. and gave religious reasons for doing so. Only in rites of passage did religious rituals blend FINDINGS OF THE STUDY with ethnic rituals; more specifically, in marriage and funerary rituals. Here participation also The analyses of the large data set provided stemmed from non-religious reasons. Compared evidence for ethno-religious identification to Christians, Muslims were more involved in among Muslims and Christians in Ambon and religious organizations or religiously affiliated Yogyakarta. Respondents came from a range of political organizations. A few of the Christians ethnic groups. A large number of Muslims were also claimed to engage in religious organizations, Javanese, Sundanese, Madurese, Ambonese or but these organizations have political interests. Butonese, while the Christians were predomi- Both quantitative and qualitative data confirmed nantly Ambonese, Javanese, Bataknese or Chi- that religious identification was stronger and nese. Smaller ethnic groups were also represented more important than ethnic identification, and in my sample, such as Minangkabau, Minahasa, that overall, Muslims showed stronger religious Toraja, Timorese, Buginese, Makassarese and identification than Christians. Papua. The second research question, on support All the ethno-religious groups considered for intergroup violence, was also answered via ethnic identification to be an important element of both quantitative and qualitative analyses. The their identities, but Muslims showed stronger eth- measurement of support for violence underwent nic identification than Christians. They spoke their rigorous factor analyses. I found that such support ethnic language more frequently and attended eth- has two dimensions: support for public criticism nic ceremonies more often. More Muslims were and demonstrations, and support for harm to per- also members of ethnic organizations. Regarding sons and property. In general, respondents tended religious identification, Muslims participated in to support public criticism and demonstrations, collective rituals more often than Christians. They but rejected support for harm to persons and also prayed and attended religious services more property. When the comparison between Muslims frequently. Only in terms of rites of passage was and Christians was made, Muslims were more Muslim participation lower; those who did attend supportive of demonstrations and relatively less the ceremonies did so mainly for non-religious supportive of harm to persons and property than reasons, such as solidarity with neighbours, or to Christians. My interviews elaborated the findings respect the invitation of their relatives. Muslims of the quantitative analyses: that Muslims sup- also had more religious in-group friends and less ported harm less, but supported demonstrations religious out-group friends. more than Christians. In Ambon, all informants, My qualitative data supported the findings Muslims as well as Christians expressed sup- of the quantitative analyses. Ethnic identifica- port for harm, especially those who had strong tion among Muslims was stronger than among memories and past experiences of violence. Most

Y. Tri Subagya | Ringkasan Desertasi Support For Ethno ... | 193 of them also agreed with supporting harm to socio-economic status; ethno-religious identifica- persons and property as an act of self-defence. tion persisted as a strong determinant after taking The data triangulation affirms that both Muslims these individual characteristics into account. and Christians supported public criticism and The third research question was answered by demonstrations more than harm to persons and testing the influence of intermediary variables on property. the relationship between ethno-religious identifi- The first explanatory question, on the rela- cation and support for violence. These variables tionship between self-definition of ethno-religious were derived from diverse theoretical insights, groups and support for harm, showed that most and comprised perceived group threat, salience of ethno-religious groups, the exceptions being Sun- identity, intergroup contact, memory of violence, danese Muslims and Javanese Christians, were perceived discrimination, religiosity (including more likely to support harm than Javanese Mus- attitudes towards religious plurality, religiocen- lims. Most support was given by the Madurese trism and ), nationalistic attitudes Muslims and the Ambonese Christians. On sup- and distrust. Concerning support for harm, I port for demonstrations, Muslim ethno-religious found that perceived group threat, religiocentrism groups were more supportive, while the Christian (i.e. positive in-group attitudes), pluralism and ethno-religious groups were less supportive than nationalistic attitudes influenced the relationship. the Javanese Muslims. The more that people perceived group threat and The second explanatory question was the more they had positive in-group attitudes, the answered by testing the relationship between more likely they were to support harm to persons ethno-religious identification and support for and property, which supported my hypotheses intergroup violence. I found that respondents’ in this respect. Contrary to my expectations, support for harm was influenced by their number people with a pluralistic religious view showed of friends of the same religion. Those who have more support for harm. Support for harm was many friends of the same religion showed less also stronger when nationalism was relatively support for harm. On support for demonstrations, low. Concerning support for demonstrations, the I found that participation in collective rituals and relevant intermediate determinants were salience the membership of religious organization were of ethnic identity and acceptance of hermeneutic strong determinants. The more active people interpretations: the more the respondents accepted participated in collective rituals, the more they the salience of ethnic identity and the more they supported demonstrations. In addition, those agreed that Holy Scriptures need hermeneutic who are members of religious organizations also interpretation (contrary to fundamentalism), the showed more support for demonstrations than more they supported demonstrations. non-members. This study makes an innovative contribution Individual determinants, such as education to the theoretical and methodological develop- and profession of parents, or gender of respon- ment of research on ethno-religious conflict in dents, did not significantly affect the relationship Indonesia. I will discuss this contribution in terms between ethno-religious identification and support of the research questions, the measurements and for violence; the results were similar for support the data analysis. for harm and support for demonstrations. Respon- First, I set out to answer descriptive ques- dents whose parents are farmers showed more tions about ethno-religious identification and support than respondents whose parents work as support for intergroup violence, and explana- managers, clerks, traders, machine operators or tory questions on the relationship between these manual labourers. Respondents from relatively variables with individual characteristics as well higher income levels showed more support than as intermediate determinants. These questions those with lower income levels. In general, the have not been explored in previous studies on findings demonstrated that support for violence conflict in Indonesia; most have paid more at- could only partially be explained by individual tention to the wider context of economic and

194 | Masyarakat Indonesia, Vol. 41 (2), Desember 2015 political developments, e.g. the three influential As mentioned earlier, these were primarily social studies of Bertrand (2004), Sidel (2006) and Van identity theory, realistic conflict theory and ethnic Klinken (2007a). While their studies certainly group conflict theory; I made additional use of contribute to the overall understanding of the theories related to salience of identity, intergroup causes and effects of violence in Indonesia, they contact, memory of violence, perceived discrimi- do not provide adequate explanations as to why nation, attitudes towards plurality, religiocen- individual people support violence; neither do trism, fundamentalism, nationalistic attitudes they test theories about intergroup violence in and distrust. On this basis, I made inventories of relation to other theories. This study seeks to measurements that have been repeatedly tested in complement previous studies by explaining the Western (and in some cases also Asian) countries. relationship between ethno-religious identifica- Reliability as indicated by Cronbach’s alpha is the tion and support for intergroup violence. I tested main consideration for the inclusion of specific hypotheses regarding the influence of individual measurements. I then assessed the standardised determinants and different measures for religious measurements and adjusted them for their appli- identification, support for intergroup violence as cation to my Indonesian research context. Some well as intermediary variables. measurements that I could not find in previous This study is not alone in seeking to explain studies were explored through meticulous discus- support for violence in Indonesia via the analysis sions of the variables. For instance, the measure of individuals, but it is the only one to use mixed for ethno-religious identification was adapted methods: quantitative methods with a large from the ethnic identification measure from Phin- number of respondents, and qualitative methods ney (1992) and Phinney and Ong (2007). I added with semi-structured interviews with a selection religious identification to the measure by taking of these respondents. One of the previous investi- into account the ritualistic dimension of religion gations of the individual angle was conducted by (Allport and Ross, 1967; Scheepers et al., 2002b). Adam (2010) who examined how ordinary people I also made improvements to my measure- became involved in the Ambon conflict. Via case ment of support for violence. Since I could not studies carried out in the villages of Hila, Kaitetu find appropriate measurements from Western and Waai, he described the involvement of people societies, I used the measurement of Hadiwitanto in the conflict as the result of long-standing et al. (2007) as a starting point. His questionnaire competition along religious lines over land and is relevant as he investigated religion, social trust jobs. The competition between Ambonese and and conflict in Ambon, but his measurement of immigrants, and between Muslims and Christians support for violence was inadequately developed made up the context in which violence erupted. since the levels of violence he distinguished were His findings, however, are limited to the areas unequally distributed over different societal do- in which he made his observations. Being based mains (political, economic, socio-cultural and re- in specific contexts, his study lacks standardised ligious). This imbalance would affect the results, measurements for intergroup comparisons. Unlike possibly eliminating important factors before data previous studies, my work integrates qualitative gathering. I therefore modified the measurements or quantitative approaches in the research design, so that they were distributed evenly over the eco- methods and analyses. The quantitative approach nomic, political, cultural and religious domains. provides general findings, which are elaborated in Each domain was then assessed in terms of four more detail with the help of interviews. I did not dimensions of support for violence: support for find contradictory results between quantitative public debates, for demonstrations, for corporal and qualitative data. Triangulation of the quan- and for material harm. titative and qualitative data gives the findings I found two dimensions: a high level of sup- greater validity and reliability. port, i.e., support for harm to persons and property, Second, I developed measurements that were and a low level of support, i.e., support for public guided by theories related to Western countries. criticism and demonstrations. For independent

Y. Tri Subagya | Ringkasan Desertasi Support For Ethno ... | 195 variables, factor analyses were run for religious The level of ethno-religious identification actu- practices and religious ceremonies. Muslims and ally overwhelmed the individual determinants, Christians were given similar measurement items, which has not been shown in Western countries. even though the two religious groups differ in I found evidence that the perception of out-group their ceremonies. For Muslims, the ceremonies threat, positive attitudes towards religious in- included circumcision, weddings, funerals, fast- groups and nationalistic attitudes intermediate ing, Idul Fitri and Idul Adha. For Christians, the the relationship between ethno-religious iden- questions about ceremonies included baptism, tification and support for violence. Hence, the weddings, Christmas, Easter, funerals and fast- stronger the ethno-religious identification, the ing. The result was three dimensions to use as stronger the perceptions of out-group threat that comparable model solutions for both Muslims induce support for harm. The stronger the level and Christians: collective rituals, rites of pas- of ethno-religious identification, the higher the sage and religious practices. For intermediary positive in-group attitudes that induce support determinants, I found that perceived group threat for harm. Another interesting result was the was concentrated in two dimensions: politics and negative influence of nationalism on support economy on the one hand and socio-cultural fac- for violence, consistent with previous studies in tors on the other. Salience of identity also had two Western contexts (Coenders, 2001; Todosijevic, dimensions: ethnicity and religion. Intergroup 2001; Coenders et al., 2004). This study shows contact was measured by quantity and quality that declining nationalism increases support of contact. Quantity was clearly constructed in a for harm. This is true in Indonesia; nationalism single dimension. I also decided to use a single continues to decrease due to the struggle for dimension for quality of contact, since the factor local autonomy. Local conflicts such as those analysis determined two dimensions with a high in Ambon are largely to do with the pursuit of correlation: closeness and cooperation, evaluation greater local autonomy, as opposed to national and equality. Other intermediary determinants interests. The devolution of power as a result such as perceived discrimination, religiocentrism, of local autonomy has opened up competition attitudes towards religious plurality, religious over economic resources, and elite contestation fundamentalism and nationalistic attitudes had of political power for their own interests. In two dimensions respectively. order to maintain their power while adjusting to To analyze the differences between Muslims decentralization, the elites have often mobilized and Christians, and the variation between ethno- their followers through ethnic ties or religious religious groups, I compared their means and networks to attain their objectives (Aspinal and made t-tests. An analysis of variance was also Fealy, 2003: 6–9; Van Klinken, 2006: 138–143). made by testing all dimensions to reveal their However, the study revises a previous theory correlation and tendencies. For this, I took into on pluralism. In earlier studies, pluralism is de- account of the statistic of F, the significance level, scribed as the individual’s positive appreciation and the correlation among the tested variables. of religious plurality, either in the acceptance The analysis of variance specifically looked of underlying common elements of different into the (linear versus non-linear) nature of the religious traditions, or by stressing the value and relationships between the dependent variable(s) richness of differences between religious tradi- and independent variables as well as relationships tions (Anthony et al., 2005; 2015). Therefore, with control and intermediary variables. pluralism is expected to have a negative associa- Finally, I conducted multivariate regression tion with support for harm. My result pointed analyses. This study demonstrates the relevance of towards a positive relation, i.e., the more that certain theories in Indonesia. I provided evidence individuals agreed with pluralism, the more they that ethnic competition theory can explain the re- supported harm. This implied support for harm lationship between ethno-religious identification among respondents with an explicit personal and support for intergroup violence in Indonesia. (religious) interpretation of religious plurality. This support had no connection with the positive

196 | Masyarakat Indonesia, Vol. 41 (2), Desember 2015 attitudes towards religious plurality. It could arise al., 2004; Coenders et al., 2007; Savelkoul et al., from other factors–i.e. that respondents have their 2010). It suggests that this theory, which is able own, personal agenda in relation to support for to explain exclusionary phenomena in Western violence. The support of violence had nothing to countries, is also applicable to Indonesian society. do with their pluralistic view. Nonetheless, this study has not tested the con- In the relationship between ethno-religious textual level that is part of the theory and which identification and support for demonstrations, includes the influence of actual competition, salience of ethnic identity and hermeneutic migration and relative group size (majority and interpretation were intermediate determinants. minority status). Ethnic salience is the awareness of individuals I have also presented evidence for the of their ethnic categorization and identity and proposition regarding religiocentrism by Ster- the importance of this ethnic identification to kens and Anthony (2008), in which a positive them (Phinney, 1990; Duckit, 2006: 154). As evaluation of the religious in-group is related to I predicted, this study provided evidence that in-group identification and induces derogatory ethnic salience mediated the relationship be- attitudes towards out-groups. However, in rela- tween ethno-religious identification and support tion to religious attitudes towards plurality, my for demonstrations. It highlighted the on going findings have contradicted earlier studies. While importance of ethnicity in Indonesia. In addition, these studies have shown that pluralism reduces more agreement with hermeneutic interpretations prejudice and hostility towards out-groups (An- of sacred texts induced more support for dem- thony et al., 2005; cf. Anthony et al. 2015), my onstrations, relatively. It means that support for study has found evidence that people who have demonstrations was also given by people who a pluralistic religious view do support violence. have a critical, but committed, attitude towards Seemingly, pluralism can be as much an indicator their own religious texts. for religious identification as monism. These findings have been consistent with CONCLUSION propositions concerning nationalistic attitudes Overall, the findings have supported the main (Coenders, 2001; Todosijevic, 2001), which sug- theories and add explanations for other theories gest that increased ethno-religious identification that I have examined in this study. The study reduces nationalism (i.e. commitment to the na- have provided evidence for social identity theory, tional Indonesian state, and therefore opposition which holds that individuals always attempt to appeals for regional autonomy). Lower levels to construct a positive social identity for their of nationalism in turn lead to greater support in-groups, and to disassociate themselves from for violence, which in my research contexts is out-groups (Tajfel, 1978; 1981; Tajfel and Turner, mostly related to the struggle for emancipation 1986; Phinney and Ong, 2007). I have found by specific ethno-religious groups. The find- stronger identification with religion than with ings therefore have supported the theoretical ethnicity. When I compared the groups, Muslims proposition that the degradation of nationalism showed greater ethno-religious identification than contributes to the outbreak of ethno-religious Christians. These findings have provided confir- violence (Bertrand, 2004). mation of previous studies in Indonesia that show At the lower level of support for intergroup the growth of religious identification, especially violence, i.e. support for protests and demonstra- among Muslims since the 1990s (van Bruinessen, tions, I have found ethnic salience and herme- 2004; Sidel, 2006; Hefner, 2011). neutic interpretation to be relevant intermediate The findings on perceived group threat have determinant variables. My study has validated validated ethnic group conflict theory, in which earlier studies that show a significance correla- perceived threat is the strongest determinant for tion between ethno-religious identification and prejudicial and exclusionary attitudes towards ethnic salience: the greater the salience of ethnic out-groups (Scheepers et al., 2002a; Gijsbert et identity, the higher the likelihood of support for

Y. Tri Subagya | Ringkasan Desertasi Support For Ethno ... | 197 violence. Moreover, the acceptance of hermeneu- Coenders, Marcel. (2001). Nationalistic attitudes and tic interpretations at the root of religiosity also ethnic exclusionism in comparative perspec- increases support for violence. This finding has tive. An empirical study of attitudes toward country and ethnic immigrants in 22 Countries contradicted an earlier study, which suggests that (Doctoral dissertation, Catholic University only fundamentalist interpretations of religious Nijmegen, 2001). texts induce support for violence (Williamson et Coenders, M., Gijsberts, M. & Scheepers, P. (2004). al., 2010). Chauvinism and in 22 countries. In M. Gijsbert, L. Hagendoorn and P. Scheepers (Eds.). Nationalism and exclusion of migrants. BIBLIOGRAPHY Cross-national comparisons (pp. 29–70). Eng- Adam, J. (2010). How ordinary folk became involved land and USA: Ashgate Publishing Company. in the Ambonese conflict: Understanding pri- Coenders, M. & Lubbers M. (2007). From a distance: vate opportunities during communal violence. avoidance of social contacts with immigrants Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, in the European Union. In E. Poppe & M. 166(1), 25–48. Verkuyten (Eds.), Culture and Conflict. Allport, G.W. (1954). The individual and his religion: Libe Amicorum for Louk Hagendoorn (pp. A psychological interpretation. New York: The 217–244). Amsterdam: Aksant Academic Macmillan Company. Publishers. Allport, G.W. & Ross, M.J. (1967). Personal religious Coenders, M., Lubbers, M. & Scheepers, P. (2009). orientation and prejudice. Journal of Personal- Opposition to civil rights for racial minorities ity and Social , 5(4), 432–43. in Central and Eastern Europe. East European Anthony, F.V., Herman, C.A.M., & Sterkens, C. Politics Backed Up the Christian and Societies, (2005). Interpreting : Com- 23(2), 146–164. parative research among Christian, Muslim and Colombijn, F., & Lindblad, J.T. (Eds.) (2002). Roots of Hindu students in Tamil Nadu, India.” Journal violence in Indonesia. Contemporary violence of Empirical , 18(2), 154–186. in historical perspective. Leiden. KITLV Press. Anthony, F.V., Hermans, C.A.M., & Sterkens, C.J.A. Coser, L.A. (1956). The functions of social conflict. (2015). Religion and conflict attribution. An Glencoe, Illinois: Free Press. empirical study of the religious meaning sys- Duckitt, J. (2006). Ethnocultural group identification tem of Christian, Muslim and Hindu students and attitudes to ethnic out-groups”. In G. Zhang, in Tamil Nadu, India. Leiden: Brill. K. Leung, & J. Adair. (Eds.), Perspectives and Ashmore, R.D., Justin, L., & Wilder, D. (2001). Social progress in contemporary cross-cultural psy- identity, intergroup conflict and conflict reduc- chology. Selected papers from the seventeenth tion. New York: Oxford University Press. international congress of the International Aspinall, E., & Fealy, G. (2003). Introduction: Decen- Association for Cross-Cultural Psychology. tralisation, democratisation and the rise of the Beijing, China: Light Industry Press. local. Local power and politics in Indonesia, Fearon, J.D., & Laitin, D.D. (2000). Violence and the 1–11. social construction of ethnic identity. Interna- Bertrand, J. (2002). Legacies of the authoritarian past: tional Organization, 54(4), 845–877. religious violence in Indonesia’s Moluccan Fox, J. (2000). The effects of religious discrimina- Islands. Pacific Affairs, 75(1), 57–85. tion on ethno-religious protest and rebellion. Bertrand, J. (2004). Nationalism and ethnic conflicts in Journal of Conflict Studies, 20(2), 16–43. Indonesia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Gijsberts, M., Hagendoorn, L., & Scheepers, P. (Eds.) Press. (2004). Nationalism and exclusion of migrants: Bertrand, J. (2010). Ethnic conflicts in Indonesia: cross national comparisons. Burlington, USA: National models, critical junctures, and the Ashgate Publishing Company. timing of violence. In: A.Varshney (Ed.), Col- Green, D.P. & Seher, L.P. (2003). What role does lective violence in Indonesia. London: Lynne, prejudice play in ethnic conflict? Annual Rienner Publishers, Inc. Review Political Science, 6, 509–31. Cairns, E. and Roe, M.D., (Eds.) (2003). The role of Hadiwitanto, H., Hermans, C.A.M., Sterkens, C.J.A., memory in ethnic conflict.New York: Palgrave & Machasin, M. (2007). Questionnaire on Macmillan. religion, conflict, and trust in Indonesia: A comparative empirical study among Christian

198 | Masyarakat Indonesia, Vol. 41 (2), Desember 2015 and Muslim Students. Unpublished question- against foreign workers in Israel. Social Prob- naire. lems. 49(3), 416–431. Hefner, R.W. (2011). Civil : Muslims and democ- Sterkens, C., & Anthony, F.V. (2008). A comparative ratization in Indonesia. Princeton University study of religiocentrism among Christian, Mus- Press. lim and Hindu students in Tamil Nadu, India. International Crisis Group (ICG). (2011). Terrorism Journal of Empirical Theology, 21, 32–67. in Indonesia: Noordin’s network (Asia Reports Sidel, J.T. (2006). Riots, pogroms, jihad. religious No. 114). Jakarta/Brussels: ICG. violence in Indonesia. Ithaca and London: Pettigrew, T.F., & Tropp, L.R. (2006). A meta-analytic Cornell University Press. test of intergroup contact theory. Journal of Tajfel, H. (1978). Inter individual behavior and Personality and Social Psychology, 90(5), intergroup behavior. In: H. Tajfel (Ed.), Dif- 751–783. ferentiation between social groups: Studies in Phinney, J.S. (1990). Ethnic identity in adolescents the social psychology of intergroup relations. and adults: Review of research. Psychological London, New York, San Francisco: European Bulletin. 108, 499–514. Association of Experimental Social Psychology and Academic Press. Phinney, J.S. (1992). The multigroup ethnic identity measure: A new scale for use with diverse Tajfel, H. (1981). Human groups and social catego- groups. Journal of Adolescent Research. 7 (2), ries, studies in social psychology. Cambridge: 156–176. Cambridge University Press. Phinney, J.S., & Ong, A.D. (2007). Conceptualization Tajfel. H., & Turner J.C. (1986). An integrative and measurement of ethnic identity: Current theory of intergroup conflict. In: W. G Austin status and future directions. Journal of Coun- & S. Worchel (Eds.), The Social Psychology of seling Psychology. 54(3), 271–281. Intergroup Relations (pp. 149–178). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole. Sahdra, B. & Ross, M. (2007). Group identifica- tion and historical memory. Personality and Todosijevic, B. (2001). Dimension of nationalism: Social Psychology Bulletin, 33, 384–395. structure of nationalist attitudes in Hungary and Yugoslavia. Central European Political Savelkoul, M., Scheepers, P., Tolsma, J., & Hagen- Science Review, 2(6), 170–186. doorn, L., (2010). Anti-Muslim attitudes in the Netherlands: tests of contradictory hypotheses Van Bruinessen, M. (2004). Post-Soeharto Muslim derived from ethnic competition theory and engagements with civil society and democra- intergroup contact theory. European Sociologi- tization. In: H. Samuel & H.S. Nordholt (Eds.), cal Review, 0, 1–18. Indonesia in transition: Rethinking civil society, region, and crisis. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar. Sears, D.O. (1986). College sophomores in the labora- tory: Influences of a narrow data base on social Van Klinken, G. (2006). The Maluku wars: Communal psychology’s view of human nature. Journal of contenders in a failing state. In C.A. Coppel personality and social psychology, 51(3), 515. (Ed.), Violent conflicts in Indonesia: Analysis, representation, resolution (pp. 129–143). Scheepers, P., Gijsberts, M. & Coenders, M. (2002a). London and New York: Routledge. Ethnic exclusionism in European Countries, public opposition to civil rights for legal Van Klinken, G. (2007a). Communal violence and migrants as a respond to perceived ethnic democratization in Indonesia: Small town threat. European Sociological Review. 18(1), wars. New York: Routledge. 17–34. Van Klinken, G. (2007b). Communal conflict and Scheepers, P., Gijsberts, M., & Hello, E. (2002b). decentralisation in Indonesia. The Australian Religiosity and prejudice against ethnic Centre for Peace and Conflict Studies Occa- minorities in Europe: Cross-national tests on a sional Paper, (7). controversial relationship. Review of Religious Varshney, A. (Ed.). (2010). Collective violence in Research, 43(3), 242–265. Indonesia. USA and UK: Lynne Rienner Schneider, S.L. (2008). Anti-Immigrant attitudes in Publisher, Inc. Europe: Out-group size and perceived ethnic Williamson, W.P., Hood Jr, R.W., Ahmad, A., Sadiq, threat. European Sociological Review, 24(1), M., & Hill, P.C. (2010). The intratextual 53–67. fundamentalism scale: Cross-cultural applica- Semyonov, M., Raijman, R., & Yom-Tov, A. (2002). tion, validity evidence, and relationship with Labor market competition, perceived threat, religious orientation and the big 5 factor mark- and endorsement of economic discrimination ers. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 13(7), 721–747.

Y. Tri Subagya | Ringkasan Desertasi Support For Ethno ... | 199