Russians in Latvia: Ethnic Identity and Ethnopolitical Change Aadne Aasland Presented for the degree of Ph. D. University of Glasgow Institute of Russian & East European Studies May 1994 © Aadne Aasland ProQuest Number: 11007640 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a com plete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest ProQuest 11007640 Published by ProQuest LLC(2018). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States C ode Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 Abstract Over a very short period conditions for the Russian population in Latvia have changed dramatically. From being representatives of the majority nationality enjoying a special status in the Soviet multinational empire, Russians have become a national minority in a Latvian nation-state. The thesis focuses on the implications of these changes for the ethnic identity of Russians living in Latvia; the changes are analysed through the perspective of ethnopolitical developments in the country. An examination of relevant western and Latvian scholarly literature on ethnicity and nationality issues provides the theoretical framework within which to discuss the Russian question in Latvia. Conceptual issues are clarified and various explanations for the phenomenon of ethnicity are considered. The relationship between ethnicity and the political sphere is also examined. After this theoretical introduction, the thesis looks at Latvia's Russian question in a historical context. The history of the Russian population in Latvia is examined, with special attention being paid to the role of historians in the formation of public opinion on historical issues as well as to relevant topics from the period of Latvian independence in the interwar period. Soviet nationalities policies in general and in Latvia in particular are then discussed, and the role of the Russian nationality in the Soviet empire is analysed. The responsibility for nationalities policies in Latvia was gradually transferred from the centre in Moscow to Latvia itself. The thesis therefore analyses Latvian nationalities policies in the period from 1988 to 1993. The main part of the thesis, however, focuses more directly on the Russian population itself. A major survey "Russians in Latvia 1992" was conducted by the author in cooperation with Latvian sociologists, and it is used extensively for the analysis of Russians' perceptions of their own role in Latvia. Apart from data on the general socio-economic and demographical characteristics of the Russian population, the survey provides information about Russians' evaluation of a wide range of issues, including political attitudes, interethnic relations, links with the historical motherland, Russia, citizenship, language and many more. The thesis contains an analysis of Russians' organisational structures and political activities in Latvia, and the experiences and opinions concerning the formation of a Russian party in the country are also discussed. The main findings of the thesis are finally put into a theoretical framework. Both the intensity and content of Russian ethnic identity are here accounted for. Similarly, the question of the prospects for integration and/or assimilation of the Russian population is crucial in the final analysis. Also, in line with the ethnopolitical perspective, the thesis looks at various models of conflict resolution in ethnically divided societies and assesses their applicability to Latvia. Table of Contents Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 7 1. Ethnicity and the Nationality Question in Scholarly Literature ..............................................................................................................13 1.1. Ethnicity - the Conceptual Framework ....................... ........................... 13 1.2. Ethnicity - the Phenomenon ......................................................................20 1.3. Latvian Scholars on Ethnic Issues ............................................................26 2. Russians in Latvia: Historical Perspectives ............................................ 42 2.1. Introduction ....................................................................................... 42 2.2. The Origins of the Russian Presence in Latvia ........................................44 . 2.3. Russians in Latvia before .World War 1 ....................................................48 2.4. Russians in Latvia in the Interwar Period .................................................54 2.4.1. Demographic Developments.....................................................54 2.4.2. Ethnic Minority Legislation.......................................................55 2.4.3. Russian Political Activities and Social Organisations (1920-1940)..............................................................................59 2.5. Russian Perceptions of the Role of Russians in Latvian Society ............ 62 3. Soviet Nationality Policy until the Mid-1980s .......................................72 3.1. Introduction .................................................................................................72 3.2. Soviet Nationality Policy ............................................................................73 3.2.1. Background and Principles .......................................................73 3.3. The Russians and the Soviet State ............................................................ 79 3.4. Soviet Nationality Policy in Latvia ............................................................ 88 3.4.1. Industrialisation and Immigration .............................................88 3.4.2. Cadre Policies ............................................................................94 3.4.3. Education ...................................................................................96 3.5. Conclusion: Soviet Nationality Policy and the Effect on Russian Ethnic Identity in Latvia ............................................................................ 99 4. Latvian Ethnopolitics 1988-93 ....................................................................104 4.1. Introduction ................................................................................................104 4.2. The Popular Movement and Nationality Issues ............................. 105 4.3. The Citizenship Issue ................................................................................ 112 4.3.1. The "Restored pre-1940 Citizenship" Option .........................113 4.3.2. The "Zero Option" Model for Citizenship ...............................115 4.3.3. Towards a "Compromise Solution"? ......................................116 3 4.4. Other issues ............................................................................................... 119 4.4.1. The Language Issue ................................................................119 4.4.2. National Cultural Autonomy ....................................................122 4.4.3. A Free Choice of Nationality? .................................................125 4.5. Conclusions ..............................................................................................126 5 . Social Characteristics of Russians in Latvia ...................................... 133 5.1. Geographical Distribution, Length of Stay and Reasons for Moving to Latvia, Distribution of Citizens and Non-Citizens ..............134 5.2. Age and Sex Distribution, Marital Status and Intermarriage ..................142 5.3. Education, Occupational Status, Standard of Living ..............................148 5.4. Language Fluency and Religion ............................................................... 156 5.5. Conclusions .............................................................................................. 162 6. 'Russians in Latvia' or 'Latvian Russians'? ......................................165 6.1. Classification of the Russian Population .................................................165 6.2. The Survey and Russian Integration ........................................................169 6.2.1. Selection of Mass Media .........................................................169 6.2.2. Private Libraries.......................................................................174 6.2.3. Contacts with Relatives ...........................................................175 6.2.4. Interethnic Attitudes ................................................................175 6.2.5. Interethnic Relations ................................................................ 178 6.2.6. Nationality Discrimination ...................................................... 180 6.2.7. Remain in Latvia, or Leave? ................................................... 180 6.2.8. Choice of Citizenship ...............................................................183 6.3. Russian Perceptions of 'Latvia' and 'Russia' .......................................... 184 6.4. Conclusions ..............................................................................................188 7 . Russian Attitudes Towards Independence and