Abbreviations Used in Notes

A BBREVIATIONS USED IN NOTES

ACFLO Janel Mueller and Leah S. Marcus (eds.), Elizabeth I: Autograph Compositions and Foreign Language Originals (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000). B L B r i t i s h L i b r a r y , L o n d o n . B o d B o d l e i a n L i b r a r y , O x f o r d . B r u c e J o h n B r u c e ( e d . ) , Letters of Queen Elizabeth and King James VI of Scotland (Camden Soc., xlvi, London, 1849). C O D O I N M . F . N a v a r e t e e t a l . ( e d s . ) , Colección de documentos inéditos para la historia de España (113 vols., Madrid: Academia de la Historia, 1842–95). C P C e c i l P a p e r s , H a t f i e l d H o u s e , H e r t f o r d s h i r e . CSPDom R. Lemon and Mary-Anne Everett Green (eds.), Calendar of State Papers, Domestic Series, of the reigns of Edward VI, Mary and Elizabeth (295 vols., London: HMSO, 1856). C S P F o r J o s e p h S t e v e n s o n ( e d . ) , Calendar of state papers, foreign series, of the reign of Elizabeth (23 vols., London: HMSO, 1863–1950). CSPScot Joseph Bain et al. (eds.), Calendar of State Papers Relating to Scotland and Mary, Queen of Scots, 1547–1603 (13 vols., Edinburgh: HMSO, 1898–1969). C S P S p a n G . A . B e r g e n r o t h e t a l . ( e d s . ) , Calendar of letters, despatches, and state papers, relating to the negotiations between England and Spain (13 vols., London: HMSO, 1862–1954). C S P V e n R a w d o n B r o w n e t a l . ( e d s . ) , Calendar of state papers and manuscripts relating to English affairs existing in the archives and collections of Venice and in other libraries of northern Italy (38 vols., London: HMSO, 1864-1890). C W L e a h S . M a r c u s , J a n e l M u e l l e r , a n d M a r y B e t h R o s e ( e d s . ) , Elizabeth I: Collected Works (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000). CUL Cambridge University Library EUL Edinburgh University Library F e r r i è r e H e c t o r d e l a F e r r i è r e ( e d . ) , Lettres de Catherine de Médici (11 vols., Paris: Imprimerie nationale, 1880). H a k l u y t R i c h a r d H a k l u y t , The Principal Navigations , voyages, traffiques and discoveries of the English nation (London, [1589] 1599–1600). 196 Abbreviations Used in Notes

H a r r i s o n G e o r g e B . H a r r i s o n ( e d . ) , The Letters of Queen Elizabeth I (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, [1935] 1968). L A S P F R . B . W e r n h a m ( e d . ) , List and analysis of state papers, foreign series: Elizabeth I (7 vols., London: HMSO, 1964). L & S P J . S . B r e w e r e t a l . ( e d s . ) , Letters and papers, foreign and domestic, of the reign of Henry VIII (22 vols., London: Longman, Green, Longman & Roberts, 1862-1932). N A N a t i o n a l A r c h i v e s , L o n d o n . N A S N a t i o n a l A r c h i v e s o f S c o t l a n d , E d i n b u r g h . O D N B Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford, 2004); online edition, 2006. S a l i s b u r y E . S a l i s b u r y ( e d . ) , Calendar of the Manuscripts of the Most Hon. the Marquis of Salisbury, Preserved at Hatfield House, Hertfordshire (24 vols., London: HMSO, 1883). S i m a n c a s M a r t i n A . S . H u m e ( e d . ) , Calendar of Letters and State Papers relating to English Affairs, preserved principally in the archives of Simancas (4 vols., London: HMSO, 1896). S P S t a t e P a p e r s To l s t o i Y. V. To l s t o i ( e d . ) , The First Forty Years of Intercourse between England and Russia, 1553–1593 (New York: Burt Franklin, 1875). X i v r e y B e r g e r d e X i v r e y ( e d . ) , Collection de documents inédits sur l’histoire de France: Recueil des lettres missives de Henri IV (9 vols., Paris: Impr. Royale, 1843–1876).

N o t e s

P r e f a c e 1 . Elizabeth to Queen Katherine Parr, 30 December 1545 (holograph), CW, p. 11. 2 . CW, pp.11–12. For the original French see ACFLO, pp. 10–11. 3 . Harrison , p.x. 4 . John Watkins, “Toward a New Diplomatic History of Medieval and Early Modern Europe,” in Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies , 38:1 (2008), p. 1. 5 . Charles H. Carter, The Western European Powers, 1500–1700 (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1971), p. 114. 1 Tedius and Paynefull: Letter Writing in English Royal Diplomacy 1 . Henry VIII to Cardinal Wolsey, c. 1520 (holograph), BL Additional MS 19398, fol. 44r. My thanks to Daniel Hobbins for his comments on this chapter. 2 . Erasmus, “De recta Latini Graecique sermonis pronunciatione” (1528), Collected Works of Erasmus, ed. J. K. Sowards (27 vols., Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1985), VOL. xxvi, p. 391. 3 . John of Salisbury, “Metalogicon,” quoted in M. T. Clanchy, “Literate and Illiterate; Hearing and Seeing: England 1066–1307,” in Harvey J. Graff (ed.), Literacy and Social Development in the West: A Reader (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), p. 29. 4 . M . T . C l a n c h y , From Memory to Written Record, 1066–1307 (Oxford: Blackwell [1979], 1999), p. 308. 5 . C. P. Wormald, “The Uses of Literacy in Anglo-Saxon England and Its Neighbours,” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 5th series, vol. 27 (1977), pp. 95, 98–99. 6 . Wormald, “The Uses of Literacy in Anglo-Saxon England,” p. 97. 7 . P i e r r e C h a p l a i s , English Diplomatic Practice in the Middle Ages (London; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003), pp. 1–2. 8 . Clanchy, “Literate and Illiterate,” p. 18. 9 . Wormald, “The Uses of Literacy,” p. 105. 1 0. N i c h o l a s O r m e , From Childhood to Chivalry, the Education of the English Kings and Aristocracy, 1066–1530 (London; New York: Methuen, 1984), p. 142. 198 Notes

1 1. O r m e , From Childhood to Chivalry, p. 143. The saying is proverbial, and also used by John of Salisbury in his Policraticus. Clanchy, From Memory to Written Record, pp. 18–19, 272. 1 2. C l a n c h y , From Memory to Written Record , p. 28. 13 . The earliest royal seal held in the British Museum is the signet impression of Offa, King of the Mercians, c. 790. William G. Birch, Catalogue of Seals in the Department of Manuscripts in the British Museum (6 vols., London: Longmans and Co., 1887), vol. 1, p. 1. 14 . Jean Friossart describes how the bishop of Lincoln presented letters to the French king Philip VI which were “written on parch- ment and fixed with a great seal that hung from them.” Quoted in G. P. Cuttino, English Diplomatic Administration, 1259–1339 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971), p. 129. 15 . Sometimes certain seals were applied simply because they were most ready to hand. Chaplais, “The Seals and Original Charters of Henry I,” The English Historical Review, 75:295 (1960), pp. 260–275. 1 6. C l a n c h y , From Memory to Written Record, p. 312. For more on the complex evolution of royal seals see G. R. Elton, England 1200–1640; The Sources of History: Studies in the Use of Historical Evidence (London: Sources of History Ltd, 1969), p. 35; T. F. Tout, Chapters in the administrative history of mediaeval England: The Wardrobe, the Chamber and the Small Seals (6 vols., Manchester: Longmans, 1920–33); H. C. Maxwell- Lyte, Historical Notes on the Use of the Great Seal of England (London: H. M. Stationary Office, 1926); Alfred Wyon, Great Seals of England (London: Chiswick Press, 1887); Clanchy, From Memory to Written Record, pp. 308–318. 1 7. C h a p l a i s , English Diplomatic Practice, p. 100. C.f. Elton, England 1200–1640 , p. 44. 18 . Chaplais, “Private Letters of Edward I,” The English Historical Review, 77:302 (1962), pp. 79–80. 1 9. C h a p l a i s , English Diplomatic Practice, p. 125. 2 0. C h a p l a i s , English Diplomatic Practice, p. 18. 21 . Iain Fenlon and John Milsom, “‘Ruled Paper Imprinted’: Music Paper and Patents in Sixteenth-Century England,” Journal of the American Musicological Society, 37:1 (1984), p. 143; Dard Hunter, Papermaking: The History and Technique of an Ancient Craft (New York: Courier Dover Publications, 1978), p. 115. 2 2. L . C . H e c t o r , The Handwriting of English Documents (London: Edward Arnold, 1958), pp. 15–20. 23 . S. Bentley, “Extracts from the Privy Purse expenses of King Henry the Seventh, 1491–1505,” in Excerpta Historica (London: Samuel Bentley, 1831), p. 94. 24 . Tate also supplied the first English printers William Caxton and Wynken de Worde with material for their publications. Allan Notes 199

Stevenson, “Tudor Roses from John Tate,” Studies in Bibliography, 20 (1967), pp. 18–19, 33. 25 . Richard L. Hills, “Tate, John (c. 1448–1507/8),” ODNB. 26 . Although the “republic of letters” is a movement usually associ- ated with the eighteenth-century Enlightenment, some histori- ans have traced its origins to the sixteenth century and beyond. See for example Arjan van Dixhoorn and Susie Speakman Sutch (eds.), The Reach of the Republic of Letters: Literary and Learned Societies in Late Medieval and Early Modern Europe (2 vols., Leiden: Brill, 2008). 2 7. G i d e o n B u r t o n , “ F r o m Ars dictaminis to Ars conscribiendi epistolis: Renaissance Letter-Writing Manuals in the Context of Humanism,” in Carol Poster and Linda C. Mitchell (eds.), Letter-Writing Manuals and Instruction from Antiquity to the Present (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2007), p. 88. See also Judith Rice Henderson, “Erasmus on the Art of Letter-Writing,” in Renaissance Eloquence: Studies in the Theory and Practice of Renaissance Rhetoric, ed. James J. Murphy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983), pp. 331–55. 2 8. C a r o l i n e A m e l i a H a l s t e d , Life of Margaret Beaufort, countess of Richmond and Derby, mother of King Henry the Seventh (London: Smith, Elder and Co., 1839), pp. 210–11. 29 . Henry VII [?] to “a lady,” c. 1501[?], BL Galba MS B II, fol. 21. The date and addressee of this letter are suggested by the anonymous authors of “Tudor Exhibition at the British Museum,” in Library 2:1 (1890), pp. 188–191. 3 0. D a v i d S t a r k e y , Henry VIII: Virtuous Prince (London: Harper Press, 2008), p. 218. 3 1. S e a n C u n n i n g h a m , Henry VII (London and New York: Routledge, 2007), plate 4; see also Steven Gunn, “Henry VII in European Perspective,” Historical Research, 82:217 (2009), p. 387. 32 . Herbert C. Schulz, “The Teaching of Handwriting in Tudor and Stuart Times,” Huntington Library Quarterly, 6:4 (1943), p. 416. 3 3. T . A . B i r r e l l , English Monarchs and Their Books: From Henry VII to Charles II (London: British Library, 1987), p. 6. 34 . David R. Carlson, “Royal Tutors in the Reign of Henry VII,” The Sixteenth Century Journal, 22:2 (1991), pp. 254, n. 4, 255. 35 . John Scattergood, “Skelton, John (c. 1460–1529),” ODNB. 36 . Quoted in Carlson, “Royal Tutors in the Reign of Henry VII,” p. 274. 37 . Henry’s letter of 17 January 1507 concerned his sorrow at the death of King Philip I of Castile. Quoted in Carlson, “Royal Tutors in the Reign of Henry VII,” p. 275. 38 . Carlson, “Royal Tutors in the Reign of Henry VII,” p. 276. 200 Notes

3 9. B i r r e l l , English Monarchs and Their Books, pp. 7–12; James P. Carley, The Books of King Henry VIII and His Wives (London: British Library, 2004), p. 100. 40 . Royal Expenses, 1546, L&P, v. 21 part 2, p. 400, no. 769. Several coffers full of books and writing materials were kept in the Jewel House in the Tower of London after Henry’s death. Carley, Books of King Henry VIII and His Wives , p. 21. 41 . The Royal Wardrobe, 1537, NA SP 1/141 fol. 1. 42 . James IV to Henry (with thanks for “Henry’s letters written in his own hand”), 11 June 1509, Letters and papers, foreign and domestic, of the reign of Henry VIII, ed. J. S. Brewer (23 vols., London: H. M. Stationary Office, 1862–1932) [hereafter L&P ], vol. 1, no. 161, p. 23; Henry VIII to Francis I, 11 July 1546, NA SP 1/221 fol. 175 (“Would write in his own hand but for the haste of the bearer”); Henry VIII to the Pope, c. 1518, NA SP 1/16 fol. 153 (minute of a letter in his own hand). 43 . Instructions corrected by Henry VIII, no date, BL Cotton MS Caligula E vol. ii fol. 208–09; Henry VIII’s instructions to Philip Hoby, 16 Oct 1538 [?], BL Cotton MS Vespasian C vii fol. 71. 44 . Henry to Wolsey, c. July 1518, quoted in Florence M. Greir Evans, The Principal Secretary of State, a survey of the Office from 1558 to 1680 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1923), p. 25, n. 4. 45 . Henry VIII to Cardinal Wolsey, c. 1520, BL Additional MS 19398, fol. 44r. 46 . Pace to Wolsey, 29 Oct 1521, L&P, vol. iii, no. 1713. 4 7. Q u o t e d i n G . R . E l t o n , Tudor Revolution in Government (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1959), p. 284. 48 . Eric Ives, “Henry VIII’s Will: A Forensic Conundrum,” The Historical Journal , 35:4 (1992), pp. 782–83. Henry’s dry stamp can be distinguished from his own signature by the conspicuous bold- ness of the characters, showing how it had been traced: see for example his letter to “Master Bailiff our Controller,” 29 Oct 1536, BL Additional MS 19398, fol. 43r. A dry stamp was a carved facsimile of the person’s signature, which left an indent in the paper. A skilled pensman would then go over the indent with a pen to create a copy of the signature. 49 . Henry VIII to Katherine Parr, 8 Sept 1544, BL Cotton MS Caligula E vol. IV, fol. 55. 50 . Juan Luis Vives, “Plan of Studies for Girls,” in Vives and the Renascence Education of Women, ed. and trans. Forster Watson (New York: Longmans, 1912), p. 141. 51 . Duwes wrote his French grammar, “An Introductorie for to Lerne to Rede, to Pronounce, and to Speke French Trewly” (1533?) based on his experience of tutoring Mary. G. Kipling, “Duwes, Giles [Aegidius de Vadis] (d. 1535),” ODNB. Notes 201

52 . Katherine to Mary (autograph), c. 27 July 1525 [date suggested by Prescott], BL Cotton MS Vespasian F vol. xiii, fol. 140. 53 . David Loades, Mary Tudor: A Life (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989), pp. 42–43. 54 . When Katherine dictated letters to her servant, he “dyd write theim as she spake them word [for] word.” “A Servant of Katherine of Aragon,” c. 1539, NA SP 1/142, fols.201–202. 5 5. H . F . M . P r e s c o t t , A Spanish Tudor: The Life of Bloody Mary (New York: Columbia University Press, 1940), p. 40. 56 . A quire is two sheets of paper folded to make eight leaves. Privy Purse Expenses of the Princess Mary, Daughter of King Henry the Eighth, afterwards Queen Mary, ed. Frederick Madden (London: William Pickering, 1831), pp. 144, 147. 5 7. P r e s c o t t , Spanish Tudor, p. 60. 58 . Princess Mary to Thomas Cromwell, 15 April [no year], BL Cotton MS Vespasian F xiii fol. 279; Princess Mary to [Thomas Cromwell?], no date, BL Cotton MS Vespasian F iii fol. 47. 5 9. Privy Purse Expenses of the Princess Mary, p. 159. 60 . Elizabeth to Mary, 27 October 1552, ACFLO , pp. 27–28. Elizabeth to Mary, 26 January 1554, CSPSpan, vol. 12, p. 50. 61 . Elizabeth to Mary, 27 October 1552, ACFLO, pp. 27–28. For more on Mary’s illness see David Loades, Mary Tudor: The Tragical History (London: National Archives, 2006), pp. 30, 38, 59, 61, 193; Linda Porter, The First Queen of England: the Myth of “Bloody Mary” (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2007) p. 74; Anna Whitelock, Mary Tudor: Princess, Bastard, Queen (New York: Random House, 2009), p. 47. 62 . “Report of Giovanni Michiel,” CSPVen , 6:2, no. 884, p. 1054. 63 . Felix Pryor dismisses John Guy’s assertion that although Mary commissioned a dry stamp she did not use it. Pryor, Elizabeth I: Her Life in Letters (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), p. 137; c.f. John Guy, The Tudor Monarchy (London; New York: Arnold, 1997), p. 228. It is tempting to imagine that Mary may have made use of some of the forty-four pairs of eyeglasses listed in the inventory of Henry VIII’s movable possessions in 1547. V. Ilardi, Renaissance Vision from Spectacles to Telescopes (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 2007), p. 130. 64 . Mary to Simon Renard (French, holograph), 13 October 1553, CSPSpan , 11:293; Mary to the Lord Privy Seal (holograph), c. 1554, BL Cotton MS Vespasian F iii fol. 23. 65 . Cardinal Pole to Philip, 8 October 1555, The Correspondence of Reginald Pole, ed. Thomas F Mayer (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2002), vol. ii, pp. 175–76; “Report of Giovanni Michiel,” CSPVen 6:2, no. 884, p. 1054–55. Many of Mary’s books in the Royal Library show signs of wear, suggesting that she carried them around with her. Birrell, English Monarchs and Their Books, pp. 21–22. 202 Notes

6 6. B i r r e l l , English Monarchs and Their Books, pp. 13–14. 67 . Fifty-five Latin and fifty Greek essays written by Edward survive. Diarmaid MacCullough, The Boy King: Edward VI and the Protestant Reformation (New York: Palgrave, 1999), pp. 20–21. 68 . Dale Hoak, “Edward VI (1537–1553),” ODNB. 69 . Quoted H. R. Woudhuysen, “The Queen’s Own Hand: A Preliminary Account,” in Peter Beal and Grace Ioppolo (eds.), Elizabeth I and the Culture of Writing (London: British Library, 2007), p. 3. 70 . Quoted in Woudhuysen, “The Queen’s Own Hand,” pp. 3–4. 7 1. H u g h L a t i m e r , Sermons, ed. H. C. Beeching (London; New York: E. P. Dutton, 1906), p. 102. 72 . Roger Ascham, The Scholemaster (London, 1570), p. 21. 73 . “William Latymer’s chronicklle of Anne Bulleyne,” quoted in Patrick Collinson, “Elizabeth I (1533–1603),” ODNB. 74 . Woudhuysen, “The Queen’s Own Hand,” pp. 1–2. 7 5. J o h n S t r y p e , The life of the learned Sir John Cheke (London, 1705). 7 6. G o r d o n K i p l i n g , “ B e l m a i n e , J e a n ( f l . 1 5 4 6 – 1 5 5 9 ) , ” ODNB ; Frances Teague, “Princess Elizabeth’s Hand in The Glass of the Sinful Soul,” in English Manuscript Studies, 1100–1700, eds., Peter Beale and Margaret J. M. Ezell (London: British Library, 2000), pp. 33–48. 77 . Elizabeth to Katherine Parr (holograph, Italian), 31 July 1544, BL Cotton MS Otho C x, fol. 235; for transcription see ACFLO, p. 5; David Starkey, Elizabeth: Apprenticeship (London: Chatto & Windus, 2001), p. 36. 78 . Elizabeth to Henry VIII, 30 December 1545 (holograph, Latin), ACFLO, pp. 8–9. 79 . The circulation of Niccolo Machiavelli’s Il Principe heightened the self-consciousness of sixteenth-century writers, leading many to question the political and religious “ends” of rhetoric. See Victoria Kahn, Machiavellian Rhetoric from the Counter-Reformation to Milton (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1994). 80 . Elizabeth to Edward, 14 February 1547 (holograph, Latin), CW, p. 13. For original Latin transcription, see ACFLO, p. 12. 81 . Elizabeth to Edward, 2 February 1548 (holograph), CW, p. 16. For original Latin transcription see ACFLO, pp. 14–15. William Shakespeare, King Lear, Act 1, Scene 1, ll.93–94. 82 . For discussion of the role of metaphor in English style manuals of the period, see Peter Mack, Elizabethan Rhetoric, Theory and Practice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), pp. 84–86. 83 . Elizabeth to Edward, 15 May 1549 (holograph), BL Cotton MS Vespasian F iii fol. 48. 84 . Elizabeth to James VI, March 1586 (holograph), BL Add MS 23240, fol. 38. Notes 203

85 . Alan Stewart and Heather Wolfe, Letterwriting in Renaissance England (Washington: Folger Shakespeare Library, 2004), p. 23; W. Webster Newbold, “Letter Writing and Vernacular Literacy in Sixteenth-Century England,” in Instruction from Antiquity to the Present, pp. 127–140. 86 . Ga r y M . B e l l , “ E l i z a b e t h a n D i p l o m a c y : T h e S u b t l e R e v o l u t i o n , ” i n Politics, Religion and Diplomacy in Early Modern Europe: Essays in Honor of De Lamar Jensen, eds., Malcolm R. Thorp and Arthur J. Slavin (Kirksville, MO: Sixteenth Century Journal Publishers, 1994), p. 278.

2 M y Skrating Hand : The Making of Elizabeth’s Correspondence 1 . Elizabeth to James (holograph), 6 January 1603, BL Additional MS 18738, fol. 40v. 2 . Elizabeth to James (holograph), 3 February 1602, Bruce , pp. 142–43. For an account of Elizabeth’s rheumatism see John Clapham, Elizabeth of England: Certain Observations Concerning the Life and Reign of Queen Elizabeth, ed. Evelyn Plummer Read and Conyers Read (Philadelphia: University of Philadelphia Press, 1951), pp. 89–90. 3 . See John Guy (ed.), The Reign of Elizabeth I: Court and Culture in the Last Decade (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995); Paul Hammer, “Sex and the Virgin Queen: Aristocratic Concupiscence and the Court of Elizabeth I,” Sixteenth Century Journal, 31:1 (2000), pp. 77–97. 4 . James to Elizabeth (holograph), c. 25 April 1602, NA SP 52/62 fol. 33. 5 . A l a n S t e w a r t , Shakespeare’s Letters (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), p. 66. 6 . Leonard E. Boyle, “Diplomatics,” in J. M. Powell (ed.), Medieval Studies: an Introduction, 2nd ed., (New York: Syracuse University Press, 1992), p. 91. 7 . Over 1,600 books are assigned to Elizabeth in the Royal Library Catalogue, although only 300 of these were formally “owned’ by her: the rest appear to be gifts or donations from the libraries of her courtiers. T. A. Birrell, English Monarchs and Their Books: From Hentry VII to Charles II (London: British Library, 1987), pp. 24–26. 8 . J o h n N i c h o l s , Progresses and Public Processions of Queen Elizabeth, 3 vols. (London: 1823), I, p. 114. 9 . N i c h o l s , Progresses, II, pp. 53 (“standishe of silver guilt’), 452 (“standishe of ibiney’). 10 . Henry VIII also owned dozens of writing tables: for a description of some see his Royal Expenses, 1546, L&P, v. 21 part 2, no.769, p. 400. For a detailed description of writing tables and their 204 Notes

function see Peter Stallybrass, Roger Chartier, J. Franklin Mowery, and Heather Wolfe, “Hamlet’s Tables and the Technologies of Writing in Renaissance England,” Shakespeare Quarterly 55:4 (2004), pp. 379–419. 1 1. N i c h o l s , Progresses , II, p. 1 (Sir Henry Lee), p. 452 (Mrs West); Folger MS Z.d.16 (Lady Layton). 12 . El i z a b e t h u s e d t h e s e w a t e r m a r k s b e t w e e n A u g u s t 1 5 8 8 a n d Oct 1594. H. R. Woudhuysen, “The Queen’s Own Hand: A Preliminary Account,” in Peter Beal and Grace Ioppolo (eds.), Elizabeth I and the Culture of Writing (London: British Library, 2007), pp. 26–27; Pryor, Life in Letters, p. 9. See also “Considerations for the erecting a corporation for the sole making of paper in England,” c. 1586, CSPDom , 1581–90, vol. 2, no. 132, p. 378. 13 . Quoted in Woudhuysen, “The Queen’s Own Hand,” p. 23. 14 . Ferdinando Heyborn to Robert Cecil, 15 Feb 1603, CP 183 fol. 144. (“This enclosed her ma[jes]tie wrote this morning in her bedd & co[m]manded me to send it to yo[ur] ho[nour].”) 1 5. P a u l J o h n s o n , Elizabeth I: A Study in Intellect and Power (New York: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1974), p. 238. 1 6. P a u l H e n t z n e r , Paul Hentzner’s Travels in England, during the Reign of Queen Elizabeth (London, 1797), p. 22; Roy Strong, Elizabeth R (London: Random House, 1971), p. 66. 17 . The year of this episode is not given. John Harington, Nugae Antiquae: Being a Miscellaneous Collection of Original Papers in Prose and Verse (2 vols., London, 1769–75), vol. 1, p. 117. 18 . James VI to Elizabeth, 13 August 1585, EUL, Laing iii, MS 371, fols. 8–9. 1 9. J a m e s D a y b e l l , Women Letter-Writers in Tudor England (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 108. 20 . Elizabeth to Catherine de’ Médici, [c. 1561–2?], Catalogue of the collection of Alfred Morrison, ed. A. W. Thibaudeau (London, 1883–92), ii, plate 70, p. 77. 2 1. F e l i x P r y o r , Elizabeth I: Her Life in Letters (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), pp. 12–13. Ironically, in 1565 Elizabeth remarked to the Emperor Maximilian II’s ambassador that “she had seen many bad handwritings, but that none had caused her so much discomfort as that of the late Emperor,” Ferdinand I. Victor von Klarwill (ed.), Queen Elizabeth and Some Foreigners (London: John Lane, 1928), p. 215. 2 2. Q u o t e d i n D a v i d S t a r k e y , Elizabeth: The Struggle for the Throne (New York: Chatto & Windus, 2000), p. 83. 23 . Katherine Duncan-Jones, “Elizabeth I and Her ‘Good George’: Unpublished Letters,” in Peter Beal and Grace Ioppolo, Elizabeth I and the Culture of Writing, p. 29. Notes 205

24 . Janet M. Green, “Elizabeth I’s Reply to the Polish Ambassador,” Sixteenth Century Journal, 31:4 (2000), pp. 993–94. 2 5. G . R . E l t o n , England Under the Tudors (London: Methuen & Co., 1955), p. 284; J. E. Neale, “Sayings of Queen Elizabeth,” in Essays in Elizabethan History (London: Jonathan Cape, 1958), p. 90. 26 . Duncan-Jones, “Elizabeth I and Her ‘Good George,’” p. 29. 27 . Woudhuysen, “The Queen’s Own Hand,” p. 7. See for example Elizabeth to Edward VI, 15 May 1549, BL Cotton MS Vespasian F iii fol. 48. 2 8. P r y o r , Life in Letters , p. 12. 2 9. P r y o r , Life in Letters, p. 41. 30 . “Mr. Secretaryes Warrant for stamping of certen Letters,” in Samuel Haynes (ed.), A Collection of State Papers, Relating to Affairs in the Reigns of King Henry VIII, King Edward VI, Queen Mary, and Queen Elizabeth (London: William Bowyer, 1740), vol. 1, p. 604. 3 1. P r y o r , Life in Letters, p. 14. 32 . Popham to Cecil, 28 July 1599, CP 71 fol. 93. 33 . Quoted in Woudhuysen, “The Queen’s Own Hand,” p. 26. 3 4. G e o f f r e y E l t o n , The Tudor Revolution in Government: Administrative Changes in the Reign of Henry VIII (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1963), pp. 32, 59, 117, 369, 415–17. 35 . F. Jeffrey Platt, “The Elizabethan ‘Foreign Office,’” The Historian, 56:4 (1994), p. 726; Pam Wright, “A change of direction: the rami- fications of a female household, 1558–1603,” in David Starkey (ed.), The English Court: from the Wars of the Roses to the Civil War (London; New York: Longman, 1987), pp. 152–53. 36 . De la Quadra to Philip, 5 May 1561, CODOIN, lxxxvii, p. 350. 3 7. P r y o r , Life in Letters , p. 35. 38 . Elizabeth to Burghley (holograph), 23 Sept 1564, NA SP 52/9, fol. 113r, endorsed: “at St. James The Q. wrytyng to me being sick.” Interestingly, at the top of this scrawled note is a crossed-out address in Elizabeth’s neat hand to “ Madame ma bonne soeur la Royne Mere” (i.e., Catherine de’ Médici), suggesting that she had hastily grabbed a scrap piece of paper from her desk instead of using a fresh leaf. 39 . Stephen Alford, The Early Elizabethan Polity: William Cecil and the British Succession Crisis, 1558–1569 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 13. Burghley was equally assiduous with his own correspondence, preferring to write his own letters rather than dictating to secretaries even when he was ill. Alford, Burghley: William Cecil at the Court of Elizabeth I (London: Yale University Press, 2008), pp. 136, 148, 318. 4 0. A l f o r d , Early Elizabethan Polity, p. 32. 4 1. B o d , A s h m o l e M S 1 7 2 9 , f o l . 1 3 ; r e p r o d u c e d i n P r y o r , Life in Letters, p. 65. 206 Notes

42 . Cecil to [the Queen of Scotland], 11 Sept 1602, CP 134 fol. 24. 43 . Lake to Cecil, 22 May 1599, CP 70 fol. 46. 4 4. P l a t t , “ T h e E l i z a b e t h a n “ F o r e i g n O f f i c e , ” The Historian, 56:4 (1994), pp. 728–731. 45 . Quoted in Charles Hughes, “Nicholas Faunt’s Discourse Touching the Office of Principal Secretary of Estate, &c. 1592,” The English Historical Review, 20:79 (1905), pp. 501–02. 46 . Alan G. R. Smith, “The Secretariats of the Cecils, circa 1580–1612,” The English Historical Review, 83:328 (1968), pp. 483, 494. 47 . Thomas Lake to Sir Robert Cecil, 28 Jan 1595/6, CP 30 fol. 32. 48 . Roger Lockyer, “Lake, Sir Thomas (bap. 1561, d. 1630),” ODNB.. 49 . A facsimile of a folio from the working draft of this translation is reproduced in Pryor, Life in Letters, pp. 112–13. Brian Quintrell, “Windebank, Sir Francis (bap. 1582, d. 1646),” ODNB. 50 . Windebank to Cecil, 16 Oct 1594, CP 28 fol. 96. “Her Majesty willed me to attend for [three or four signed letters] at night, being now past iii.” Windebank to Cecil, 19 Oct 1597, CP 56 fol. 37. 51 . Windebank to Cecil, c.1600, CP 83 fol. 48. 52 . Windebank to Cecil, 1 March 1594, CP 169 fol. 44. 53 . Windebank to Cecil, 20 March 1600, CP 178 fol. 139. 54 . Windebank to Cecil, 17 March 1596, CP 31 fol. 20. 5 5. E v a n s , Principal Secretary of State, p. 21. 5 6. E v a n s , Principal Secretary of State, pp. 169, 171. 5 7. E v a n s , Principal Secretary of State, pp. 20–21. 58 . Edmondes drew a salary of £66 13s. 4d for his work as French secretary. Evans, Principal Secretary of State, p. 170. 59 . Catherine of Braganza to Elizabeth, c. February 1580, CP 205 fol. 68. 60 . Elizabeth to Maximilian, Queen Elizabeth and Some Foreigners, pp. 257, 282; to the doge of Venice, Salisbury i, p. 255; to the Duke of Florence (in Latin), CSPFor, i, p. 366. 61 . Maximilian to Elizabeth (French autograph), May 1561, BL Additional MS 19401 fol. 62r; Maximilian to Elizabeth (Spanish holograph), May 1565, Salisbury, xiii, p. 67; Elizabeth to Maximilian (Italian autograph) April 1566 and December 1567, Queen Elizabeth and Some Foreigners, pp. 257, 282. 62 . See for example Philip’s letter regarding the appointment of Don Juan as Governor of the Low Countries, 1 Sept 1576, NA SP 70/139 fol. 123. For more on Tudor fascination in Italian language and culture, see George B. Parks, “The Genesis of Tudor Interest in Italian,” PMLA , 77:5 (1962), pp. 529–535. 63 . Sir Thomas Heneage to Leicester, 12 Sept 1582, NA SP 12/155 fol. 82. 6 4. R a m i e T a r g o f f , John Donne, Body and Soul (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2008), p. 42. See also Sara Jayne Steen, Notes 207

“Reading Beyond the Words: Material Letters and the Process of Interpretation,” Quidditas: Journal of the Rocky Mountain Medieval and Renaissance Association, 22 (2001), p. 65. 65 . Heather Wolfe, “‘Neatly sealed, with silk, and Spanish wax or otherwise’: the Practice of Letter-locking with Silk Floss in Early Modern England,” in “‘In the Prayse of Writing’: Early Modern Manuscript Studies Essays in Honour of Peter Beal, eds. S. P. Cerasano and Steven W. May (forthcoming). 66 . Thomas Lake to Cecil, 28 Jan 1596, CP 30 fol. 29. 67 . Sue Walker, “The Manners of the Page: Prescription and Practice in the Visual Organization of Correspondence,” The Huntington Library Quarterly , 66:3/4 (2003), p. 309; Jonathon Gibson, “Significant Space in Manuscript Letters,” The Seventeenth Century, 12 (1997), pp. 2, 8, n. 16. 68 . Interestingly, Windebank also notes “I leaue ye dating of [the letter] to yo[ur] ho[nour’s] appoy[n]tm[en]t,” suggesting it was common practice to post-date such letters. Windebank to Cecil, 8 Feb 1600, CP 178 fol. 123. 69 . Henry III to Elizabeth, 9 November 1578, NA SP 78/2 fol. 83 (this is a seventeenth-century copy, and despite the king’s indication, the transcriber places his signature at the bottom). 70 . See for example Elizabeth to James, 6 January 1603, BL Additional MS 18738 fol. 40v, where she misjudges the space needed to draw in her signature and has to insert the final “h” above the “t.” 7 1. N i c h o l a s H i l l i a r d , A very proper treatise, wherein is briefly sett forthe the arte of Limming (London, 1573), title page. 72 . Hilliard to Cecil, 28 July 1601, CP 87 fol. 25. 73 . Francis Cherry and John Mericke to Sir Robert Cecil, 19 Sept 1601, CP 88 fol. 55. 74 . Elizabeth appears to have adopted the practice after receiving similar letters from Francois, Duke of Alençon and Anjou in 1579. Heather Wolfe, “Neatly sealed, with silk, and Spanish wax or otherwise” (forthcoming). [See note 65 above.] 75 . Lake to Cecil, 28 Jan 1595/6, CP 30 fol. 32 (my emphasis). 76 . For a detailed description of Elizabeth’s great seals see Birch, Catalogue of Seals in the Department of Manuscripts in the British Museum (London: Longmans and Co., 1887), i, pp. 51–56. 77 . In s t r u c t i o n s t o D e r r i c k A n t h o n y , 8 J u l y 1 5 8 4 , N A S P 1 5 / 2 8 / 2 fol. 79. 78 . When a new seal was finished, it would be brought before the privy council and touched by the sovereign, whereupon the old seal would be ritually smashed into pieces to prevent forgeries. Wyon, Great Seals of England, pp. 78, xv. 79 . NA SP 97/2, fol. 95v; BL Cotton MS Nero B xi, fol. 347v. 80 . Edward Barton to Burghley, 13 April 1591, NA SP 97/2, fol. 95v. 81 . Lake to Cecil, 28 Jan 1595/6, CP 30 fol. 32. 208 Notes

82 . “Warrant to Dirick Anthonie,” 26 March 1574, NA SP 12/95 fol. 143. Evans, Principal Secretary of State, p. 205. 83 . “Warrant for an order to Chas. Anthony,” 17 May 1600, NA SP 12/274, fol. 241v. 8 4. H . C . M a x w e l l - L y t e , Historical Notes on the Use of the Great Seal of England (London: HMSO, 1926), pp. 135–36. 85 . Elizabeth to Henry IV, 13 Sept 1596, BL Additional MS 24023, fol. 1r. 8 6. Tolstoi , p. 408. 87 . Elizabeth to James, 26 November 1592, CP, cxxxiii, fols. 98r-v. 88 . Windebank to Cecil, 4 May 1602, CP 93 fol. 20; see also Windebank to Sir John Stanhope, 5 May 1602, CP 184 fol. 25. 89 . Windebank to Cecil, 4 May 1602, CP 93 fol. 20. 90 . David Ganz, “‘Mind in Character’: Ancient and Medieval Ideas about the Status of the Autograph as an Expression of Personality,” in P. R. Robinson and Rivkah Zim (eds.), Of the Making of Books: Medieval Manuscripts, Their Scribes and Readers, Essays presented to M. B. Parkes (Aldershot and Brookfield: Scolar Press, 1997), p. 281. 91 . Randolph to Burghley, c. June 1563, NA SP 52/8, fol. 80r. 9 2. Acts of the Privy Council of England, eds. John Roche Dasent et al. (new series, 46 vols., London, 1890–1964), 1550–52, p. 348. 93 . BL Additional MS 35831, fol. 310r. 94 . De Mendoza to Philip, 28 February 1580, CODOIN xci, 461. 95 . De Mendoza to Philip, 21 May 1580, CODOIN, xci, p. 481. 96 . Elizabeth to James, c. May 1591, BL Additional MS 23240, art.27, fols. 90r–1v. 97 . De Silva to Philip, 18 March 1566, Simancas, vol. 1, p. 530.

3 Entering the Stage: Elizabeth’s Use of Letters in Her Early Reign, 1558–1559 1 . R i c h a r d M u l c a s t e r , The Passage of Our Most Dread Lady Queen Elizabeth through the City of London to Westminster the Day Before her Coronation (London, 1559), aiiv. 2 . Cecil, “Memorial,” 17 November 1558, NA SP 12/1 fol. 3r. 3 . J o h n S t r y p e ( e d . ) , Annals of the Reformation and Establishment of Religion, and Other Various Occurrences in the Church of England, during Queen Elizabeth’s Happy Reign (4 vols., London, 1709–31), vol. 1, 5. 4 . Cecil, “Memorial,” 18 November 1558, NA SP 12/1, fol. 4v. 5 . M a x w e l l - L y t e , H . C . Historical Notes on the Use of the Great Seal of England. London: HMSO, 1926, pp. 133–34; Alfred Wyon, Great Seals of England (London: Chiswick Press, 1887), p. xv. 6 . J. E. Neale, “Sir Nicholas Throckmorton’s advice to Queen Elizabeth on her accession to the throne,” English Historical Review, 65 (1950), p. 94. Notes 209

7 . R . B . W e r n h a m , Before the Armada: The Growth of English Foreign Policy, 1485–1588 (London: Cape, 1966), p. 236. 8 . See Ernst Kantorowicz, The King’s Two Bodies: A Study in Medieval Political Theology (Princeton: Princeton University Press, [1957] 1997). 9 . Elizabeth’s instructions to Cobham, 23 November 1558, NA SP 70/1, fol. 23r-v. 10 . Philip to Feria, 28 December 1558, CODOIN , lxxxvii, p. 104. 11 . Elizabeth to Maximilian, 26 November 1558, BL Royal MS 13 B i, fol. 1. After Maximilian became emperor, Elizabeth sent letters to him in Italian. See Victor von Klarwill (ed.), Queen Elizabeth and Some Foreigners (London: John Lane, 1928) pp. 257, 282. 12 . Elizabeth to Ferdinand, 26 November 1558, Klarwill, Elizabeth and Some Foreigners, p. 25. Ferdinand replied to Elizabeth on 3 January 1559, CSPFor, i, p. 72. 13 . Elizabeth to Ferdinand, 26 November 1558, Klarwill, Elizabeth and Some Foreigners, p. 25. 14 . Feria to Philip, 27 December 1558, CODOIN, lxxxvii, p. 268. 15 . Two days after receiving confirmation of Mary’s death, Philip ordered his ministers in Spain to drop all his English titles, includ- ing “ Defensor Fidei,” which he transferred to Elizabeth instead. Philip to Juan Vázquez de Molina, 9 December 1558, AGS Estado 128/378. My thanks to Geoffrey Parker for this reference. 16 . Adolphus to Elizabeth, 17 December 1558, NA SP 70/1 fol. 74. 17 . Elizabeth to Sigismund, 26 December 1558 (draft), BL Royal MS 13 B 1, fol. 3. See M. Małowist, “Poland, Russia and Western Trade in the 15th and 16th Centuries,” Past and Present , 13 (1958), pp. 26–41. 18 . Albert to Edward VI, 30 October 1551, NA SP 68/9 fol. 57. 19 . Albert to Mary, 15 October 1553, NA SP 69/1 fol. 136. For more on such tributes see Diana Carrio-Invernizzi, “Gift and Diplomacy in Seventeenth-Century Spanish Italy,” The Historical Journal, 51:4 (2008) p. 887. 20 . Elizabeth to Albert, 28 December 1558, BL Royal MS 13 B. i, fol. 4v. 21 . Elizabeth to Albert Frederick, 1 March 1569, NA SP 70/106 fol. 4. Elizabeth does not appear to have repaid Albert’s generosity with a gift in kind, but in January 1584 she wrote that she would be eager to compensate him with “all mutual offices” and “all kindly account.” E. I. Kouri (ed.), Elizabethan England and Europe: Forty Unprinted Letters from Elizabeth I to Protestant Powers (London: Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research, Special Supp., xii, 1982), p. 44. 22 . Philip II to the English Commissioners, 21 November 1558, NA SP 70/1 fol. 12. 23 . Elizabeth to the English Commissioners, 23 November 1558, NA SP 70/1 fol. 15. 210 Notes

24 . Guido Cavalcanti to Duke of Bedford, 26 December 1558, NA SP 70/1 fol. 91. For more on Cavalcanti see John Bossy, Giordano Bruno and the Embassy Affair (New Haven, CT, and London, Yale University Press [1991] 2002), pp. 88, 253. 25 . Henry II to Elizabeth, 30 December 1558, Patrick Forbes (ed.), A Full View of the Public Transactions in the Reign of Elizabeth (2 vols., London, 1740–1), i, pp. 8–9. 26 . Elizabeth to Henry II, 10 January 1559 (draft), NA SP 70/2 fols. 25–27v. 27 . Elizabeth to Henry II, 10 January 1559 (copy), NA SP 70/2 fols. 34–6v. 28 . Elizabeth to Henry II, 10 January 1559 (draft), NA SP 70/2 fol. 25. 29 . Elizabeth refers to this in her letter to Mary of 17 March 1554, CW, p. 42. E. Harris Harbison, Rival Ambassadors at the Court of Queen Mary (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1940), p. 130. 30 . Feria to Philip, 14 December 1558, CODOIN, lxxxvii, p. 97. 31 . Elizabeth’s instructions to Cavalcanti (draft in Cecil’s hand), NA SP 70/2 fol. 29r. 32 . Elizabeth to Henry II, 10 January 1559 (draft), NA SP 70/2 fols. 25r-v. 33 . Elizabeth to Henry II, 10 January 1559 (draft), NA SP 70/2 fol. 25v. 34 . Elizabeth to Henry II, 10 January 1559 (draft), NA SP 70/2 fol. 27. 3 5. Harrison, p. xi. Elizabeth made a similar statement in a letter to Mary on 16 March 1554: “If any ever did try this olde saynge that a kinges worde was more tha[n] a nother ma[n]s othe I most humbly beseche your M[aiestie] to verefie it in me.” NA SP 11/4/2, fol. 3v. 36 . Henry II’s instructions to Cavalcanti, 20 January 1559, Forbes, A Full View, p. 26. 37 . Henry II to Elizabeth, 20 January 1559, Forbes, A Full View, p. 26. 38 . Elizabeth to Henry II, 29 January 1559, Forbes, A Full View, p. 30 (for translation see CSPFor i, 105–6). 39 . Elizabeth to Henry II, 29 January 1559, Forbes, A Full View, p. 31. 40 . Elizabeth’s Instructions to Cavalcanti, 29 January 1559, Forbes, A Full View, p. 34. 41 . Elizabeth’s Instructions to Cavalcanti, 29 January 1559, Forbes, A Full View, p. 35. 42 . Guido Cavalcanti’s report, 19 February 1559, NA SP 70//2, fols. 141–43. 43 . Elizabeth’s Instructions to her Commissioners at Cateau- Cambresis, 19 Feb 1559, NA SP 70/2 fol. 137v. 44 . Elizabeth to Henry II (draft in Cecil’s hand), 3 May 1559, NA SP 70/4 fol. 13r. 45 . BL Royal MS 13 B. i, fol. 33v. Notes 211

46 . See for example a letter from Elizabeth to Emperor Ferdinand, 5 March 1563, reproduced in facsimile in Klarwill, Elizabeth and Some Foreigners, p. 27. The presence of Cecil’s signature suggests that this is not in Elizabeth’s own hand, as Klarwill cites it. 4 7. F . G . E m m i s o n , Tudor Secretary: Sir William Petre at Court and Home (London, [1961] 1970), pp. 231–37. 48 . Elizabeth to Philip II, 25 July 1559 (draft in Cecil’s hand), NA SP 70/5 fol. 168r. 49 . Philip to de la Quadra, 9 July 1559, Simancas, i, pp. 82, 88. 50 . Philip to de la Quadra, 18 July 1559, CODOIN, v. 87, pp. 226–27; for translation see Simancas, i, p. 89. 51 . Queen Dorothea to Elizabeth, 15 January 1559, NA SP 70/2, fol. 42r–v. 52 . Elizabeth to Dorothea, 6 April 1559, NA SP 70/3 fol. 42. 53 . Frederick II to Elizabeth, 27 August 1559, NA SP 70/6, fol. 134. 5 4. S e e P a u l L o c k h a r t , Frederik II and the Protestant Cause: Denmark’s Role in the Wars of Religion, 1559–1596 (Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2004); Edward P. Cheyney, “England and Denmark in the Later Days of Queen Elizabeth,” The Journal of Modern History , 1:1 (1929), pp. 9–39. 55 . Mundt to Elizabeth, 25 January 1559, NA SP 70/2 fol. 57. 56 . Philip of Hesse to Elizabeth, 3 May 1559, NA SP 70/4 fol. 8. 57 . Elizabeth to Frederick II of Saxony, 2 July 1559, NA SP 70/5 fol. 81. Elizabeth’s early determination to follow her brother’s example in foreign and domestic affairs is also reflected in her selection of her privy council, most of whom had served Edward. Conyers Read, Mr. Secretary Cecil and Queen Elizabeth (London, 1955), p. 123. For more on Elizabeth’s diplomatic relations with the German princes see David Scott Gehring, “International Protestantism Unties ‘The Catholique Knotte’: Anglo-German Relations Under Elizabeth I,” Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Wisconsin- Madison, 2010. 5 8. S u s a n D o r a n , Monarchy and Matrimony: The Courtships of Elizabeth I (London and New York, Routledge, 1996), p. 21. 59 . Gustavus to Elizabeth, 9 March 1559, NA SP 70/3 fol. 39. 60 . Gustavus to Elizabeth, 29 March 1559, NA SP 70/3 fol. 81. Doran, Monarchy and Matrimony, p. 20. 61 . It is likely that Gustavus’s letter of 9 March was still en route to London at this time. De Feria to Philip, 11 April 1559, CODOIN, lxxxvii, p. 160. 62 . Erik to Elizabeth, 12 July 1559, NA SP 70/5, fols. 124–25. 63 . Elizabeth to Erik (draft), 25 August 1559, NA SP 70/6, fols. 126–29. 64 . Elizabeth to Mary of Guise (draft), 30 May 1559, NA SP 52/1 fol. 46. 212 Notes

4 War of Words: King Philip II of Spain, 1558–1584 1 . Elizabeth to Philip, 22 September 1562 (draft), NA SP 70/41, fols. 239r–v. I am grateful to Geoffrey Parker for his comments on this chapter. 2 . G a r r e t t M a t t i n g l y , Renaissance Diplomacy (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1955), p. 166; Malcolm R. Thorp, “Catholic Conspiracy in Early Elizabethan Foreign Policy,” The Sixteenth Century Journal, 15:4 (1984), pp. 433, 441–42, 448. 3 . Pauline Croft, “‘The state of the world is marvellously changed’: England, Spain and Europe 1558–1604,” in Susan Doran and Glenn Richardson (eds.), Tudor England and Its Neighbours (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), p. 180. 4 . E. I. Kouri misleadingly notes that Elizabeth’s letters “can be found above all” in CODOIN, vols. lxxxvii and lxxxix–xcii. E. I. Kouri (ed.), Elizabethan England and Europe: Forty Unprinted Letters from Elizabeth I to Protestant Powers (London: Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research, Special Supp., xii, 1982), p. 8. In fact these volumes com- prise Philip’s correspondence with his ambassadors in London and contain only one Spanish copy of a “minute” of a letter from Elizabeth to Philip, presented by Thomas Wilkes in December 1577 (ix, 172–74). Similarly, Julian Paz’s Catalogo de Documentos Españoles existentes en el archivo del Ministerio de Negocios Extranjeros de Paris (Madrid, 1932) contains much ambassadorial correspondence, but only one reference to an autograph letter from Elizabeth to Philip, dated 30 March 1561 (no. 111). There are no Elizabeth/Philip letters in SP 94 (Spain), which mostly comprises material dating from after 1584, when their correspondence ended. Other letters are referred to tangentially in ambassadorial reports: see for example de Mendoza to Philip, 23 July 1580, Simancas, iii, p. 43. 5 . Philip II to de Spes, 30 June 1570, quoted in Geoffrey Parker, “The Place of Tudor England in the Messianic Vision of Philip II of Spain: The Prothero Lecture,” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society , Sixth Series, xii (2002), p. 185 n. 33. 6 . Mia Rodríguez-Salgado and Simon Adams (eds.), The count of Feria’s dispatch to Philip II of 14th November 1558 (Camden Soc., 4th ser., xxviii, London, 1984), p. 330. 7 . Antonio de Guaras to Gabriel de Zayas, 29 March 1575, Simancas, ii, p. 491. 8 . A s c h a m , The Scholemaster , p. 21. 9 . ACFLO, p. 141, n. 15. 10 . Mary to Philip, late July[?] 1557, BL Cotton MS Titus B ii, fols.109r- 10r, Charles V to Mary [no date], BL Cotton MS Titus B ii fols.140–48. Notes 213

11 . De Quadra was probably referring to Giovanni Battista Castiglione, Elizabeth’s Italian tutor, who remained in her personal service until his death in 1598. De Quadra to Philip, 27 July 1559, Simancas , i, p. 89. 1 2. G e o f f r e y P a r k e r , Philip II (London: Little Brown, 1979), pp. 7, 14; Geoffrey Parker, “The Place of Tudor England in the Messianic Vision of Philip II of Spain,” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 12 (2002), p. 184, n. 31. 1 3. H e n r y K a m e n , Philip of Spain (New Haven; L ondon: Ya le Un iversit y Press, 1997), p. 5. 1 4. P a r k e r , The Grand Strategy of Philip II (New Haven; London: Yale University Press, 1998). pp. xviii, 20–21. 15 . Cobham to Burghley, 14 November 1575, NA SP 70/136 fol. 38. 16 . See José Ignacio Tellechea Idígoras (ed.), Felipe II y El Papado (2 vols., Madrid: Fundación Universitaria Española 2004–2006). Philip advised his daughters on matters of policy and statecraft: Fernando Bouza (ed.), Cartas de Felipe II a sus hijas (Madrid: Tres Cantos Akal, 1998). 1 7. P h i l i p t o F e r i a , 2 8 D e c e m b e r 1 5 5 8 , CODOIN lxxxvii, p. 104. Philip’s first letter to Elizabeth is now at Hatfield: CP, cilvii, p. 14. 18 . Feria to Philip, 29 December 1558, CODOIN, lxxxvii, p. 124. 19 . Charles V similarly addressed Mary I as “Señora,” although the main body of his letters were in French. BL Cotton MS Titus B ii, fol. 140r. 20 . Philip to Elizabeth (holograph), 27 December 1558, CP, cxxxiii, fol. 188r. This was Philip’s standard style in Spanish, though he used different forms in French, German and Latin. 21 . Feria to Philip, 20 February 1559, CODOIN, lxxxvii, p. 124. 22 . Philip to Feria, 23 March 1559, CODOIN, lxxxvii, p. 141. 23 . Feria to Philip, 11 April 1559, CODOIN , lxxxvii, pp. 156–7. 24 . Philip to Feria, 24 April 1559, CODOIN, lxxxvii, p. 174. 25 . Philip to Elizabeth, 24 April 1559, CP, ii, fol.18r; trans. in Pryor, Life in Letters, p. 31. 26 . Philip to Feria, 24 April 1559, CODOIN, lxxxvii, p. 175. 27 . Feria to Philip, 29 April 1559, CODOIN, lxxxvii, 177, trans. in Simancas , i, p. 63. 2 8. P a r k e r , Grand Strategy, p. xvi. 29 . Philip to de la Quadra, 9 July 1559, Simancas, i, pp. 82, 88. 30 . Elizabeth to Philip II, 25 July 1559 (draft in Cecil’s hand), NA SP 70/5 fol. 168r. 31 . Chaloner gave his credence verbally to Philip in Italian. Chaloner to Elizabeth, 3 August 1559, NA SP 70/6 fols. 20r–v. 32 . Philip to Elizabeth, 6 March 1560, NA SP 70/12 fol. 15r. 33 . In a Spanish translation of a letter dated 22 December 1577, Elizabeth’s address to Philip is rendered as “ hermano y pariente carísimo .” CODOIN xci, pp. 172–74. 214 Notes

34 . Instructions for Chaloner, NA SP 70/10, fols.121r-133r. 35 . Philip to Elizabeth, 24 December 1559 (autograph), Salisbury, i, p. 158. Latin transcription printed in A Collection of State Papers, i, p. 215. 36 . Philip to Elizabeth, 6 March 1560 (autograph), NA SP 70/12 fol. 374. 37 . For more on Mrs Feria see Albert J. Loomie, The Spanish Elizabethans (London: Burns & Oates, 1963), pp. 94–128. 38 . Elizabeth to Philip, 12 December 1560 (draft), NA SP 70/21, art. 493. 39 . Elizabeth to Philip, 14 Dec 1559, BL Royal MS 13 B i, fol. 22v. It was relatively common practice for ambassadorial couriers to carry the dispatches of other nationals. John B. Allen, Post and Courier Service in the Diplomacy of Early Modern Europe (The Hague: Nijoff, 1972), p. 26. 40 . De Quadra to Philip, 6 June 1562, CODOIN, lxxxvii, p. 400. 41 . De Quadra to Philip, 24 May 1562, Simancas, i, p. 237. 42 . De Quadra to Duchess of Parma, 6 June 1562, Simancas i, pp. 238–39. 43 . De Quadra to Philip, 20 June 1562, CODOIN, lxxxvii, p. 413. 44 . Elizabeth to Philip, c. July 1562 (draft), BL Royal MS 13 B i, fols. 76r-v. 45 . Philip to Elizabeth, 11 September 1562 (autograph), NA SP 70/41, fol. 105. 46 . Elizabeth to Philip, 22 September 1562 (draft), NA SP 70/41, fols. 239r-241r. 47 . Chaloner’s interview with Philip, 27 Nov 1562, NA SP 70/45 fols. 140–41. 48 . Elizabeth to Philip, 9 January 1563 (copy), BL Additional MS 48116 fol. 46r. 49 . Philip to Elizabeth, 2 April 1563 (autograph), NA SP 70/54, fol. 21. 50 . Philip to de Quadra, 31 March 1563, CODOIN, lxxxvii, pp. 510–11. 51 . Philip to de Quadra, 15 June 1563, CODOIN, lxxxvii, p. 522. 52 . Philip to de Silva, 24 October 1565, CODOIN, lxxxix, pp. 220–21. 53 . Chaloner to Mason, 9 February 1562, NA SP 70/35 fol. 29v. 54 . De Silva to Philip, 13 November 1564, CODOIN, lxxxix, p. 55. 55 . Gary M. Bell, “Elizabethan Diplomacy: The Subtle Revolution,” in Malcolm R. Thorp and Arthur J. Slavin (eds.), Politics, Religion and Diplomacy in Early Modern Europe: Essays in Honor of De Lamar Jensen (Kirksville, MO: Sixteenth Century Journal Publishers, 1994), pp. 272–75. 56 . Anthony Wood, Annals and antiquities of the colleges and halls in the University of Oxford , ed. J. Gutch (London, 1786), ii, pp. 149–51. 57 . De Silva to Philip, 11 February 1566, CSPSpan , i, p. 525. 58 . De Silva to Philip, 11 May 1568, CODOIN, xc, p. 63. Notes 215

59 . Elizabeth to Philip, 17 February 1566, Folger MS X.d.138; for a facsimile see Stewart and Wolfe, Letterwriting in Renaissance England, pp. 60–61. 6 0. G a r r e t t M a t t i n g l y , Renaissance Diplomacy (Boston: Houghton Miffin, 1955), p. 192. 61 . T. Gonzales, “Apuntamientos para la historia del Rey Felipe Segundo de España,” in Memorias de la Real Academia de la Historia (Tomo 7, Madrid, 1832), p. 328; Simancas , ii, p. 31. 62 . Philip only sent a letter of credence for de Silva (presumably to explain the situation) on 22 January: NA SP 70/96, fol. 154. 63 . Philip to Elizabeth, 6 April 1568 (autograph), NA SP 70/97 fol. 119. 64 . Philip to Elizabeth, 16 July 1568 (autograph), NA SP 70/100, fol. 43. 65 . Elizabeth to Philip, 13 September 1568 (autograph), NA SP 70/102 fol. 63. 66 . Gary M. Bell, “John Man: The Last Elizabethan Resident Ambassador in Spain,” The Sixteenth Century Journal , 7:2 (1976), p. 75. 67 . Spanish ambassadors had the advantage of using postal connec- tions in Flanders. Allen, Post and Courier Service, pp. 57, 103, 124. 68 . Elizabeth to Philip, 18 Jan 1569 (minute), NA SP 70/105 fol. 113. The letter is endorsed “sent by way of France.” 69 . Philip to Alba, 15 May 1569, Simancas, ii, p. 150; see also Alba to Philip, 10 May 1569, Simancas , ii, p. 149. 70 . Philip to Elizabeth (no date), CODOIN, xc, pp. 187–89. 71 . See Elizabeth to Philip, 20 December 1569, CUL, MS Camb /Lett.8, fols .33–36 and Philip to Elizabeth, 20 July 1569, MS Camb /Lett. 8, fols. 61–62. 72 . Parker, “Messianic Vision,” p. 197, n. 64. 73 . Elizabeth to Philip, 16 December 1571 (copy), NA SP 70/121, fols. 80r-1r. Several copies of this letter are extant, suggesting that she and her secretaries took care over its wording: NA SP 70/121 fols. 82–84; CUL, MS Camb/Lett. 8, fols. 109–11 and Baker MS 32, fols. 37–40. 74 . See Elizabeth to Philip, 19 June 1572 (copy), CUL, MS Camb/Lett. 8, fols. 123–26. 7 5. P a r k e r , Grand Strategy, p. 163. 76 . Cobham to Elizabeth, 2 May 1571, NA SP 70/118 fol. 2. 77 . For two copies of Elizabeth’s letter granting free passage to Philip’s fleet see CUL MS Camb/Lett.8, fol. 175 and Baker MS 32 fol. 58. Elizabeth requested the extradition of her rebels on 4 January 1575 (Baker MS 32 fols. 59–60) and thanked Philip for fulfilling this on 13 July 1575 (Baker MS 32 fol. 66). 78 . Elizabeth’s instructions for Cobham, 1 July 1575, NA SP 70/134 fols.156r-158v. 216 Notes

79 . Philip to Elizabeth, 1 September 1576, NA SP 70/139 fol. 123. 8 0. P a r k e r , Grand Strategy, p. 165. 81 . Elizabeth to Philip, 22 December 1577, CSPSpan , ii, p. 549. 82 . De Mendoza to Philip, 20 February 1580, CSPSpan , iii, p. 12. 83 . Philip to de Mendoza, 16 May 1580, CSPSpan , iii, p. 30. 84 . De Mendoza to Philip, 30 July 1580, Simancas, iii, p. 42. 85 . It was also around this time that Philip opened communications with James VI, much to Elizabeth’s disquiet. Concepción Sáenz- Cambra, Scotland and Philip II: 1580–1598 (Sevenoaks: Amherst, 2005). 86 . Philip to de Mendoza, 6 March 1581, CSPSpan, iii, pp. 86–87. 87 . Philip to de Mendoza, 23 August 1581, CSPSpan , iii, pp. 160–61. 88 . Philip to de Mendoza, 23 August 1581, CSPSpan , iii, p. 161. 89 . Philip to de Mendoza, 19 November 1581, CSPSpan , iii, pp. 219–20. 90 . De Mendoza to Philip, 7 November 1581, CSPSpan , iii, p. 209 (see footnote). 91 . “Statement by William Waad of his negotiations in Spain,” March 1584, NA SP 94/2 fol. 28. 92 . Gentili advised that de Mendoza be expelled and not executed. Artemis Gause, “Gentili, Alberico (1552–1608),” ODNB. 93 . De Mendoza to Philip, 26 January 1584, CODOIN, xcii, p. 531. This was no idle threat, since de Mendoza had commanded a cavalry company for ten years in Flanders. 94 . De Mendoza to Juan de Idiaquez, 30 January 1584, CSPSpan, iii, p. 517. 95 . Philip to de Mendoza, 1 March 1584, CSPSpan , iii, p. 519. 96 . For examples see Chaplais, English Diplomatic Practice, pp. 417–21. 97 . Edward P. Cheyney “International Law under Queen Elizabeth,” The English Historical Review, 20:80. (1905), p. 661. 98 . Burghley to Cecil, 2 December 1595, CUL, MS Ee.3.56 no. 73.

5 Silent Diplomacy: Queen Mary I of Scotland, 1559–1587 1 . Mary to Elizabeth, 30 April 1572 (autograph original), NA SP 53/8 fol. 84; trans. in CSPScot, iv, p. 267. 2 . Elizabeth to Cecil, 23 September 1564 (Latin, holograph), NA SP 52/9, fol. 113r; trans in CW, p. 115. 3 . Two copies in English of Mary’s and Francis’s use of the English titles on their letters patent in 1558 can be found in BL Cotton Caligula B/V fol. 325. 4 . Mary to Mary Tudor, c. January 1554, NA SP 51/1 fol. 14. 5 . Mary to Mary Tudor, 10 May 1557, NA SP 51/1 fol. 30. 6 . Julian Goodare, “Mary (1542–1587),” ODNB. Notes 217

7 . Maitland to Dudley, 26 December 1560, NA SP 52/5, fol. 148v. 8 . Elizabeth denied rumors that she had sent out her navy to impede Mary’s passage, claiming that she only had “two or three small barkes upon the seas” to apprehend Scottish pirates. Elizabeth to Mary, 16 August 1561 (autograph copy and draft), NA SP 52/6 fol. 123. 9 . Elizabeth to Mary, 23 November 1561 (autograph copy), NA SP 52/6, fol. 174r. 10 . Mary to Elizabeth, 5 January 1562 (autograph original), BL Additional MS 35831, fol. 2r. 11 . Mary to Elizabeth, 4 January 1562 (holograph original), NA SP 52/7 fol. 3r. Cecil has endorsed this as “The Scottish Quenes p[ri]vat l[ett]re to ye Q. Ma[jes]ty.” 12 . Elizabeth to Mary, 14 January 1562 (autograph draft), NA SP 52/7 fol. 7. 13 . Randolph to Cecil [confirming his instructions], 2 January 1561, NA SP 52/7, fol. 4v. 14 . Maitland to Cecil, 7 December 1561, NA SP 52/6, fol. 178r. 15 . Maitland to Cecil, 29 January 1562, NA SP 52/7, fol. 22v. 16 . Randolph to Cecil, 2 January 1561, NA SP 52/7, fol. 4v. 17 . Randolph to Cecil, 31 March 1562, NA SP 52/7, fol. 52r. 18 . Randolph to Cecil, 17 June 1562, NA SP 52/7, fol. 104v. 19 . Randolph to Cecil, 5 July 1562, NA SP 52/7, fol. 110v. 20 . Randolph to Cecil, 31 March 1562, NA SP 52/7, fol. 52r. 21 . Randolph to Cecil, 30 December 1562, NA SP 52/7, fol. 194r. 22 . Maitland to Cecil, 3 January 1563, NA SP 52/8, fol. 1r. 23 . Randolph to Cecil, 31 January 1563, NA SP 52/8, fol. 12r. 24 . Randolph to Cecil, 18 March 1563, NA SP 52/8, fol. 32v. 25 . Randolph to Cecil, 28 October 1562, NA SP 52/7, fols. 178r79v. 26 . Randolph to Cecil, 1 April 1563, NA SP 52/8, fol. 54v. 27 . Randolph to Cecil, 13 June 1563, NA SP 52/8, fol. 80r. 28 . Maitland to Cecil, December 1561, NA SP 52/6, fol. 178. 29 . Mary to Elizabeth, 5 January 1562, BL Additional MS 35831, fol. 2r. 30 . Randolph to Cecil, 31 December 1563, NA SP 52/8, fol. 176r. 31 . Maitland to Cecil, 18 September 1564, NA SP 52/9, fol. 104r–v. 32 . Maitland to Cecil, 6 June 1564, NA SP 52/9, fol. 84v. 33 . El i z a b e t h ’ s I n s t r u c t i o n s t o J o h n T h o m w o r t h , 3 0 J u l y 1 5 6 4 , CSPScot, ii, 187. 34 . Mary to Elizabeth, 15 June 1565 (holograph original), NA SP 52/10, fol. 131. 35 . Maitland to Cecil, 13 July 1564 CSPScot 2:69. 36 . Julian Goodare, “Mary Stuart,” ODNB. 37 . Mary to Elizabeth, 15 March 1566 (autograph original), NA SP 52/12, fol. 38. 38 . Mary to Elizabeth, 4 April 1566 (holograph original), NA SP 52/12, fol. 97v. 218 Notes

39 . Elizabeth to Mary, 13 June 1566, SP 52/12 fol. 69. Rayne Allinson, “Queen Elizabeth I and the ‘Nomination’ of the Young Prince of Scotland,” Notes and Queries , 53:4 (2006), pp. 425–27. 40 . Elizabeth to Mary, 2 December 1566 (holograph copy), NA SP 52/12 fol. 125. 41 . Jane E. A. Dawson, “William Cecil and the British Dimension of Early Elizabethan Foreign Policy,” History, 74:241 (1989), p. 214. 42 . Elizabeth to Mary, 24 February 1567 (holograph copy), NA SP 52/13 fol. 17. 43 . Elizabeth to Mary, 23 June 1567 (autograph draft), NA SP 52/13 fols. 71–72. 44 . Elizabeth to Mary, 30 June 1567 (autograph draft), NA SP 52/13 fol. 80. 45 . Mary to Elizabeth, 17 May 1568 (holograph original), BL Cotton Caligula C. i, fol. 92. 46 . Elizabeth to Mary, 17 May 1568 (holograph copy), NA SP 52/15 fol. 34. 47 . Elizabeth to Mary, 8 June 1568 (holograph copy), NA SP 53/1 fol. 16. 48 . Mary to Elizabeth, 22 June 1568 (holograph copy), BL Cotton MS Caligula C. i, fol. 144r. 49 . Elizabeth to Mary, 30 June 1568 (holograph copy), NA SP 53/1, fol. 24r. 5 0. G o r d o n D o n a l d s o n , The First Trial of Mary Queen of Scots (London: B. T. Batsford, 1969). For full transcriptions of the eight Casket Letters see A. E. MacRobert, Mary Queen of Scots and the Casket Letters (London; New York: I. B. Tauris, 2002), pp. 163–93. 51 . Elizabeth to Mary, 21 December 1568 (autograph original), BL Cotton MS Caligula C. i, fol. 367r. 5 2. M a r i a P e r r y , Elizabeth I: The Word of a Prince: A Life from Contemporary Documents (London: Folio Society, 1990), p. 205. 53 . Elizabeth to Mary, 20 January 1569 (holograph copy), NA SP 53/3, fol. 18r. 54 . Mary to Elizabeth, BL Cotton MS Caligula C i, fol. 394r. 55 . Mary to Elizabeth, 10 November 1569 (holograph original), BL Cotton MS Caligula C i, fol. 474r. 56 . Mary to Cecil, 9 December 1569, NA SP 53/5, fol. 84r. 57 . Mary to Elizabeth, 14 June 1570 (holograph original), BL Cotton Caligula C ii fol. 248. 58 . Elizabeth to Mary, 20 February 1570 (autograph draft), BL MS Cotton Caligula C i, fols. 380r–82v. 5 9. M a r y t o E l i z a b e t h , 1 4 J u n e 1 5 7 0 ( h o l o g r a p h o r i g i n a l ) , B L M S Cotton Caligula C ii, fol. 205v. 60 . Mary to Elizabeth, 29 December 1570 (autograph copy), BL Cotton MS Caligula C ii, fol. 4r. Notes 219

61 . Mary to Elizabeth, 13 May 1571 (autograph copy), BL Cotton MS Caligula C iii, fol. 75r. 62 . Mary to Elizabeth, 25 December 1571 (holograph original), BL Cotton Caligula C iii, fol. 245. 63 . Elizabeth to Mary (autograph draft with corrections in Burghley’s hand), 1 February 1572, NA SP 53/8 fol. 11r. 64 . Answer by Mary to Elizabeth’s Memoir, 14 Feb 1572, NA SP 53/8 fol. 14; trans. in CSPScot , iv, p. 115. 65 . Mary to Elizabeth, 30 April 1572 (autograph original) NA SP 53/8 fol. 84. 66 . BL Cotton MS Caligula C. iv, fol. 110r. For more on Mary’s life in captivity see A. Lang, “The Household of Mary Queen of Scots in 1573,” Scottish Historical Review (1905), pp. 345–55. 67 . See for example Mary’s letter of 1 Oct 1569. Susan Doran, Mary Queen of Scots: An Illustrated Life (London: The British Library, 2007), p. 149. 68 . Mary to Elizabeth, 30 July 1576 (holograph draft), NA SP 53/10 fol. 80. 69 . Mary to Elizabeth, 5 September 1576, BL Cotton MS Caligula B. vi, fol. 207r. James Douglas, fourth earl of Morton, was deposed as regent of Scotland in March 1578, but recovered his position of favour. 70 . Mary to Elizabeth, 2 May 1580 (autograph copy), BL Cotton MS Caligula C. vi, fol. 23r. 71 . Mary to Elizabeth, 8 November 1582, BL Sloane MS 3199, fol. 265v. 72 . Elizabeth’s “memorial” to Mary, 6 April 1583, NA SP 53/12, fols.100r–1r. 73 . Mary to Burghley, 9 February 1584, CSPScot, vii, p. 25. 74 . Ma r y t o E l i z a b e t h , 2 9 S e p t e m b e r 1 5 8 4 ( h o l o g r a p h o r i g i n a l ) , BL Cotton MS Caligula C vii fol. 140. At this time Castelnau’s relationship with Mary was coming under increasing suspi- cion thanks to a mole in his secretariat. John Bossy, Under the Molehill: an Elizabethan Spy Story (New Haven, CT; London: Yale University Press, 2001). 75 . Mary to Elizabeth, 8 December 1584, CSPScot, vii, p. 479. 76 . Mary to Elizabeth, 12 March 1586 (holograph copy), BL Cotton Caligula B viii fol. 146; for Mary’s threat to disavow James see Mary to Elizabeth, 23 March 1585 (holograph original), CP 133/57. 77 . Elizabeth’s speech to Parliament, 12 November 1586, BL Lansdowne MS 94, fols. 84r–85r. 78 . Elizabeth to Mary, 6 October 1586, BL Cotton MS Caligula, C. ix fol. 459. 220 Notes

79 . Mary to Elizabeth, 19 December 1586 (holograph copy), NA SP 53/20, fol. 40.

6 Marriage and Motherhood: Catherine de’ Médici, Queen Mother of France, 1559–1588 1 . Elizabeth to Catherine, c. July 1584 (holograph), CW, pp. 260–61; for original see ACFLO, p. 56. 2 . Ferrière , p. i. 3 . See for example the essays in Jane Couchman and Ann Crabb (eds.), Women’s Letters Across Europe, 1400–1700: Form and Persuasion (Aldershot; Burlington: Ashgate, 2005). 4 . R . J . K n e c h t , Catherine de Médici (London; New York: Longman, 1998), pp. 14, 21. 5 . Katherine Crawford, “Catherine de Médicis and the Performance of Political Motherhood,” The Sixteenth Century Journal, 31:3 (2000), p. 657 n. 45. Henceforth Crawford, “Political Motherhood.” 6 . Paulet to the Secretaries, 3 May 1578, CSPFor xii, no. 837 p. 657; Susan Doran, “Elizabeth I and Catherine de’ Médici,” in Glenn Richardson (ed.), “The Contending Kingdoms”: France and England 1430–1700 (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2008), pp. 118–19. 7 . Conyers Read, Mr. Secretary Cecil (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1955), p. 256. 8 . De Lamar Jensen, “Catherine de Médici and Her Florentine Friends,” The Sixteenth Century Journal , 9:2 (1978), pp. 61–62. 9 . Elizabeth to Catherine, 16 October 1567 (holograph copy), Harrison, pp. 51–52. 10 . Thomas Smith to Crofts, 21 March 1572, NA SP 70/146 fol. 57. 11 . Elizabeth McCartney, “In the Queen’s Words: Perceptions of Regency Government Gleaned from the Correspondence of Catherine de Médicis,” in Jane Couchman and Ann Crabb (eds.), Women’s Letters Across Europe, 1400–1700: Form and Persuasion (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2005), p. 219. 12 . See for example Catherine’s letter to Sebastien de L’Aubespine, bishop of Limoges [undated], BL Additional MS 19272 fol. 23r. 13 . De Q u a d r a t o P h i l i p , 2 2 N o v e m b e r 1 5 6 2 , CODOIN, lxxxvii, p. 432; De Quadra to Philip, 6 December 1562, CODOIN, lxxxvii, p. 436. 1 4. Catalogue of the collection of autograph letters and historical documents for med bet ween 1865 a nd 1882 by Alf red Mor rison , ed. A. W. Thibaudeau (London, 1883–92), ii, p. 78 (plate 70). Henry Woudhuysen, “The Queen’s Own Hand: A Preliminary Account,” in Peter Beal and Grace Ioppolo (eds.), Elizabeth I and the Culture of Writing (London: British Library, 2007),p. 26. Notes 221

15 . Although Castelnau was reappointed as resident ambassador to England in 1574 by Henry III, Mary Queen of Scots’ cause had been sidelined by the possibility of an Anglo-French marriage. 16 . Catherine to Elizabeth, 26 May 1568 (autograph, holograph postscript), Ferrière , iii, pp. 143–44; BL Cotton MS Caligula C i, fol. 102. 17 . This system was not always adhered to in practice. Allen, Post and Courier Service, p. 27. 18 . Henry Norris to Leicester and Cecil, 24 January 1569, NA SP 70/105 fol. 134v. 19 . This letter survives only as a copy in French by La Mothe Fènelon. Elizabeth to Louise, 4 February 1576, NA SP 70/137 fol. 79, trans. in CSPFor, xi, p. 241. 20 . La Mothe Fènelon to Walsingham, 21 February 1583, NA SP 78/9 fol. 40, trans in CSPFor , xvii, p. 141. 21 . Cobham to Walsingham, 14 March 1583, NA SP 78/9 fol. 60. 22 . Quoted in Susan Doran, “Elizabeth I and Catherine de’ Médici,” in Richardson (ed.), “The Contending Kingdoms,” p. 117. 23 . Sir Amias Paulet to Burghley, 23 May 1578, NA SP 78/2 fol. 107. 24 . Although Catherine was twice named as regent while Henry II was on military campaign in 1552–53, the government was effectively controlled by a regency council. Crawford, “Political Motherhood,” p. 652. Knecht, Catherine de Médici, p. 58. 2 5. K n e c h t , Catherine de Médici, p. 59; Crawford, “Political Motherhood,” p. 653. 26 . Doran, “Elizabeth I and Catherine de’ Médici,” p. 117; Patrick Forbes (ed.), A Full View of the Public Transactions in the Reign of Elizabeth, 2 vols., (London: J. Bettenham, 1740–1741), vol. 1, pp. 179–80. 27 . Instructions for Sir Peter Mewtas, 8 August 1559, NA SP 70/6 fol. 59. 28 . Throckmorton to Elizabeth, 15 August 1559, NA SP 70/6 fol. 82v. 29 . El i z a b e t h t o C a t h e r i n e , D e c e m b e r 1 5 6 0 ( a u t o g r a p h d r a f t ) , N A SP 70/21 fol. 144 (endorsed: “a parron of those l[ett]res that ar to be sent from thence hither if you shall think so good”/ Sir N. Throckmorton). 30 . BL Additional MS 8302, fols. 32r–3v. 31 . Killigrew and Jones to Elizabeth, 14 November 1559, NA SP 70/8 fol. 138. 32 . McCartney, “In the Queen’s Words,” p. 211; Crawford, “Political Motherhood,” p. 660 n. 58, pp. 663–64. 33 . Crawford, “Political Motherhood,” p. 669. 34 . Catherine to Elizabeth, 25 January 1563 (autograph original), NA SP 70/49 fol. 120. 35 . Elizabeth to Catherine, 7 February 1563, NA SP 70/50 fols. 112r–v. 222 Notes

36 . Elizabeth to Catherine, 16 October 1567, Harrison , pp. 51–52. 37 . Wilkes to Walsingham, 4 November 1574, NA SP 70/132 fol. 99. 38 . Dale to Elizabeth, 8 November 1574, NA SP 70/132 fol. 102v. 39 . Dale to Walsingham, 7 September 1575, NA SP 70/135 fol. 100. 40 . Dale and Paulet to Elizabeth, 13 October 1575, NA SP 70/140 fol. 34v. 41 . Elizabeth to Henry, 10 March 1585 (autograph copy), NA SP 78/13 fol. 55; trans. in CSPFor, xix, pp. 337–38. 42 . Elizabeth to Henry, 10 March 1585 (autograph copy), NA SP 78/13 fol. 55; trans. in CSPFor, xix, pp. 337–38. 43 . Elizabeth to Catherine, 10 March 1585 (autograph copy), NA SP 78/13 fol. 56. 44 . Paulet to Burghley, 3 May 1578, CSPFor, xii, p. 656. 45 . Elizabeth to Catherine, 15 September 1573 (holograph? copy), NA SP 70/128 fol. 144; trans. in CSPFor, x, p. 418. 46 . Elizabeth to Catherine, 10 August 1574 (autograph original), NA SP 70/131 fol. 160; trans. in CSPFor, x, p. 539. 47 . Doran, “Elizabeth I and Catherine de’ Médici,” p. 132. 48 . Doran, “Elizabeth I and Catherine de’ Médici,” p. 129; Doran, Monarchy and Matrimony, p. 130. 49 . De Mendoza to Philip, 13 September 1579, Simancas , ii, p. 695. 5 0. Q u o t e d i n D o r a n , Monarchy and Matrimony, p. 131. 51 . Norris to Elizabeth, 10 Feb 1569, NA SP 70/105 fol. 178; Ferrière, iii, p. 224. 52 . Doran, “Elizabeth I and Catherine de’ Médici,” p. 129. 53 . Norris to Elizabeth, 17 March 1570, NA SP 70/111, fol. 30. 54 . De Spes to Philip, 10 April 1571, Simancas ii, p. 302. 55 . Walsingham to Cecil, 21 August 1570, NA SP 70/113, fol. 135. 56 . Catherine to Elizabeth, 5 June 1572, BL Cotton MS Vespasian F v fol. 86. 57 . Elizabeth to Catherine, 15 September 1573, NA SP 70/128 fol. 144, trans. in CSPFor x, p. 418. 58 . Catherine to Elizabeth, 8 June 1578, NA SP 78/2 fol. 49 (holograph original); trans. in CSPFor xiii, p. 4. 59 . Catherine to Elizabeth, 9 November 1578 (holograph original), NA SP 78/2 fol. 82. 60 . Henry to Catherine, 9 November 1579 (autograph), CSPFor xiii, p. 273. 61 . Elizabeth to Catherine, 9 March 1579 (autograph draft), NA SP 78/3 fol. 25; trans. in CSPFor, xiii, p. 448. 62 . Catherine to Elizabeth, 8 December 1580 (holograph?), Ferrière, vii, p. 299; Catherine to Elizabeth (holograph original), 18 February 1581, NA SP 78/5 fol. 20. 63 . Catherine to Elizabeth, 26 July 1583 (holograph copy), BL Cotton MS Caligula C vi fol. 298. Notes 223

64 . El i z a b e t h t o C a t h e r i n e , c . J u l y 1 5 8 4 ( h o l o g r a p h ) , ACFLO, pp. 56–57; trans. in CW, p. 261. 65 . Catherine to Elizabeth, 25 July 1584, Ferrière, viii, pp. 199–200. 66 . Catherine to Elizabeth, 23 August 1588, NA SP 78/18 fol. 317.

7 Inward and Secret Letters: Tsar Ivan IV of Russia, 1561–1583 1 . Russian State Archive of Ancient Acts, Moscow, fund 35, opis’ 2, no. 3; facsimile printed in Olga Dmitrieva and Natalya Abramova (eds.), Britannia & Muscovy: English Silver at the Court of the Tsars (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006), p. 209. Henceforth Dmitrieva and Abramova, Britannia & Muscovy. 2 . Sir Jerome Horsey, “Relacion or memoriall abstracted owt of Sir Jerome Horsey his travells, imploiments, services and negocia- cions, observed and written with his owne hand,” printed (from the original MS) in Edward A. Bond, Russia at the Close of the Sixteenth Century (London: Hakluyt Society, 1861), pp. 184, 146. Henceforth Horsey, “Travels.” Horsey probably wrote this account between mid-November 1589 and late March 1590, shortly before return- ing to Russia as an official ambassador. Richard Hellie, “Horsey, Sir Jerome (d. 1626),” ODNB. Extracts were published as an adden- dum to the fourth edition of Samuel Purchas’s Purchas his Pilgrimage (London: W. Stansby, 1626), pp. 973ff. 3 . Horsey does not record how long his journey took, but he must have undertaken it outside the time of the company’s annual ship- ments. Horsey, “Travels,” pp. 190–193. 4 . Horsey, “Travels,” p. 193. 5 . Horsey, “Travels,” p. 194. 6 . T h e boyars were members of the highest rank of the Russian feudal aristocracy, second only to the ruling princes. 7 . Tolstoi, p. xxiv. 8 . Tolstoi, pp. 171–73. 9 . Re letters, 18 originals from Elizabeth to the tsars are to be found in the Russian State Archives of Ancient Records in Moscow, while 17 Russian translations of Elizabeth’s letters are in the Collection of the Imperial Historical Society, Petrograd, vol. 38 (printed from the “English Books” in the collection of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs, Moscow). Several letters from later tsars to Elizabeth are in Bodleian, MS Ashmole, 1538–40. For additional material on Anglo- Russian relations see Janet M. Hartley (ed.), Guide to Documents and Manuscripts in the United Kingdom Relating to Russia and the Soviet Union (London; New York: Mansell, 1987). Inna Lubimenko, “A Suggestion for the Publication of the Correspondence of 224 Notes

Queen Elizabeth with the Russian Czars,” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 3rd Series, ix (1915), p. 115. Henceforth Lubimenko, “A Suggestion for Publication.” 10 . Robert M. Croskey “Hakluyt’s Accounts of Sir Jerome Bowes’ Embassy to Ivan IV,” The Slavonic and East European Review, 61:4 (1983), pp. 546–564. 11 . Lubimenko, “A Suggestion for Publication,” pp. 119–122. 12 . Subsequent studies have revealed that Tolstoi’s dating is not always reliable: see for example Henry R. Huttenbach, “New Archival Material on the Anglo-Russian Treaty of Queen Elizabeth I and Tsar Ivan IV,” The Slavonic and East European Review , 49:117 (1971), pp. 535–549; Morgan and Coote (eds.), Early Voyages and Travels to Russia and Persia by Anthony Jenkinson and other Englishmen (2 vols., London: Hakluyt Society, 1886). Henceforth Morgan and Coote, Early Voyages and Travels. 13 . In the absence of trained interpreters for the trade in Persia (which the company first sought to establish in 1561), Arthur Edwards advised the Muscovy Company’s Governors in 1566 to “buy a slave that can speake this language and the Portingal [Portuguese] tongue also, which shall then interprete unto us in all your secret doings, not making the Russes privy, for they are sory that we doe trade into these partes.” Hakluyt, p. 357. 1 4. Hakluyt, p. 309. 1 5. Tolstoi, p. vii. 1 6. Hakluyt, p. 309. 17 . Lane was able to submit a copy of Elizabeth’s reply in Latin for publication. Hakluyt, p. 375. 18 . Hellie, “Horsey,” ODNB . 19 . Horsey, “Travels,” p. 233. Horsey’s enthusiasm was evidently shared by Mark Ridley (sent by Elizabeth to act as a personal physician to Ivan’s successor, Feodor), who compiled the first bilingual “dictionarie of the vulgar Russe tongue” in 1599. A Dictionarie of the Vulgar Russe Tongue, ed. Gerald Stone (Köln: Böhlau, 1996). 20 . Horsey, “Travels,” p. 232. According to Purchas, the letters were read aloud by “Master Secretay,” William Cecil. Purchas His Pilgrimage, p. 987. 21 . Horsey also noted that he was able to learn Russian “havinge some smake [smack, i.e., experience] in the Graek.” Horsey, “Travels,” pp. 233, 156. See also H. Leeming, “Russian Words in Sixteenth- Century English Sources,” The Slavonic and East European Review, 46:106 (1968), p. 6. 2 2. Hakluyt, p. 255. 23 . Gustave Alef, “The Adoption of the Muscovite Two-Headed Eagle: A Discordant View,” Speculum , 41:1 (1966), pp. 1–21. For an example of this seal see NA SP 102/49 fol. 1. Notes 225

24 . Anna Riehl Bertolet, “The Tsar and the Queen: ‘You Speak a Language that I Understand Not,’” in Charles Beem (ed), The Foreign Relations of Elizabeth I (New York: Palgrave, 2011), p. 105. 2 5. H o r s e y , “ T r a v e l s , ” p . 2 3 2 . 26 . Ivan to Elizabeth, 24/28 October 1570, NA SP 102/49 fol. 1; Ivan to Elizabeth, May 1582, NA SP 102/49 fol. 2. For an unornamented letter see Ivan to Elizabeth, 20 June 1569, BL Cotton MS Nero B xi fols. 316–17 (a facsimile of this letter is in Felix Pryor, Elizabeth I: Her Life in Letters (London: University of California Press, 2003). pp. 54. For descriptions of other Russian royal letters see Lubimenko “Correspondence of Queen Elizabeth with the Russian Czars,” p. 527; Lubimenko, “The Correspondence of the First Stuarts with the First Romanovs,” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 4th Series, vol. 1(1918), p. 79. 27 . Ivan to Elizabeth, c. August 1571, BL Cotton MS Nero B viii, fol. 19v. 2 8. Tolstoi, p. 408. 29 . Lubimenko, “Correspondence of Queen Elizabeth with the Russian Czars,” p. 528. 30 . The Russian year began on 1 September and ended 31 August, which further complicates letter dating (Russia did not adopt the Gregorian calendar until after the October Revolution on 1917). Lloyd E. Berry and Robert O. Crummey (eds.), Rude & Barbarous Kingdom: Russia in the Accounts of Sixteenth-Century English Voyagers (Madison; London: University of Wisconsin Press, 1968), p. xxi. 3 1. E v a n s , Principal Secretary of State, p. 160, n. 1. The Stuarts also wrote letters to the tsar in English: see Inna Lubimenko, “Letters Illustrating the Relations of England and Russia in the Seventeenth Century,” The English Historical Review, 32:125 (1917), p. 92. My thanks to Sergei Bogatyrev for confirming this point. 32 . For a description of the translating process see Sir William Garrard’s instructions to Jenkinson in May 1570 in Morgan and Coote, Early Voyages and Travels, vol. 2, pp. 286–87. 3 3. T . S . W i l l a n , Early History of the Russia Company, 1553–1603 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1956), pp. 109–110. 3 4. M o r g a n a n d C o o t e , Early Voyages and Travels, vol. 2, pp. 286–7. See for example BL MS Lansdowne 112 no. 33. 35 . Lubimenko, “Letters Illustrating the Relations of England and Russia in the Seventeenth Century,” p. 92. 36 . Elizabeth to Ivan, 25 April 1561 (copy), Hakluyt, p. 398–40. 3 7. Hakluyt, p. 338; Tolstoi, pp. 17–22. 38 . Arthur Edwards eventually succeeded in obtaining a grant of privileges from the shah in 1566, and the Persian trade became an arm of the Muscovy Company until 1581, when it ceased to be profit- able. Willan, Early History of the Russia Company, pp. 60, 154. 226 Notes

39 . Ivan to Elizabeth 16 September 1566 (copy), Tolstoi, p. 37. Tolstoi dates this letter to 1567, but Willan argues convincingly for a date of 1566. As mentioned above, the Russian year began in September so it is possible both are right, depending on whether or not the date is taken to correspond to the English year. 40 . Ivan to Elizabeth c. September 1567 (copy), CP, 155 fol. 59v. Elizabeth’s reply refers to a previous grant of privileges given in 1564: BL MS Royal 13 B i, fols. 189–90. Hakluyt, pp. 372–73. 41 . Ivan to Elizabeth October 1570 (copy), BL Cotton MS Nero B xi, fol. 347v. For original see NA SP 102/49 fol. 1. 4 2. W i l l a n , Early History of the Russia Company, p. 96. 43 . Iv a n t o E l i z a b e t h , N o v e m b e r 1 5 6 7 ( c o p y ) , B L C o t t o n M S N e r o B xi, fols. 332r–v. 44 . See for example Ferdinand to Elizabeth, 28 July 1560, BL Cotton MS Nero B ix, fol. 96. 45 . Ivan describes the merchants’ mission in his letter of 10 April 1567, BL Cotton MS Nero B xi, fol. 343r. For the original Russian see BL Cotton MS Nero B viii, fol. 1. 46 . Henry Lane to Hakluyt, n.d., Hakluyt, p. 375. 47 . Iv a n t o E l i z a b e t h , N o v e m b e r 1 5 6 7 ( c o p y ) , B L C o t t o n M S N e r o B xi, fol. 332v. 48 . Instructions for Randolph, 26 June 1568, Tolstoi , p. 45. 49 . Morgan and Coote, Early Voyages and Travels, ii, p. 250. 50 . Ivan to Elizabeth, 20 June 1569 (original), BL Cotton MS Nero B xi, fols. 316–317. 51 . Ivan to Elizabeth, 20 June 1569 (copy), BL Cotton MS Nero B viii, fols. 7r–8v. 52 . Elizabeth to Ivan, May 1570 (copy), BL Cotton MS Nero B viii, fol. 23r. Savin was probably assisted in his translation by Daniel Sylvester, who described himself as “the interpretor of the ambassador of the Emperore of Russia.” 53 . Sir William Garrard to Cecil, May 1570; Morgan and Coote, Early Voyages and Travels, ii, pp. 286–87. 54 . Elizabeth to Ivan, May 1570, BL Cotton MS Nero B xi, fols. 345r–346r. 55 . Edward Keenan argues that Ivan was illiterate, although the fact that there are no documents surviving in Ivan’s hand is not nec- essarily proof of his illiteracy. “Muscovite Folkways,” The Russian Review, 45 (1986) pp. 115–81. 56 . Savin to Cecil, 6 May 1570, BL Cotton MS Nero B XI, fol. 335r. 57 . The original long draft is BL Cotton MS Nero B xi, fols. 345r–346r. 58 . Elizabeth to Ivan, 18 May 1570 (copy), BL Cotton MS Nero B xi, fols. 341r–341v. Notes 227

59 . The contemporary Russian translation of the letter includes an affirmation by Sylvester that it is “the trew copie.” Tolstoi, p. 98. 60 . Elizabeth to Ivan, 24 January 1571, CUL, Baker MS. 32, fols. 29–30. This must have been sent before Ivan’s letter of 24 October 1570 was received. 61 . Interestingly, the English version mistranslates “confirmation by oath” as “without some golde,” an error that reveals latent English prejudices about the Russians. BL Cotton MS Nero B viii, fol. 21r. 62 . Ivan to Elizabeth, 24 October 1570 (copy), BL Cotton MS Nero B xi, fols. 347r–348v. 63 . Bertolet, “The Tsar and the Queen,” p. 101. 64 . Elizabeth to Ivan, 2 June 1571 (copy), Morgan and Coote, Early Travels and Voyages , ii, pp. 297–98. An incomplete English translation is provided in Tolstoi , p. 119. 6 5. W i l l a n , Early History of the Russia Company, pp. 65–66. 66 . Ivan to Elizabeth, May 1572, Tolstoi , p. 147. 67 . Elizabeth to Ivan, 26 July 1573 (copy), CUL Baker MS 32, fols. 52–4; Lubimenko, “Correspondence of Queen Elizabeth with the Russian Czars,” pp. 532, 529. 68. Ivan to Elizabeth, 20 August 1574 (copy), Tolstoi, pp. 153–58. 69 . Instructions for Sylvester, May 1575, Tolstoi , p. 163. 70 . Instructions for Sylvester, May 1575, Tolstoi, pp. 164–65. 71 . BL Cotton MS Nero B xi, fols. 349r–351v. Most of the points in Sylvester’s instructions were included in the two letters Elizabeth sent with him to the Tsar, dated 9 and 10 May. CUL Baker MS 32, fols. 52–4. 72 . Ivan described his treasures and ornaments to Sylvester and noted (somewhat disturbingly) that “We taulke unto them in o[ur] own langwadge.” BL Cotton MS Nero B viii, fols. 22v–24r; Cotton MS Nero B xi, fol. 353v (this is essentially a copy of the former MS, with minor alterations). 73 . Horsey, “Travels,” pp. 184, 194. 74 . The move to St. Nicholas angered Frederick II of Denmark who stood to lose substantial revenue from the Sound tolls, and also because munitions could be more easily shipped through the new route. 75 . Ivan’s letter of credit for Pissemskoy can be found in Tolstoi, p. 189. 76 . Instructions for Bowes, 19 June 1583, BL Cotton MS Nero B viii, fols. 32r–3v. 77 . Russian State Archive of Ancient Acts, Moscow, fund 35, opis’ 2, no. 4; reproduced in Dmitrieva and Abramova, Britannia & Muscovy , p. 211. 7 8. Hakluyt, ii, pp. 251–63. 228 Notes

7 9. H o r s e y , “ T r a v e l s , ” p . 2 0 0 . 80 . It is unclear precisely what Bowes meant by a “bare letter”; it might refer to a lack of ornamentation or to a general lack of substance in its contents. 8 1. Hakluyt , ii, p. 463. 82 . Lubimenko, “The Correspondence of Queen Elizabeth with the Russian Czars,” pp. 528, 537. 83 . Lubimenko, “The Correspondence of the First Stuarts with the First Romanovs,” pp. 77–78.

8 Letters Full of Marvels: Sultan Murād III of the Ottoman Empire, 1579–1595 1 . Translation quoted in S. A. Skilliter, “Three Letters from the Ottoman ‘Sultana’ Safiye to Queen Elizabeth I,” Documents from Islamic Chanceries, Oriental Studies III, first series, ed. S. M. Stern (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1965), pp. 130–33; for original see BL Cotton MS Nero B viii, fols. 61r–v. The “Agha” referred to is probably the eunuch Gazanfer Agha, one of Safiye’s extensive Venetian faction. I thank Jane Hathaway and Nabil Matar for their comments on this chapter. 2 . “The perticulers and the value of the Present sent from the Greate Sultan to hir Majesie in Anno. 1593,” quoted in Skilliter, “Three Letters from the Ottoman ‘Sultana’ Safiye to Queen Elizabeth I,” p. 148. 3 . For more on the very visible role that Safiye played in Ottoman politics see Maria Pia Pedani, “Safiye’s Household and Venetian Diplomacy,” Turcica 32 (2000) pp. 9–32; Leslie P. Peirce, The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), p. 219–228. 4 . S . A . S k i l l i t e r , William Harborne and the Trade with Turkey, 1578–1582: A Documentary Study of the First Anglo-Ottoman Relations (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977), p. 90. Henceforth Skilliter, Harborne. 5 . William Harborne, “William Harborn his seruice to her Magestie and Commons, in his tenn yeares forrayne travell and residence att Constantinoble,” Bodleian Library, Oxford, Tanner MS 77, fol. 8. 6 . The English continued to refer to Istanbul as “Constantinople” in their correspondence, although the Ottomans themselves also sometimes referred to the city as Konstantiniyye (the name was not officially changed until the Turkish Republic was declared in 1923). The term “Sublime Porte” was used frequently by Western ambassadors to describe the center of Ottoman government, Notes 229

although until the 1650s the “Porte” technically referred to the peripatetic seat of the Sultan. 7 . In 1565/6 Elizabeth received a brief letter of goodwill from “the grand Turk” (either Suleiman I or his successor Selim II), rendering his good wishes and salutations, but it is not clear if any response was made. BL Cotton MS Nero B xi, fol. 76r. 8 . In January 1592 the Turkey Company amalgamated with the Venice Company to form the Levant Company. To avoid confu- sion, I refer to both as “the company.” 9 . Lisa Jardine, “Gloriana Rules the Waves: or, the Advantage of Being Excommunicated (and a Woman),” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 14 (2005) pp. 209–222. 10 . For further discussion of the representation of Turks in English popular culture see Nabil I. Matar, Islam in Britain, 1558–1685 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), esp. pp. 50–72; also Jonathan Burton, Traffic and Turning: Islam and English Drama, 1579–1624 (Cranbury: Rosemont Publishing, 2005). For more English travel accounts see Kenneth Parker (ed.), Early Modern Tales of Orient: A Critical Anthology (London: Routledge, 1999). 1 1. J o h n F o x e , Actes and monuments (London, 1583), p. 737. 1 2. Hakluyt , pp. 69–70. 13 . “Memorandum on the Turkey Trade,” Francis Walsingham, c.1578; quoted in Skilliter, Harborne, p. 28. 14 . John H. Appleby, “Jenkinson, Anthony (1529–1610/11),” ODNB ; H. G. Rawlinson, “The Embassy of William Harborne to Constantinople,” Transaction of Royal Historical Society, 4th ser. 5 (1922), p. 18. 15 . Christine Woodhead, “Harborne, William (c. 1542–1617),” ODNB. 1 6. J o h n T a y l o r , The Carriers Cosmographie (London, 1637), aiiir. 1 7. S k i l l i t e r , Harborne, p. 127; John B. Allen, Post and Courier Service in the Diplomacy of Early Modern Europe (The Hague: Nijhoff, 1972), pp. 38, 66, 86. 18 . Harborne to Walsingham, 15 January 1584, NA SP 97/1, fol. 46r. 1 9. A l l e n , Post and Courier Service , p. 37. 20 . Barton to Burghley, 19 August 1592, NA SP 97/2, fol. 167r. In the same packet Barton probably sent Murād’s letter (Latin copy) of August 1592, NA SP 102/61 fol. 48. 21 . Harborne to Walsingham, 24 October 1583 (largely in cipher), NA SP 97/1, fols. 40r–1r. 22 . Barton to Walsingham, 12 and 27 June 1589, NA SP 97/1, fol. 172v. 23 . Burghley to Barton, 22 August 1590, NA SP 97/2, fols. 33r–v. 24 . Barton to Walsingham, 14 and 28 February, 1589, NA SP, 102/61, fol. 9v. See also Barton to Burghley, 20 March 1594, NA SP 97/2, fol. 267v. 230 Notes

25 . Barton to Walsingham, 29 June 1589, NA SP 97/1, fol. 174r. 26 . Arthur L. Horniker, “Catalog of Turkish Documents: Documents concerning Poland and neighboring countries 1455–1672” [book review] , Journal of the American Oriental Society 90:4 (1970), p. 570. See also Horniker, “William Harborne and the beginnings of Anglo-Turkish diplomatic and commercial relations,” Journal of Modern History 14 (1942), pp. 289–316. Safiye’s letter described above appears to be an exception to this paper-only rule. 2 7. S k i l l i t e r , Harborne, p. 14. 2 8. H a n n a h E . M c A l l i s t e r , “ Tu g h r a s o f S u l a i m ān the Magnificent,” The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 34:11 (1939), pp. 247–48. 2 9. S k i l l i t e r , Turkish Documents Relating to Edward Barton’s Embassy to the Porte (unpublished PhD thesis, University of Manchester, 1965), p. 175. Henceforth Skilliter, Edward Barton. 30 . Horniker, “Catalog of Turkish Documents,” p. 570. 3 1. Hakluyt , p. 292. For more on the compositional structure of Ottoman Imperial letters, see V. L. Ménage, “On the Constituent Elements of Certain Sixteenth-Century Ottoman Documents,” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London , 48:2 (1985), pp. 283–304. 3 2. S k i l l i t e r , Harborne, p. 49, n. 2. 33 . Harborne to Walsingham, 15 January 1584, NA SP 97/1, fol. 46v. 34 . Barton to Walsingham, 14 June 1590, NA SP 97/2, fol. 27v. 35 . Mendoza to Philip II, CSPSpan, 1568–1579 , p. 699. 3 6. M u r ād to Elizabeth, 15 March 1579 (Latin translation), BL Cotton MS Nero B viii, fols. 50r–v; Skilliter, Harborne, p. 49. Another Latin copy is in Sir Stephen Powle’s Commonplace Book, Bod Tanner MS 169, fol. 5. 3 7. S k i l l i t e r , Harborne, pp. 49–54. 38 . Although Arabic was being taught at the Oxford and Cambridge universities by the 1570s, Turkish was not commonly studied until the later seventeenth century. The History of the University of Oxford, eds. T. H. Aston, J. I. Catto, Ralph Evans et al. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), vii, pp. 475–76, 483. The lull in the Levant trade may also explain why no translators were available. Hakluyt in turn may have edited his English version of the Sultan’s letter (e.g., leaving out references to “Muslim”) so as not to offend his English audience. 39 . It ’ s i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t E l i z a b e t h s e n t h e r l e t t e r t o M u r ād in Latin, since she sent letters to the Sultan of Morocco, Mulay Ahmad al- Mansur, in Spanish. Nabil Matar, “Queen Elizabeth I Through Moroccan Eyes,” Journal of Early Modern History, 12 (2008), 55–76. 40 . Franklin L. Baumer, “England, the Turk, and the Common Corps of Christendom,” The American Historical Review, 50:1 (1944), p. 30. Notes 231

4 1. M u r ād’s to “members of the Lutheran sect in Flanders and Spain,” 1574, quoted in Skilliter, Harborne, p. 37. 42 . Harborne to Walsingham, 15 January 1584, NA SP 97/1, fol. 46r. 4 3. Q u o t e d i n S k i l l i t e r , Harborne, p. 37. 4 4. E l i z a b e t h t o M u r ād, 25 October 1579 (Latin copy), Bod Tanner MS 169, fols. 7r–8r; NA SP 97/1, fols. 4r–v. 4 5. M u r ād to Elizabeth, 4 March 1580, quoted in Skilliter, Harborne, p. 77. 46 . A Latin translation of the privileges is available in Bod Tanner MS 169, fols. 8–10r; another copy is also to be found in NA SP 97/1, fols. 5r–8r. 47 . V. L. Menage, “The English Capitulation of 1580: A Review Article,” International Journal of Middle East Studies, 12:3 (1980), pp. 375–76. 4 8. S k i l l i t e r , Harborne, p. 98. 49 . Garrett Mattingly, “An Early Nonaggression Pact,” The Journal of Modern History 10:1 (1938), p. 9; Nicholas A. H. Craft, “The 1518 Treaty of London and Early Modern Approaches to International Relations” (Unpublished MA thesis, University of Melbourne, 2006). 5 0. M u r ād to Elizabeth, 21 June 1580, quoted in Skilliter, Harborne, p. 116. 5 1. S k i l l i t e r , Harborne, pp. 119–21. 5 2. M u r ād to Elizabeth, 10 Sept 1580, translation in Skilliter, Harborne, p. 123. 53 . The French king was afforded the title of Padishah or “Emperor,” whereas (ironically) the Holy Roman Emperor was addressed merely as Qir āl or “King,” since at the time Rudolf II was obliged to pay an annual tribute to the Sultan. Skilliter, Harborne, p. 126. 54 . According to Skilliter, the lack of a majestical address suggests the letter was “composed in a moment of crisis.” Harborne, p. 144. 5 5. S k i l l i t e r , Harborne, p. 263, for an English translation see pp. 142–43. 56 . Skilliter, “Three Letters from the Ottoman ‘Sultana’ Safiye to Queen Elizabeth I,” pp. 146–48, 153. Henry VIII also enjoyed the “Turkey fasshion”; see Edward Hall, The vnion of the two noble and illustre famelies of Lancastre [and] Yorke (London, 1548), viii, fol. 6v. I thank Gerald Maclean for sharing this reference with me. 57 . For discussion of Ottoman diplomatic ceremonial, see L. Saunders, “The Motives, Pattern and Form of Anglo-Ottoman Diplomatic Relations, c.1580–1661” (unpublished DPhil thesis, University of Oxford, 1994), pp. 47–81. For more on the gifts presented to Murād and Safiye, see Stanley Mayes, An Organ for the Sultan (London: Putnam, 1956), pp. 41, 54, 58–59, 92. 232 Notes

58 . De Lamar Jensen, “The Ottoman Turks in Sixteenth-Century French Diplomacy,” The Sixteenth century Journal, 16:4 (1985), pp. 457, 467. 5 9. E l i z a b e t h t o M u r ād, 8 January 1581, quoted in Skilliter, Harborne, p. 263, English translation pp. 142–43. 60 . Menage, “The English Capitulation of 1580,” p. 378. 61 . An itemized list of the “presents senter for the gran sig[or] and others” can be found in NA SP 97/1, fols. 24v–25r. Skilliter, Harborne, p. 200. Jensen, “Ottoman Turks in Sixteenth-Century French Diplomacy,” p. 467 n. 71. 6 2. E l i z a b e t h t o M u r ād, 26 June 1581 (Latin copy), NA SP 97/1, fol. 16r. Skilliter, Harborne, pp. 271–72. 6 3. M u r ād to Elizabeth, 30 April 1583 (Original autograph), NA SP 102/61 fol. 3. 64 . Harborne to Walsingham, 27 January 1584, NA SP 97/1, fol. 52r. 65 . Harborne to Walsingham, 15 January 1584, NA SP 97/1, fol. 47r. 66 . Saunders, “Motives, Pattern and Form,” p. 122. 67 . Unknown to Edward Unton, 5 February 1584 (most in cipher), NA SP 78/11 fol. 19; for a translation from the cipher see CSPFor, xviii, p. 340; Anon, Coppie de la requeste presentee au Turc par l’Argent de la Royne d’Angleterre (Verdun, 1589), pp. 4–5. This work also contains several anti-Elizabethan verses in French and Latin, pp. 14–16. 68 . Stephen Powle to Walsingham, 3 February 1588, CSPFor, xxi, p. 504. 6 9. S k i l l i t e r , Edward Barton, p. 13. 70 . Harborne to Walsingham, 19 June 1588, NA SP 97/1, fol. 125v. 71 . Harborne’s copy of his “petition” to the Sultan, sent to Walsingham, 1 August 1588, NA SP 97/1, fols. 128r–v. 72 . This is an English translation of a Latin copy of Murād’s original letter published in Nikolaus Reusner’s Epistolarum Turcicarum vari- orum et diversorum Authorum (Frankfurt: J. Collitius, 1598–1600), xxii, pp. 42–44. 73 . Saunders, “Motives, Pattern and Form,” p. 110. 7 4. B a r t o n t o B u r g h l e y , 1 6 F e b r uary 1591 (parts ciphered), NA SP 97/2, fol. 74r. 75 . G. Gifford’s “Report of the affairs of Turkey and the agent’s state there” to Burghley, 8 February 1591, NA SP 97/2, fol. 161v. 76 . Barton to Walsingham, 15 August 1588, NA SP 97/1, fol. 132r. 77 . Barton to Walsingham, 29 August 1588, NA SP 97/1, fol. 139r. 78 . In 1596 John Sanderson noted that Barton’s “extraordinary esteme” at the Ottoman court was due chiefly to the favor of “the Turks mother,” Safiye. Quoted in Peirce, The Imperial Harem, p. 224. 79 . Barton to Walsingham, 29 June 1589, NA SP 97/1, fol. 174r. 8 0. M u r ād to Elizabeth, c. 14 February 1589 (Latin copy), NA SP 102/61 fols. 11–12. Notes 233

8 1. E l i z a b e t h t o M u r ād, 22 August 1590 (Latin copy), NA SP 102/61, fol. 25. 8 2. M u r ād to Elizabeth, 20 June 1590, NA SP 102/61 fol. 20 (Latin copy), fol. 23 (original Turkish). Another Latin copy is in BL Add. 48082, fols. 281r–2r, and an English translation in BL Stowe 161 fols.35r–v. See also CSPVen 1581–91 , pp. 494–95. 83 . Barton to Burghley, 24 June 1590, NA SP 97/2, fols. 27r–v. 84. Burghley to Barton, 2/3 October 1590, NA SP 97/2, fol. 44r. 8 5. LASPF, vol. 5 (July 1593–Dec 1594), no. 691. Nevertheless, the English also managed to intercept Murād’s letters to the French king. See for the example Murād to Henry IV, c. December 1591 (French copy), NA SP 102/61 fols. 45r–v. 8 6. E l i z a b e t h t o M u r ād, 22 August 1590, NA SP 102/61 fols. 24r–v. 87 . Burghley to Barton, 2/3 October 1590, NA SP 97/2, fol. 44v. 8 8. A pasha was a senior official in central or provincial administration. Burghley to Barton, 22 August 1590, NA SP 97/2 (draft in Cecil’s hand), fol. 35v. 89 . Burghley to Barton, 2/3 October 1590, NA SP 97/2, fol. 44r. 90 . Barton to Burghley, 26 December 1590, NA SP 97/2, fol. 54v. 91 . Murad to Elizabeth, 20 January 1591 (Latin translation), NA SP 102/61 fol. 48. 92 . Barton to Burghley, 16 February 1591, NA SP 97/2, fol. 72r. 93 . Barton to Burghley, 11 April 1591, NA SP 97/2, fol. 90r. 94 . Barton to Burghley, 11 April 1591, NA SP 97/2, fols. 95r–v. 95 . Barton to Burghley, 11 April 1591, NA SP 97/2, fols. 95rv. 96 . During the reign of James I the English ambassador to the Porte had his own seal (though it is unclear whether this was a deputed privy seal or another kind) to better facilitate routine business at the Porte. Saunders, “Motives, Pattern and Form,” pp. 125–26. 97 . Barton to Burghley, 22 March 1594, NA SP 97/2, fol. 267r. 98 . Barton to Burghley, 11 April 1591, NA SP 97/2, fol. 95v. 99 . Safiye to Elizabeth I, 4 December 1593, Skilliter, “Three Letters from the Ottoman ‘Sultana’ Safiye to Queen Elizabeth I,” pp. 130–33. 1 0 0. M u r ād to Elizabeth, c.February 1592 (Latin translation), NA SP 102/61, fol. 48. According to Skilliter, this was the last English document to be “leaked” to other European diplomats in Istanbul. Edward Barton, p. 53. 101 . Sciaus Pasha to Elizabeth, 15 July 1592, NA SP 102/61 fols. 46–47. 1 0 2. M u r ād to Elizabeth, 24 Feb 1592 (Turkish Register-copy), quoted in Skilliter, Edward Barton, pp. 70, 145. Skilliter suggests that this letter may not have been sent, as no original survives. 103 . Skilliter, “Three Letters from the Ottoman ‘Sultana’ Safiye to Queen Elizabeth I,” p. 146. 234 Notes

1 0 4. Tu r k i s h r e g i s t e r - c o p y , q u o t e d i n S k i l l i t e r , Edward Barton, pp. 149–50. 105 . Despite Safiye’s attempted intervention on Elizabeth’s behalf on the issue of the Hungarian war, the Venetian ambassador reported that “his Majesty would lend no ear to her.” Quoted in Peirce, The Imperial Harem, p. 225. 106 . Barton to Elizabeth, 20 September 1595, NA SP 97/3, fols. 21r–v. 107 . See the diary of Thomas Dallam, BL MS Add. 17480. 108 . Burian, “Interest of the English in Turkey,” p. 210. James VI published a treatise denouncing the Turks in 1588: A fruitefull meditation (Edinburgh, 1588; reprinted London, 1603).

9 Well Worth a Letter: King Henry IV of France, 1572–1603 1 . Elizabeth I to Henry IV, c. July 1593 (holograph, copy), CP, cxxxiii, fol. 101r; trans. in CW, p. 371. 2 . Elizabeth I to Henry IV, c. July 1593 (holograph, copy), CP, cxxxiii, fol. 101r. 3 . A marriage was briefly mooted a couple of times before 1572 but never seriously considered. Doran, Monarchy and Matrimony, pp. 101, 113, 120; Desmond Seward, The First Bourbon: Henry IV, King of France and Navarre (London: Gambit, 1971), pp. 30–31. 4 . G a r r e t t M a t t i n g l y , Renaissance Diplomacy (Boston: Houghton, 1955) p. 195. 5 . De Lamar Jensen, “French Diplomacy and the Wars of Religion,” The Sixteenth Century Journal, 5:2 (1974), p. 25. 6 . John Bennet Black’s study is the only work which claims to exam- ine their relationship in depth, but it draws on a limited range of diplomatic sources. J. B. Black, Elizabeth and Henry IV: Being a Short Study in Anglo-French Relations, 1589–1603 (Oxford: Blackwell, 1914). 7 . A letter described in the Summary Catalogue of Western Manuscripts in the Bodleian Library (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1953) as being a holograph from Elizabeth to Henry IV dated c. May 1587 is in fact a letter from Elizabeth to Henry III, in which she complains about the detention of English shipping and his refusal to give audience to her ambassador. The catalogue refers to a facsimile of this letter given in Isographie des Hommes Celebres (3 vols., Paris, 1828–30), ii, p. 3, which bears the same erroneous title. 8 . For relevant ambassadorial correspondence see J. Stevenson (ed.), Correspondence of Sir Henry Unton (London, 1847). Thomas Edmondes’s papers are held in BL Stowe MSS 166–77. Several letters from the correspondence of Jean de la Fin, Seigneur de Notes 235

Beauvoir-la-Nocle, are printed in Gustav Ungerer, A Spaniard in Elizabethan England: The Correspondence of Antonio Pérez’s Exile (2 vols., London: Tamesis Books, 1976). 9 . B e r g e r d e X i v r e y ( e d . ) , Collection de Documents Inedits sur l’Histoire de France: Recueil des Lettres Missives de Henry IV (9 vols., Paris, 1843). A long list of published collections of Henry’s letters is printed in Bernard Barbiche (ed.), Lettres de Henry IV (Vatican City, 1968). 10 . Nancy Lyman Roelker, Queen of Navarre: Jeanne d’Albert, 1528–1572 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1968), p. 410. 1 1. D a v i d B u i s s e r e t , Henry IV (London: Allen and Unwin, 1984), p. 203. See also Xivrey, i, pp. xx–xxi. 12 . Throckmorton’s “memorial” to the Queen of Navarre, 20 January 1561, NA SP 70/22 fol. 112. Throckmorton had been having clan- destine communications with Antoine of Navarre since 1559. Wallace T. MacCaffrey, “The Newhaven Expedition, 1562–1563,” The Historical Journal , 40:1 (1997), pp. 4–5. 13 . Henry to Elizabeth, 11 July 1572 (autograph original), BL Cotton MS Vespasian F/V fol. 111a. 14 . See Henry to Paulet, 18 September 1577, NA SP 78/1 fol. 29. 15 . Henry to Walsingham, 3 March 1580, NA SP 78/4A fol. 27. 16 . Henry to Burghley, 13 April 1580, NA SP 78/4a fol. 48. 17 . Points communicated from Henry to Walsingham, c. August 1581, NA SP 78/6 fol. 26a. 18 . Henry to Elizabeth, 16 April 1582 (holograph original), NA SP 78/7 fol. 53. 1 9. B u i s s e r e t , Henry IV, p. 18. 20 . Henry to Elizabeth, 12 March 1585 (holograph copy), NA SP 78/13 fol. 42. 21 . Courtiers like the Earl of Essex frequently used the rhetoric of love to further their objectives at court. See Carole Levin, The Heart and Stomach of a King: Elizabeth I and the Politics of Sex and Power (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1994), p. 152. 22 . MacCaffrey, “The Newhaven Expedition,” pp. 1–21. 23 . Henry to Elizabeth, 5 April 1585 (holograph copy), Xivrey, ii, pp. 31–33. 24 . Henry to Elizabeth, 8 May 1585 (holograph copy), Xivrey, ii, pp. 51–53. 25 . Henry to Elizabeth, 8 May 1585 (holograph copy), Xivrey, ii, 55–56. 2 6. R o n a l d S . L o v e , Blood and Religion: The Conscience of Henry IV, 1553–1593 (Montreal; London: McGill Queens University Press, 2001), p. 128. 27 . Henry to Elizabeth, mid-February 1586 (copy), Xivrey, ii, p. 190. 28 . Henry to Elizabeth, 8 October 1587 (copy), Xivrey, ii, pp. 305–06. 29 . Henry to Elizabeth, mid-October 1587 (copy), Xivrey, ii, p. 307. 3 0. Q u o t e d i n M a r t h a W a l k e r , History of the Reign of Henry IV (London: Hurst and Blackett, 1860), i, p. 71. 236 Notes

31 . Henry to Elizabeth, c. September 1589 (copy), Xivrey , iii, pp. 50–51. 32 . Henry to Elizabeth, 5 November 1589 (holograph original), Xivrey, iii, pp. 66–67. 33 . Elizabeth to Henry, c. 1590 (copy), Bibliothèque de l’Institut de France, Paris, Godefroy MS 262, i, fol. 25. This letter contains a curious heart-symbol in the text; my thanks to Guillaume Coatalen for sharing this with me. 34 . Henry to Elizabeth, 16 January 1590 (copy), Xivrey, iii, pp. 120–21. 35 . Henry to Elizabeth, late April 1590 (holograph copy), Xivrey, iii, pp. 188–89. 36 . Henry to Elizabeth, late October 1590 (autograph copy), Xivrey, iii, pp. 279–80. 37 . Elizabeth to Henry, February 1591 (holograph?), quoted in Martha Walker, History of the Reign of Henry IV, vol. 1, p. 311. 38 . Henry to Elizabeth, 11 April 1591 (holograph copy), Xivrey, iii, pp. 370–71. 39 . Elizabeth to Henry, April 1591 (holograph copy), CP, cxlvii, fol. 74. 40 . See for example the pink flossing on Henry to Elizabeth, 21 May 1591 (holograph original), BL Cotton MS Caligula E/VII fol. 363; and 13 June 1591 (holograph original), BL Cotton MS Caligula E/ VII fol. 364. 41 . Elizabeth to Henry, 27 July 1591 (holograph copy), NA SP 78/25 fol. 94. 42 . See for example Elizabeth to Henry, August 1591 (autograph copy), BL Cotton MS Caligula E, viii, fols. 231, 233, 237. 43 . Henry to Elizabeth, 15 August 1591, NA SP 78/25 fol. 161. 44 . Elizabeth to Henry, 9 November 1591 (holograph copy), Harrison, pp. 218–19. 45 . Mocenigo to the Doge and Senate of Venice, 20 November 1591, CSPVen, viii, p. 563. 46 . Henry to Elizabeth, 18 February 1592, Xivrey, iii, p. 568; Henry to Elizabeth, 24 March 1592, Xivrey, iii, p. 584. 47 . Unton to Burghley, 1 February 1592, in J. Stevenson (ed.), Correspondence of Sir Henry Unton , pp. 296–97. 48 . The editors of CW date this letter as “c. 1590” based on apparent references to the English expedition of 1589, but they could just as easily refer to events of 1591. CW, p. 363. 49 . Elizabeth to Henry, c. 1592 (holograph original), Folger MS V.b. fol. 131r–v. Linda Shenk, Learned Queen: The Image of Elizabeth I in Politics and Poetry (Houndsmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), p. 139. 5 0. B l a c k , Elizabeth & Henry IV , p. 65. 51 . Elizabeth to Henry, c. July 1593 (holograph copy), BL Cotton MS Titus C vii, fol. 161; CW, p. 371. Notes 237

52 . Elizabeth to Henry, c. July 1593 (holograph copy), CP, cxxxiii, fols. 102r–v. 53 . Henry to Elizabeth, 15 August 1593, Xivrey, iv, pp. 13–14. 54 . Elizabeth to Henry, c. October 1593, CP, cxxxiii, fols. 110r–v. 5 5. U n g e r e r , A Spaniard in Elizabethan England, i, pp. 149–50. Elizabeth to Henry, September 1593, CP, cxxxiii, fol. 107r. 56 . Elizabeth to Henry, 14 November 1593 (holograph copy), NA SP 78/32 fol. 308. 57 . Henry to Elizabeth, 26 March 1594 (holograph original), Xivrey, iv, pp. 125–28. 58 . Henry to Elizabeth, 14 Nov 1594 (holograph original), BL Cotton MS Caligula E ix, fol. 212. 59 . He n r y t o E l i z a b e t h , c . 1 5 9 4 ( h o l o g r a p h c o p y ) , Xivrey, iv, pp. 292–94. 60 . Elizabeth to Henry, c. December 1594 (holograph copy), Harrison , pp. 232–33. 61 . Henry to Elizabeth, 5 October 1595, Xivrey, iv, pp. 417–20. 62 . Elizabeth to Henry, 2 September 1596 (holograph copy), NA SP 78/36 fol. 5. 63 . Elizabeth to Henry, 10 April 1597 (holograph copy), CP, cxxxiii, fol. 142. 64 . Elizabeth to Henry, c. 1596 (holograph copy), CP, cxxxiii, fol. 93. In Salisbury (xiii, 1545) this letter is tentatively dated as c. 1596, but based on the contents it seems more likely to have been written after the conclusion of Vervins. This could be the letter dated 22 September 1598, which Henry refers to in Xivrey, v, 36. 65 . Henry to Elizabeth, 9 June 1599 (holograph original), Xivrey, v, pp. 134–35. 66 . Henry to Elizabeth, 6 October 1599 (autograph original), Xivrey, v, pp. 168–70. 67 . Elizabeth to Henry, c. 22 December 1600 (holograph copy), CP, cxxxiv, fol. 7. 68 . Henry to Elizabeth, 17 May 1600 (original autograph), Xivrey , v, pp. 231–32. 69 . Elizabeth to Henry, c. January 1601 (holograph copy), Harrison, pp. 282–83. 70 . Catherine to Elizabeth, 18 April 1590, BL Cotton MS Vespasian F/ III fol. 160. 71 . Catherine to Elizabeth, c. 1595, CP, cxlvii, fol. 64r. Claude Dulong-Sainteny, “Les signes cryptiques dans la correspondance d’Anne d’Autriche avec Mazarin, contribution à l’emblématique du XVIIe siècle,” Bibliothèque de l’école des chartes, v. 140 (1982), p. 68. I am grateful to Heather Wolfe for drawing my attention to this article. 72 . Catherine to Elizabeth, c. 1595 CP, cxlvii, fol. 62r. 238 Notes

73 . Catherine de Bourbon to Elizabeth, c. 1595, CP, cxlvii, fol. 62r. Catherine also wrote several letters to “our cousin and dear friend” the Earl of Essex, which were unornamented. See for example Catherine to Essex, c. Feb 1598, CP 147 fol. 134. 74 . Elizabeth to Henry, 20 March 1601 (holograph original), Harrison , pp. 283–84. 75 . Henry to Elizabeth, 12 July 1602 (holograph copy), BL Stowe MS 154, fol. 4r (contemporary English trans.). 76 . Henry to Elizabeth, 10 September 1602 (holograph copy), BL Stowe MS 154, fol. 4v (contemporary English trans.). 77 . Henry to Elizabeth, 18 September 1602 (holograph copy), Xivrey, v, pp. 674–75. 78 . El i z a b e t h t o H e n r y, 1 0 J a n u a r y 1 6 0 3 ( h o l o g r a p h c o p y ) , C P, c x x x i v, fol. 20. 7 9. S e e L o v e , Blood and Religion , p. 221; Edmund H. Dickerman, “The Conversion of Henry IV: ‘Paris Is Well Worth a Mass’ in Psychological Perspective,” The Catholic Historical Review , 63:1 (1977), p. 13.

10 Mine Own Hand: King James VI of Scotland, 1579–1603 1 . James to Elizabeth, c. July 1602 (holograph original), CP 133 fol. 163. 2 . For more on Elizabeth’s letters of advice see Rayne Allinson, “Conversations on Kingship: The Letters of Queen Elizabeth I and King James VI,” in Liz Oakley-Brown and Louise Wilkinson (eds.), The Rituals and Rhetoric of Queenship; Medieval to Early Modern (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2009), pp. 131–44. 3 . J . E . N e a l e , Queen Elizabeth I (London: Harmondsworth, [1934] 1973), p. 391; Doran, “Loving and Affectionate Cousins? The Relationship Between Elizabeth I and James VI of Scotland, 1586–1603,” in Susan Doran and Glenn Richardson (eds.), Tudor England and Its Neighbours (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), p. 205. 4 . Mary to Countess of Mar, 22 Jan 1570, CSPScot, iii, p. 57. 5 . Elizabeth to James, 20 May 1578 (autograph), NA SP 52/27, fol. 68r. 6 . Elizabeth to James, 29 June 1596 (holograph copy), NA SP 52/58 fol. 108. 7 . Lena Cowen Orlin, “The Fictional Families of Elizabeth I,” in Carole Levin and Patricia A. Sullivan (eds.), Political Rhetoric, Power and Renaissance Women (Albany: SUNY Press, 1995), pp. 98–102. 8 . James to Elizabeth, 1595 July 8, CP 133 fol. 137. 9 . “The opinion and advice of the queen’s majesty . . . ” 22 January 1572, BL Cotton MS Caligula C. iii, fol. 199. 10 . Elizabeth to James, 5 May 1572 (autograph original), NAS SP 1/5, fols. 92r–v. Notes 239

11 . James to Elizabeth, 13 June 1572, NA SP 52/23/2 fol. 97. James’s mother Mary similarly “authored” a number of royal letters after her father James V died on 14 December 1542, when she was only 6 days old: see for example Mary to Charles V, 11 November 1543 (signed “Jacobus Gubernator” by her regent, James Hamilton, 2nd Earl of Arran), L&SP, vol. 18 part iii, p. 203 no. 368. 12 . James to Elizabeth, 1 July 1578 (autograph), NA SP 52/27 fol. 45; Elizabeth to James, 28 July 1579 (autograph copy) NA SP 52/27 fol. 65. 13 . Elizabeth to James, c. August 1579 (autograph copy), NA SP 52/27 fol. 66. 14 . Elizabeth to James, 22 February 1580 (holograph copy), NA SP 52/28 fol. 2. 15 . Elizabeth to James, 31 August 1580 (autograph copy), NA SP 52/28 fol. 146. 16 . Janel Mueller, “To My Very Good Brother the King of Scots: Elizabeth I’s Correspondence with James VI and the Question of the Succession,” Publications of the Modern Language Association of America, 115 (2000), pp. 1065–66. 17 . James to Elizabeth, 19 June 1582 (autograph copy), NA SP 52/30 fol. 10. 18 . Elizabeth to James, 30 August 1582 (holograph copy), NA SP 52/30 fol. 395. 19 . James to Elizabeth, 29 September 1582 (copy), NA SP 52/30 fol. 399. 20 . James to Elizabeth, 1 February 1583, CSPScot, vi, p. 285; James to Elizabeth, 12 September 1583 (autograph original), NA SP 52/33 fol. 40. 21 . James to Elizabeth, 29 March 1583 (holograph original), CP, cxxxiii, fol. 26r. 22 . James to Elizabeth, 2 July 1583 (autograph copy), NA SP 52/32 fol. 87. 23 . James to Elizabeth, 9 July 1583 (holograph original), CP, cxxxiii, fol. 29r. 24 . James to Mary, 29 January 1581 (holograph original), NA SP 53/11 fol. 44. 25 . Elizabeth to James, 7 August 1583 (holograph copy), NA SP 52/33 fol. 6. 26 . Sir James Melville, The Memoirs of Sir James Melville of Halhill, ed. Gordon Donaldson (London: Folio Society, 1969), p. 297. 27 . G. P. V. Akrigg (ed.), Letters of King James VI & I (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1984), p. 25. See for example James to Elizabeth, March 1587, BL Additional MS 23240, art. 20, fols. 65r–6v (holograph draft). 28 . “Orders to be Observed by the Post,” 30 Sept 1582, Cotton Caligula C/VI fol. 66. A marginal note bemoans that “fewe or none [of the 240 Notes

post masters] hath anie horse in their stable but all at grasse and to help the matter very many ill horse.” 29 . James to Elizabeth, 29 September 1582 (holograph copy), NA SP 52/30 fol. 399. 30 . James to Elizabeth, 2 July 1582 (autograph copy), NA SP 52/32 fol. 87. 31 . Elizabeth to James, 29 October 1593 (autograph draft), NA SP 52/51 fol. 55. 32 . Elizabeth to James, c. January 1593 (holograph), BL Additional MS 23240 art. 32, fols. 108r–9v; Elizabeth to James, April 1591 (holograph), BL Additional MS 23240 art.29, fols. 98r–9v; Elizabeth to James, Jan. or Feb. 1596 (holograph), BL Additional MS 23240 art. 42, fols. 140r–1v. 33 . Elizabeth to James, c. January 1593 (holograph), BL Additional MS 23240 art. 32, fols. 108r–9v; Elizabeth to James, April 1591 (holograph), BL Additional MS 23240 art. 29, fols. 98r–9v; Elizabeth to James, Jan or Feb 1596 (holograph), BL Additional MS 23240 art. 42, fols. 140r–1v. 34 . Elizabeth to James, 25 November 1591, NA SP 52/47 fol. 113. 35 . James I’s speech to Parliament, 1607, in Johan P. Sommerville (ed.), James VI and I: Political Writings (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), p. 173. 36 . James to Elizabeth, 4 May 1584 (autograph original), NA SP 52/47 fol. 113. 3 7. Simancas , iii, p. 518. 38 . Elizabeth to James, 19 May 1584 (autograph), BL Add 23240, art. 2, fols. 5r–6r. My emphasis. 39 . James to Mary, 28 May 1582, NA SP 53/12 fol. 12; trans. in Akrigg, Letters of King James VI & I, p. 46. 40 . “Articles whereupon an Act of Parliament may be made, to be added to the Act entitled For the Q. Majesty’s Safety” (draft in Burghley’s hand), NA SP 12/176/1 fol. 67. 41 . Elizabeth to James, May 1585, CSPScot, vii, p. 641. 42 . James to Mary, 3 July 1585 (holograph original), CP 133 fol. 45. 43 . James to Elizabeth, 27 June 1585 (holograph original), CP 133 fol. 44; James to Elizabeth, 28 November 1585 (holograph original), BL Cotton MS Caligula C/VII fol. 379. 44 . James to Elizabeth, 27 June 1585 (holograph original), CP 133 fol. 44. 45 . James to Elizabeth, 13 August 1585 (holograph original), CP 133 fol. 47. 46 . James to Elizabeth, 27 June 1585 (holograph original), CP 133 fol. 44. 47 . James to Elizabeth, 19 July 1585 (holograph copy), NA SP 52/37 fol. 95. Notes 241

48 . James to Elizabeth, 13 August 1585 (holograph original), CP 133/47; James to Elizabeth, 19 August 1585, CP 133/55. 49 . This evidence contradicts Doran’s argument that both monarchs only began to manipulate the language of affection and kinship “[o]nce the Treaty of Berwick was signed . . . as a rhetorical device to emphasise obligations.” Doran, “Loving and Affectionate Cousins,” pp. 203–04. In fact, Elizabeth and James engaged in this rhetoric for a long time before the treaty was signed, specifically in order to influence the terms of its conclusion. 50 . “The League between England and Scotland,” June 1586, NA SP 52/40 fol. 61. 51 . Interestingly, Bruce transcribes this line as “my womb hit had bine you bare.” Bruce, p. 72. 52 . Elizabeth to James, c. January 1593, CP 133 fol. 116. 53 . Elizabeth to James, March 1586 (holograph), BL Additional MS 23240 art. 12, fols. 38r–9v. 54 . James to Elizabeth, 1 April 1586, BL Add. 23240, art. 13, fol. 41r. 55 . Elizabeth to James, March 1586 (holograph), BL Additional MS 23240 art. 12, fols. 38r–9v. 56 . Mueller, “To My Very Good Brother the King of Scots,” p. 1067. Bod, Ashmole MS 1729, fol. 13; reproduced in Pryor, Her Life in Letters, p. 65. 57 . James to Elizabeth, 19 August 1585, CP 133 fol. 55. 58 . Elizabeth to James, 2 June 1586 (autograph copy), NA SP 52/40 fols. 1–2. 59 . James to Elizabeth, 10 May 1586 (autograph copy), NA SP 52/39 fol. 71. 60 . Elizabeth to James, 4 October 1586 (holograph) BL Additional MS 23240, art. 16 fol. 49. 61 . Elizabeth to James, 15 October 1586 (holograph), BL Additional MS 23240, art. 17, fol. 53. 62 . James to Elizabeth, 26 January 1587 (holograph), BL Cotton Caligula C/VIII fol. 192. 63 . Jennifer M. Brown, “Scottish Politics 1567–1625,” in Alan G. R. Smith (ed.). The Reign of James VI and I (London: Macmillan, 1977 [1973]), pp. 36–37. 64 . Elizabeth to James, 14 February 1587 (holograph copy), BL Cotton MS Caligula C. ix, fol. 212r. 65 . Sir Walter Scott (ed.), Memoirs of Robert Carey, Written by Himself (Edinburgh: A. Constable and Co., 1808), p. 12. 66 . James to Elizabeth, c. March 1587 (holograph original), BL Additional MS 23240, art. 20, fol. 65r. 67 . Elizabeth to James, 4 October 1586 (holograph), BL Additional MS 23240, art. 16, fol. 49. 242 Notes

68 . Elizabeth to James, 1 July 1588 (holograph), BL Additional MS 23240 art. 22, fols. 71r–2v. 69 . James to Elizabeth, 4 August 1588 (holograph), CP 133 fol. 85. 70 . James to Elizabeth, 26 July 1594 (holograph copy), BL Harley MS 292 fol. 82; James to Elizabeth (holograph original), 5 June 1594, CP 133 fol. 125. 71 . Elizabeth to James, 10 August 1594 (holograph copy), NA SP 52/54 fol. 3. 72 . Bowes to Burghley, 4 October 1596, NA SP 52/59 fol. 54v–55r. 73 . Instructions given by Bowes to [George Nicolson], 14 December 1596, Cotton MS Caligula D/II fol. 205. 74 . James to Elizabeth, c. July 1602, CP 133 fol. 163. 75 . James to Elizabeth, 24 Dec 1597, CP 133 fol. 176. 76 . For more on this period of the correspondence see Rayne Allinson, “‘These Latter Days of the World’: the Correspondence of Elizabeth I and James VI, 1590–1603,” Early Modern Literary Studies, Special Issue 16 (October, 2007) 2.1–27. [http://extra.shu.ac.uk/emls/si-16 /allilatt.htm] 77 . Elizabeth to James, August 1591, Laing MS III.371, art. 9, fols. 21–22. 78 . James to Elizabeth, c. July 1602 (holograph original), CP 133 fol. 163. 79 . See John Bruce (ed.), Correspondence of King James VI. of Scotland with Sir Robert Cecil and others in England, during the reign of Queen Elizabeth (London: Camden Society, 1861). 80 . James to Elizabeth, c. September 1600, CP 133 fol. 185. 81 . Elizabeth to James, 6 January 1603 (holograph), BL Additional MS 18738, fol. 40v. 8 2. T h o m a s B i r c h , Memoirs of the reign of Queen Elizabeth from the year 1581 till her death (London, 1754), ii, p. 512. 83 . Sir Francis Bacon, The Felicity of Queen Elizabeth and Her Times with other things (London: T. Newcomb, 1651), p. 21.

C o n c l u s i o n 1 . G e o f f r e y E l t o n , Political History: Principles and Practice (London: Penguin Press, 1970), p. 14. 2 . G e o f f r e y E l t o n , England 1200–1600; The Sources of History: Studies in the Use of Historical Evidence (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1969), p. 44. 3 . Elizabeth’s Rebuke to the Polish Ambassador, Paul de Jaline, 25 July 1597, CW , p. 332. 4 . Elizabeth to Mary, 23 Nov 1561, CSPScot , i, p. 572.

A DDITIONAL READING

Elizabeth I’s Writings in Print Bruce, John (ed.), Letters of Queen Elizabeth and King James VI of Scotland. xlvi, London: Camden Soc., 1849. Harrison, George B. (ed.). The Letters of Queen Elizabeth I. New York: Funk and Wagnalls, [1935] 1968. Marcus, Leah S., Janel Mueller, and Mary Beth Rose (eds.). Elizabeth I: Collected Works. Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2000. May, Steven W. (ed.). Elizabeth I: Selected Works. Washington, DC: Folger Shakespeare Library, 2004. Mueller, Janel (ed.). Elizabeth I: Translations. 2 vols. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009. Mueller, Janel, and Leah S. Marcus (eds.). Elizabeth I: Autograph Compositions and Foreign Language Originals. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000. Pryor, Felix (ed.). Elizabeth I: Her Life in Letters. London: British Library, 2003.

General Works on Letter Writing, Politics, and Diplomacy Alford, Stephen. Burghley: William Cecil at the Court of Elizabeth I. London; New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008. Allen, John B. Post and Courier Service in the Diplomacy of Early Modern Europe . The Hague: Nijhoff, 1972. Beal, Peter, and Grace Ioppolo (eds.). Elizabeth I and the Culture of Writing. London: British Library, 2007. Beem, Charles (ed.). The Foreign Relations of Elizabeth I. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011. Bell, Gary M. A Handlist of British Diplomatic Representatives 1509–1688. London: Boydell and Brewer, 1990. Bossy, John. Giordano Bruno and the Embassy Affair. New Haven, CT; London: Yale University Press, 1991. Chaplais, Pierre. English Diplomatic Practice in the Middle Ages. London; New York: Hambledon, 2003. 244 Additional Reading

Couchman, Jane, and Ann Crabb (eds.) Women’s Letters Across Europe, 1400–1700: Form and Persuasion. Aldershot; Burlington: Ashgate, 2005. Clanchy, M. T. From Memory to Written Record, 1066–1307. Oxford: Blackwell [1979], 1999. Daybell, James (ed.). Early Modern Women’s Letter-Writing, 1450–1700. New York; Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001. Daybell, James (ed.). Women and Politics in Early Modern England, 1450–1700. Aldershot; Burlington: Ashgate, 2004. Dixhoorn, Arjan van, and Susie Speakman Sutch (eds.). The Reach of the Republic of Letters: Literary and Learned Societies in Late Medieval and Early Modern Europe. 2 vols. Leiden: Brill, 2008. Doran, Susan. Monarchy and Matrimony: The Courtships of Elizabeth I. London; New York: Routledge, 1996. Doran, Susan. “Elizabeth I’s Religion: The Evidence of Her Letters.” The Journal of Ecclesiastical History, 51:4 (2000), pp. 699–720. Doran, Susan, and Glenn Richardson (eds). Tudor England and Its Neighbours. Basingstoke; New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005. Doran, Susan, and Glenn Richardson (eds.). “The Contending Kingdoms”: France and England 1430–1700. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2008. Elton, G. R. England 1200–1600; The Sources of History: Studies in the Use of Historical Evidence. London; Southampton: Hodder and Stoughton, 1969. Herman, Peter C. (ed.). Reading Monarch’s Writing: The Poetry of Henry VIII, Mary Stuart, Elizabeth I, and James VI/I. Tempe: Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 2002. Hunter, Dard. Papermaking: The History and Technique of an Ancient Craft. London: Courier Dover, 1978. Jensen, De Lamar. “French Diplomacy and the Wars of Religion,” The Sixteenth Century Journal, 5:2 (1974), pp. 23–46. Jensen, De Lamar. “The Ottoman Turks in Sixteenth-Century French Diplomacy,” The Sixteenth Century Journal, 16:4 (1985), pp. 451–70. Levin, Carole. The Heart and Stomach of a King: Elizabeth I and the Politics of Sex and Power. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1994. Lubimenko, Inna. “A Suggestion for the Publication of the Correspondence of Queen Elizabeth with the Russian Czars,” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society , 3rd Series, ix (1915), pp. 111–22. Mattingly, Garrett. Renaissance Diplomacy. Boston: Penguin Books, 1955. Maxwell-Lyte, H. C. Historical Notes on the Use of the Great Seal of England. London: HMSO, 1926. McAllister, Hannah E. “Tughras of Sulaimān the Magnificent,” The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 34:11 (1939), pp. 247–48. Parker, Geoffrey. The Grand Strategy of Philip II. New Haven, CT; London: Yale University Press, 1998. Additional Reading 245

Poster, Carol, and Linda C. Mitchell, (eds.). Letter-Writing Manuals and Instruction from Antiquity to the Present . Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2007. Robertson, Jean. The Art of Letter Writing: An Essay on the Handbooks Published in England During the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. London: University of Liverpool Press, 1942. Sharpe, Kevin, and Peter Lake (eds.). Culture and Politics in Early Stuart England . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1993. Skilliter, S. A. William Harborne and the Trade with Turkey, 1578–1582: A Documentary Study of the First Anglo-Ottoman Relations. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977. Stewart, Alan. Shakespeare’s Letters. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008. Stewart, Alan, and Heather Wolfe. Letterwriting in Renaissance England. Washington, DC: Folger Shakespeare Library, 2004. Willan, T. S. The Early History of the Russia Company, 1553–1603. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1956.

I NDEX

Aethelbert, King of Kent, 2 B o l e y n , A n n e , 1 3 A l b a , D u k e o f , 5 6, 6 6, 6 7 B o w e s , S i r J e r o m e , 3 3, 3 4, 1 1 3, 1 2 8 A l b e r t , D u k e o f P r u s s i a , 3 8, 4 1 Bowes, Sir Robert, 180 Aldfrith, King of Northumbria, 3 Braganza, Catherine, Duchess of, 27 A l e n ç o n , F r a n c i s , D u k e o f (see Anjou , Buggins, Edward, 142 Francis , Duke of) Burghley, William Lord ( see Cecil , Alfred, King of Wessex, 3 Sir William, Lord Burghley) A n d r é , B e r n a r d , 7 Anjou, Francis, Duke of, 34 , Calvin, John, xi 1 0 5 – 1 0 8, 1 5 4 C a l v i n i s m , 1 5 3, 1 5 5, 1 6 0 Anjou, Henry, Duke of Carey, Sir Robert, 179 (see Henry III , King of France) Carmelianus, Petrus, 6 Anna, Queen of Scotland, 24 , 29 Castelnau, Michel de, Sieur de A n n a o f A u s t r i a , 6 7 M a u v i s s i è r e , 9 0, 9 7 A n t h o n y , D e r r i c k , 3 1 Cateau-Cambrésis, Treaty of, 38 , A n t o n i o o f P o r t u g a l , 6 9, 7 0 4 6, 7 5 A r u n d e l , E a r l o f , 6 4 C a t h e r i n e d e B o u r b o n , 1 6 2, 1 6 4, 1 9 1 A s c h a m , R o g e r , 1 1 – 1 3, 2 1, 2 7, 3 9, 4 6, C a t h e r i n e d e ’ M é d i c i , 2 1, 5 5, 6 0, 7 2, 4 7, 5 6, 6 2, 9 7 9 3 – 1 0 9, 1 7 6, 1 8 6, 1 8 8, 1 8 9, 1 9 2 A u g s b u r g , C o n f e s s i o n o f , 4 1, 4 9 C a v a l c a n t i , G u i d o , 4 2 – 4 3, 4 5 – 4 6, 1 0 6 A y a l a , J u a n d e , 4 7, 5 9 C e c i l , S i r R o b e r t , 2 2 – 2 7, 2 9, 3 0, 3 2, 3 3, 7 1, 1 8 2 Babington Plot, 90 , 178 Cecil, Sir William, Lord Burghley, 18 , Bacon, Sir Francis, 183 1 9, 2 2, 2 3, 2 4, 3 7, 3 8, 4 2, 4 6 – 4 9, 5 1, B a r t o n , S i r E d w a r d , 3 1, 1 3 2, 1 3 4, 1 3 5, 6 2, 7 4, 7 5, 7 7 – 8 0, 8 2, 8 4, 8 5, 8 9, 9 6, 1 3 6, 1 4 3 – 1 5 0 1 0 0, 1 0 1, 1 0 5, 1 1 4, 1 1 6, 1 1 7, 1 2 1, 1 2 2, B e a l e , R o b e r t , 8 9 1 3 5, 1 4 3, 1 4 6 – 1 4 8, 1 5 4, 1 5 9, 1 7 7 Beaufort, Lady Margaret, 6 C h a l o n e r , S i r T h o m a s , 3 9, 5 3, 5 9, B e g , M u s t a f ā, 136–139 , 141 6 0, 6 2, 6 3 Belmaine, Jean, xi, 13 Chamberlain, Sir Thomas, 53 Bertie, Peregrine, Lord Willoughby, Chancellor, Richard, 123 156 C h a n c e r y , 3 Berwick, Treaty of, 176–178 , 180 – h a n d , 2 1 Best, Robert, 114 O t t o m a n – , 1 3 6, 1 4 2 Blois, Treaty of, 67 , 106 R u s s i a n – , 1 1 4 Blount, William, Lord Mountjoy, 7 C h a p u y s , E u s t a c e , 1 0 248 Index

C h a r l e m a g n e , 2 Edward VI, King of England, 11–14 , C h a r l e s , A r c h d u k e o f A u s t r i a , 5 1, 5 5 2 3, 3 3, 4 0, 4 1, 4 7 – 5 0, 8 0, 1 1 4, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, 10 , 1 1 5, 1 1 7, 1 2 3 1 2, 5 3, 5 6 Elizabeth I, Queen of England Charles IX, King of France, 40 , 94 , a u t h o r i a l c o n t r o l o f – , 1 8, 2 0, 2 1, 2 6, 9 7 – 9 8, 1 0 1, 1 0 3, 1 0 5 2 7, 3 5, 8 8, 1 7 3 Chartres, Vidame de, 42 , 160 e d u c a t i o n o f – , 1 3, 1 4 Chastel, Jean, 162 h a n d w r i t i n g o f – , x i i , 1 2, 1 3, 1 7, 1 8, C h e k e , J o h n , 1 1 2 1, 2 4, 2 9, 7 7, 8 4, 1 7 3, 1 9 0 China, Emperor of, xii r h e t o r i c a l s t r a t e g i e s o f – , 1 3, 1 4, 2 1, Christian IV, King of Denmark, 48 2 2, 4 2 – 4 4, 5 0, 5 1, 5 4, 6 0, 7 4, 9 1, 9 4, Churchill, Winston, 192 9 9, 1 0 4 – 1 0 6, 1 0 9, 1 2 6, 1 3 2, 1 3 7 – 1 3 9, C i c e r o , 5 , 2 2, 1 7 5 1 4 9, 1 5 4, 1 6 8 – 1 7 0, 1 7 3, 1 8 3, 1 8 7, 1 9 0 C l e r k , 3 4, 3 8, 1 9 2 s i g n a t u r e o f – , x i i , 2 2 – 2 4, 2 6, 2 7, – of the privy council, 25 2 9, 3 8, 6 0, 8 4, 9 7, 1 8 8 – of the privy seal, 31 Elizabeth of York, 22 – of the signet, 18 , 24–25 E r a s m u s , D e s i d e r i u s , 1 , 5 – 8, 1 0, 1 1, C o b h a m , S i r H e n r y , 5 6, 6 7, 6 8, 9 9 1 6, 1 7 3, 1 8 8 Cobham, William Lord, 39 E r i k X I V, K i n g o f S w e d e n , 4 9, 5 1 Colet, John, 6 Essex, Earl of, 115 , 157 , 158 C o o k e , A n t h o n y , 1 1 E s s e x R e b e l l i o n , 1 6 4 C o x , R i c h a r d , 1 1, 1 2 C r o m w e l l , S i r T h o m a s , 9 , 1 0, 2 3 F a u n t , N i c h o l a s , 2 5 F è n e l o n , L a M o t h e , 9 9 Dale, Valentine, 102 Feodor I, Tsar of Russia, 32 , 116 , 128 D a n è s , P i e r r e , 9 4 Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor, D a y , A n g e l , 1 4 3 8 – 4 0, 5 1, 1 1 9 D i p l o m a t i c s , s t u d y o f , x i i , 1 8 F e r i a , C o u n t d e , 3 9, 4 0, 4 3, 4 9, D o n n e , J o h n , 2 8 5 5 – 5 9, 6 1, 6 8 Dorothea, Queen of Denmark and F e r i a , C o u n t e s s o f , 4 7 N o r w a y , 4 8 F e t h e r s t o n e , R i c h a r d , 1 0 D o u g l a s , A r c h i b a l d , 1 6 8 Fin, Jean de la, 157 , 160 D o u g l a s , M a r g a r e t (née Tu d o r ) , 6 3, 1 6 8 F l e m i n g , A b r a h a m , 1 4 Dudley, Robert, Earl of Leicester, Francis I, King of France, 8 , 46 2 8, 7 6, 8 0 Francis II, Duke of Brittany, 6 D u w e s , G i l e s , 1 0 Francis II, King of France, 49–50 , 75 , 9 4 , 1 0 0 E a s t l a n d C o m p a n y , 4 1 F r e d e r i c k I , K i n g o f D e n m a r k , 4 0 E d i n b u r g h , T r e a t y o f , 4 6, 7 6, 7 7 Frederick II, King of Denmark, 48 E d m o n d e s , T h o m a s , 2 7 F u l w o o d , W i l l i a m , 1 4 Edward the Confessor, King of E n g l a n d , 3 G a r d i n e r , S t e p h e n , 1 2 Edward I, King of England, 4 G a r r a r d , S i r W i l l i a m , 1 1 6, 1 2 1 Edward IV, King of England, 5 G e n t i l i , A l b e r i c o , 7 0 Index 249

Greenwich, Treaty of, 162 James IV, King of Scotland, 8 Gregory I, Pope, 2 James V, King of Scotland, 75 Grey, William Lord, 42 James VI, King of Scotland, 14 , 17 , G r i n d a l l , W i l l i a m , 1 3 1 8, 2 0, 2 1, 2 6, 2 8, 3 2, 3 4, 7 2, 8 8, G r o c y n , W i l l i a m , 6 9 0, 1 1 6, 1 2 9, 1 5 0, 1 5 9, 1 6 0, G u a r a s , A n t o n i o d e , 5 5, 5 6, 6 7 1 6 7 – 1 8 3, 1 8 6, 1 8 7, 1 8 9, G u d o n o v , B o r i s , 1 2 8 1 9 0, 1 9 2 G u i s e , F r a n c i s D u k e o f , 4 2, 7 8, 7 9, J e a n n e I I I d e N a v a r r e , 1 5 3, 1 5 4 9 9, 1 0 0, 1 7 4 J e n k i n s o n , A n t h o n y , 1 1 6 – 1 2 0, G u s t a v u s I , K i n g o f S w e d e n , 4 9, 5 1 122–125 , 133 John Frederick II, Duke of H a k l u y t , R i c h a r d , 1 1 3 – 1 1 5, 1 1 7, 1 3 3, 1 3 7 S a x o n y , 4 9 Hamilton, Lord Claud, 169 H a r b o r n e , W i l l i a m , 1 3 2 – 1 3 9, 1 4 1 – 1 4 4, Katherine of Aragon, Queen of 1 4 6, 1 4 7 E n g l a n d , 6 , 9 , 1 0 Harington, Sir John, 20 Hastings, Mary, 128 Lake, Sir Thomas, 18 , 24–26 , 29–31 H a t t o n , S i r C h r i s t o p h e r , 2 8 L ’ A l l i e r , J a c q u e s , 1 5 3 Henry II, King of France, 38 , 41–47 , L a n e , H e n r y , 1 1 4 5 1, 7 5, 9 4, 9 9, 1 0 0, 1 9 2 L a t i m e r , H u g h , 1 2 H e n r y I I I , K i n g o f F r a n c e , 2 9, 9 4, 9 8, L a t i m e r , W i l l i a m , 6 9 9, 1 0 2 – 1 0 5, 1 0 6 – 1 0 8, 1 4 1 L e e , S i r H e n r y , 1 9 H e n r y I V, K i n g o f F r a n c e , 2 1, 3 2, 9 4, Leslie, John, Bishop of Ross, 86 , 169 1 0 9, 1 4 5, 1 4 6, 1 5 1 ff., 180 , 186–187 Letters H e n r y V, K i n g o f E n g l a n d , 2 7 a u t o g r a p h – , x i i, 6 , 9 , 1 6, 2 1, 2 5, Henry VII, King of England, 5–7 , 2 7 – 2 9, 3 1, 3 4, 4 2, 5 4, 5 5, 6 0, 6 1, 2 0, 9 0 6 4, 6 8, 7 2, 7 3, 7 5 – 7 7, 8 4, 8 7, 9 3, H e n r y V I I I , K i n g o f E n g l a n d , 7 – 1 1, 1 3, 9 5, 9 7, 9 8, 1 5 3, 1 6 8, 1 6 9, 1 7 1, 1 7 3, 1 6, 2 2, 3 9, 4 0, 4 2, 4 6, 4 8, 6 4, 7 5, 8 0 1 7 5, 1 8 5 – 1 8 8 H e n t z n e r , P a u l , 2 0 – o f c r e d e n c e, 4 , 4 7, 5 0, 5 7, 5 9, 6 3, Hepburn, James, Earl of Bothwell, 1 0 3, 1 1 3, 1 1 7, 1 2 8, 1 3 9, 1 7 3 7 3, 8 2 h o l o g r a p h – , x i i, 2 , 6 , 8 , 9 , 1 1, 1 4, 1 6, Herbert, Sir John, 32 1 7, 1 8, 2 0, 2 1, 2 4, 2 5, 2 8 – 3 0, 3 2, 3 4, Herbert, Sir William, 6 3 8, 5 0, 5 1, 5 4, 5 5, 5 7, 5 9, 6 5, 7 1, 7 3, Hilliard, Nicholas, 29–31 7 4 – 7 6, 7 8 – 8 0, 8 2 – 8 5, 8 8, 9 0, 9 1, H o r s e y , J e r o m e , 1 1 1, 1 1 2, 1 1 4, 93 , 95–98 , 106 , 107 , 109 , 151 , 153 , 1 1 5, 1 2 7, 1 2 8 156 , 157 , 159 , 161 , 164 , 165 , Hunsdon, Lord, 169 1 6 7, 1 6 8, 1 7 1 – 1 7 3, 1 7 5, 1 7 7 – 1 7 9, Huntly, Earl of, 78 181 , 185–188 , 191 l e t t e r - w r i t i n g m a n u a l s, 6 , 1 4, 1 5, 2 9 I s a b e l l a o f C a s t i l e , 1 0 – p a t e n t, 3 , 2 9 Ivan IV (“The Terrible”), Tsar of s e a l s (see Seal) R u s s i a , 2 8, 3 0 – 3 4, 1 1 1 – 1 2 9, s i l k r i b b o n s , 1 5, 3 0, 3 1, 1 5 8, 1 9 0 1 8 6, 1 8 8, 1 9 0, 1 9 2 w a x, 4 , 1 8, 2 9, 3 0, 1 0 5, 1 1 5, 1 1 9 250 Index

L’Hospital, Michel de, 101 Nicholas II, Tsar of Russia, 192 Linacre, Thomas, 6 Noailles, Francis de, 43 N o r f o l k , D u k e o f , 2 4, 8 6, 1 7 7 Maitland, Sir William, 76–80 N o r m a n C o n q u e s t , t h e , 3 , 2 7 Malmsbury, William of, 3 N o r r i s , S i r H e n r y , 9 8, 1 0 5, 1 0 6 M a n , J o h n , 5 3, 6 4 Norris, Sir John, 161 Mar, Countess of, 168 N o r t h e r n R i s i n g , t h e , 7 3, 8 4 Mar, Earl of, 169 M a r g u e r i t e d e N a v a r r e , 1 5 4 O s b o r n e , E d w a r d , 1 3 4, 1 3 7, 1 3 8 Marguerite de Valois, 153 Marie de Medici, 164 P a c e , R i c h a r d , 9 M a r y I , Q u e e n o f E n g l a n d , 9 – 1 1, 1 3, P a p e r m a k i n g , 4 , 5 2 2, 2 3, 3 3, 3 7, 3 9 – 4 1, 4 3, 4 6, P a r r , K a t h e r i n e , x i , 9 , 1 2, 1 3, 1 5 4 4 9 – 5 1, 5 5, 5 6, 7 5, 1 1 4, 1 1 7 P a r r y , W i l l i a m , 1 0 3 M a r y I , Q u e e n o f S c o t l a n d , 2 1, 2 8, 3 3, P a u l e t , S i r A m i a s , 9 4, 9 5, 9 9, 1 0 3, 5 0, 7 3 – 9 2, 9 4, 9 6 – 9 8, 1 0 0 – 1 0 3, 1 0 4, 1 5 3 1 1 6, 1 1 9, 1 6 8 – 1 7 0, 1 7 4, 1 7 8 – 1 8 0, Percy, Thomas, Earl of 1 8 3, 1 8 6 – 1 9 2 N o r t h u m b e r l a n d , 1 6 9 M a r y o f G u i s e , 5 0, 7 5 Persia, Shah of, xii, 117 M a r y o f H u n g a r y , 1 0 P e t r a r c a , F r a n c e s c o , 5 M a s o n , J o h n , 6 3 P e t r e , S i r W i l l i a m , 4 7 Maximilian II, Holy Roman P h i l i p , L a n d g r a v e o f H e s s e , 4 8 E m p e r o r , 2 8, 3 8, 3 9 Philip I, King of Castile, 6 Mehmed III, Ottoman Sultan, 132 , 149 P h i l i p I I , K i n g o f S p a i n , 1 1, 2 8, 3 4, Melun, Treaty of, 161 3 8 – 4 1, 4 3, 4 7 – 4 9, 5 1, 5 3 – 7 2, 9 1, Melville, Sir James, 172 9 4, 9 6, 1 0 8, 1 0 9, 1 3 7, 1 4 3, 1 4 5, M e n d o z a , B e r n a r d i n o d e , 3 4, 5 3, 1 4 7, 1 5 5, 1 6 1 – 1 6 3, 1 8 7 – 1 8 9, 5 5, 6 9 – 7 1, 1 0 5, 1 8 9 1 9 1, 1 9 2 M i c h i e l , G i o v a n n i , 1 1 P i s s e m s k y , T h e o d o r A n d r e e v i t c h , 1 2 8 Mocenigo, Giovanni, 159 P i u s V, P o p e , 5 5 M o r a y , E a r l o f , 7 8, 8 4 Pogorell, Theodore, 119 More, Thomas, 6 P o l e , R e g i n a l d , 1 1, 2 3 Morgan, Thomas, 103 P o p h a m , S i r J o h n , 2 2, 2 3 Morton, Earl of, 88 , 169 P o w l e , S t e p h e n , 1 4 3 M u n d t , C h r i s t o p h e r , 4 8 P r i v y s e a l (see Seal) M u r ād III, Ottoman Sultan, 30 , 31 , Puebla, Rodrigo González de, 53 1 3 1 – 1 5 0, 1 8 6, 1 8 8, 1 9 0, 1 9 2 M u s c o v y C o m p a n y , 3 0, 3 4, 1 1 1, 1 1 3, Q u a d r a , A l v a r o , d e l a , 4 7, 5 6, 6 1 – 6 3, 1 1 4, 1 1 6, 1 1 9, 1 2 7, 1 2 9 6 8, 9 6

Nantes, Edict of, 163 R a n d o l p h , S i r T h o m a s , 2 4, 3 3, 7 6 – 8 1, N a v a r r e , H e n r y o f (see Henry III , 1 1 6, 1 1 9, 1 2 0, 1 2 4 King of France) R e n a r d , S i m o n , 1 1 Nemours, Treaty of, 156 R i d o l f i P l o t , 6 7, 7 3, 8 6, 1 6 9 Neville, Sir Henry, 163 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 192 Index 251

R o s s , B i s h o p o f (see L e s l i e, J o h n, Stamp Bishop of Ross) D r y – , 9 , 1 1, 2 2, 2 3, 1 8 7 R u s s e l l , F r a n c i s , E a r l o f B e d f o r d , 9 9 W e t – , 1 1 Ruthven, William, Earl of Gowrie, S t r y p e , J o h n , 1 3 8 8, 1 7 0, 1 7 2 Stuart, Esmé, Duke of Lennox, 88 R u t t e r , R a l p h , 1 1 8 S t u a r t , H e n r y , L o r d D a r n l e y , 7 3, 8 0, 8 2, 8 3 Sadler, Sir Ralph, 9 S t u a r t , M a r y (see Mary I, Queen of S a f i y e , S u l t a n a , 1 3 1, 1 3 2, 1 4 1, 1 4 8, 1 4 9 Scotland) Salisbury, John of, 2 S u l e i m a n t h e M a g n i f i c e n t , 1 3 3, 1 3 9 Salutati, Coluccio, 5 S y l v e s t e r , D a n i e l , 1 1 1, 1 2 3, 1 2 6, 1 2 7 Savin, Andrew Gregorevich, 120–123 , 127 Tate, John, 5 Schleswig-Holstein, Adolphus, T h r o c k m o r t o n , F r a n c i s , 1 0 3 Duke of, 40 T h r o c k m o r t o n , S i r N i c h o l a s , 3 7, 8 2, 1 0 0 Scott, Walter, Lord of Buccleuch, 181 T h r o c k m o r t o n P l o t , 7 0, 1 7 4 S e a l Tudor, Arthur, 7 G r e a t – , 3 , 4 , 3 1, 1 1 5, 1 2 1, 1 2 7, 1 4 8 Tu d o r , H e n r y (see Henry VII, King of P r i v y – , 4 , 1 1, 3 1, 1 2 4, 1 4 8 England) S i g n e t – , 1 0, 2 2 – 2 6, 2 8, 3 0, 3 2, Tu d o r , M a r y (see Mary I, Queen 3 7, 7 5, 1 3 6, 1 6 9, 1 7 8 of England) S e c r e t a r y , 8 , 2 4, 2 6, 3 4, 4 7, 5 5, Tu r k e y C o m p a n y , 1 3 2 6 2, 7 0, 7 1, 8 1, 8 5, 9 8, 1 0 2, 1 1 1, Twerdico, Stephano, 119 1 3 4, 1 4 1, 1 4 4, 1 5 3, 1 5 8, 1 7 3, 1 7 9 – “de la main,” 88 , 153 Unton, Sir Henry, 159 F r e n c h – , 2 7 L a t i n – , 6 , 2 7, 3 1, 1 4 7 Valois, Elizabeth de, 58 P r i n c i p a l – , 9 , 1 1, 1 5, 1 9, 2 3 – 2 7, 4 7, Valois, Marguerite de, 153 4 8, 5 1, 7 4, 7 6, 8 5, 9 9, 1 3 3, Venice, Doge of, 28 , 139 1 7 2, 1 8 2 V i v e s , J u a n L u i s , 9 , 1 0 Shrewsbury, Countess of, 84 Shrewsbury, Earl of, 84 , 87–89 W a a d , W i l l i a m , 7 1 Sidney, Sir Robert, 20 , 161 W a l s i n g h a m , S i r F r a n c i s , 2 3, 2 5 – 2 7, Sigebert, King of East Anglia, 3 8 8, 9 9, 1 0 2, 1 0 6, 1 3 3 – 1 3 6, 1 3 8, Sigismund II, King of Poland, 38 , 41 1 4 2 – 1 4 4, 1 4 8, 1 5 3, 1 5 4 Sigismund III, King of Poland and Wilhelm II, Kaiser of Germany, 192 Sweden, 145 , 148 W i l k e s , J o h n , 6 7, 6 8 Silva, Diego Guzmán de, 34 , 63–65 Wilkes, Sir Thomas, 102 Skelton, John, 7 W i n d e b a n k , S i r T h o m a s , 1 8, 2 6, 2 9, 3 3 Smith, Sir John, 67 W o l l e y , S i r J o h n , 2 7, 3 0 S m i t h , S i r T h o m a s , 9 5, 9 6, 1 0 5 Wolsey, Thomas, 8 , 9 Socrates, 171 S p e s , G u e r a u d e , 5 3, 5 5, 6 6 – 6 8, 1 0 6 Ye t s w i e r t , N i c a s i u s a n d C h a r l e s , 2 7 S p i l m a n , J o h n , 2 0 St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre, 94 , 153 Z a y a s , G a b r i e l d e , 5 5