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A Muslim Archipelago ISBN 978-1-932946-19-2 ISBN PCN 5160 a Muslim Archipelago: Islam and Politics in Southeast Asia

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A Muslim Archipelago ISBN 978-1-932946-19-2 ISBN PCN 5160 a Muslim Archipelago: Islam and Politics in Southeast Asia Max Archipelago L. Gross A Muslim A Muslim Archipelago Islam and Politics in Southeast Asia Max L. Gross National Defense Intelligence College PCN 5160 ISBN 978-1-932946-19-2 A Muslim Archipelago: Islam and Politics in Southeast Asia Max L. Gross ic Int e e g ll t e ii a g e r nn tt c SS c ee rr R R o o e e f f s s e e r r a a e e t r t r n c n c e h e h C C NDIC PRESS National Defense Intelligence College Washington, DC March 2007 The views expressed in this book are those of the author and do not reflect the official policy or position of the Department of Defense, the Defense Intelligence Agency, or any other agency of the U.S. Government The National Defense Intelligence College supports and encourages research on intelligence issues that distills lessons and improves Intelligence Community capabilities for policy-level and operational consumers. This book has been many years in the making, as the author explains in his Preface, though he wrote most of the actual text during his year as senior Research Fellow with the Center for Strategic Intelligence Research. The author was for many years Dean of the School of Intelligence Studies at the Joint Military Intelligence College. Even though it may appear that the book could have been written by any good historian or Southeast Asia regional specialist, this work is illuminated by the author’s more than three decades of service within the national Intelligence Community. His regional expertise often has been applied to special assessments for the Community. With a knowledge of Islam unparalleled among his peers and an unquenchable thirst for determining how the goals of this religion might play out in areas far from the focus of most policymakers’ current attention, the author has made the most of this opportunity to acquaint the Intelligence Community and a broader readership with a strategic appreciation of a region in the throes of reconciling secular and religious forces. This publication has been approved for unrestricted distribution by the Office of Security Review, Department of Defense. [email protected], Editor Center for Strategic Intelligence Research ISBN 978-1-932946-19-2 Library of Congress Control Number 2006937784 iiii CONTENTS Foreword . v Commentary Allen L. Keiswetter . vii Roger E. Biesel. ix Author’s Preface . .xiii Chapter 1. Islam in Southeast Asia: Historical Background . 1 General Considerations . 1 Historical Overview . 5 Enter the Europeans . 8 The Formation of Malaysia . 11 The Formation of Indonesia . 19 2. Islam in Malaysia . 31 Establishment of Malay Hegemony . 31 Growth of the Islamic Movement . 34 Mahathir Goes Islamic . 39 Impact of the Asian Financial Crisis . 42 Militant Islam in Malaysia . 45 Impact of the 9/11 Attacks in Malaysia . 54 Outlook. 56 3. Islam in Thailand . 59 The Sultanate of Patani. 59 Patani Under Thai Rule . 60 Under the Thai Revolutionary Regime. 63 The Pattani Insurgency. 68 From Nationalism to Islam. 73 Revival of the Insurgency . 75 Outlook. 81 4. Islam in Indonesia. 85 Formation of the State Insurgency . 86 The Islamic Alternative . 86 Fall of Sukarno . 88 Ascendancy of the “New Order”. 89 Survival of the Revival of Darul Islam . 95 Formal Establishment of Jemaah Islamiyah . 102 Fall of the Suharto Regime. 108 iii 5. Separatism: Threat to Indonesian Unity? . 117 East Timor . 118 Maluku and Laskar Jihad . 123 Sulawesi and Jemaah Islamiyah . 130 Papua . 141 Aceh and GAM . 151 Outlook. 168 6. Islam in the Contemporary Philippines . 171 The Philippines Under American Rule. 172 The Moros Under Philippine Rule . 178 The Moro Revolt . 183 Split in the MNLF . 194 The Post-Marcos Era. 199 Emergence of Abu Sayyaf . 202 Ramos and the Moro Problem . 205 The Different Approach of Joseph Estrada . 213 Arroyo Restores the Ramos Policy . 215 Outlook. 229 7. Islam and Politics in Southeast Asia . 233 The First Islamic State . 233 Spread of Islam to Southeast Asia . 236 Bibliography . 245 Index. 267 iviv FOREWORD Southeast Asia continues to beckon policymakers and scholars alike to revisit its history in spite of the tomes of appraisals already written, deconstructive or otherwise. Because of a significant presence of Muslims in the region, and particularly in the wake of 9/11, it invariably attracts the attention of foreign powers drawn by the specter of terrorism and focused on rooting out radical Islamist groups said to be working with al-Qa’eda. Dr. Max Gross has written an impressive account of the role of Islam in the politics of Southeast Asia, anchored by a strong historical perspective and a comprehensive treatment of current affairs. The result is very much a post-9/11 book. The origins of Jemaah Islamiyah and its connections with al-Qa’eda are carefully detailed. Yet, unlike much of the post-9/11 analysis of the Muslim world, Dr. Gross’s research has been successful in placing the phenomenon of terrorism within a larger perspective. While recognizing that al-Qa’eda’s influence on regional terror networks remains unclear, it behooves us to be reminded that, regardless of the nature and extent of the linkages, to dismiss terrorism as a serious threat to security would be naïve to the point of recklessness. The Muslim Archipelago is a profoundly Islamic region, and Jemaah Islamiyah is only a small portion of this reality. The attention Dr. Gross pays to ABIM in Malaysia, of which I was a part, and the civil Islam movement in Indonesia, of which the late Nurcholish Madjid was a principal spokesman, is greatly appreciated. Those unfamiliar with the background and role of the traditional Islamic PAS party in Malaysia, as well as the Darul Islam movement in Indonesia, will find the author’s account highly beneficial. The MNLF, the MILF, and Abu Sayyaf in the Philippines, as well as the various Islamic movements in southern Thailand, are also carefully explained. As a retired career employee of the U.S. Department of Defense, Dr. Gross has paid much attention to security issues, highlighting the conflicts that continue to beset us and efforts by the governments of the region to resolve them even as fi nal settlements remain elusive. In the discourse of the impact of Islam in the region, there is a tendency to view Islam in bipolar terms, the upshot of which is to lump organizations founded on Islamic precepts as being radical with a tendency of associating with terrorist bodies. This orientation prevents one from discerning between mainstream political Islam and its more extremist peripheries. It is therefore refreshing that Dr. Gross does not fall prey to this stereotyping and remains strictly objective in his assessment. For my part, however, perhaps from having been actively involved in the political process pertaining to security matters in Southeast Asia, it would be disingenuous to profess non-partisanship in my overall assessment of the situation. I dare say that many in the region still view the U.S. policy on terror as being marked by that Wilsonian machismo that has led it to miss the woods for the trees. This is not to suggest that the terrorism-related discourse is an exercise in futility or that it should be v abandoned altogether. While it is true that terrorism from afar has stoked the domestic radical fire and led to acts of violence, governments in the region have hijacked the war on terror for their own political ends. On the pretext of fighting terrorism, many regional leaders have blatantly consolidated their political powers, further entrenching the insidious forms of soft-authoritarianism that they have consistently opposed and sought to reform. Just as sound policies for engaging Muslims cannot be formulated without a thorough understanding of history, this understanding will not come about from clichéd notions of Islam. Dr. Gross’ book, therefore, is not merely an academic exercise but is highly instructive in helping to devise an approach for those who have an interest in seeing long-term stability in the region. As I have come to know Dr. Gross over the past several months, I have found him a scholar with a deep knowledge of Islam. With this book he has made a formidable contribution to the field, and I have no hesitation in recommending this work to those interested in learning about the role of Islam in the politics of Southeast Asia. Anwar Ibrahim Washington, DC Anwar Ibrahim is former Finance Minister and Deputy Prime Minister of Malaysia. During academic year 2005-2006, he was Distinguished Visiting Professor at the Prince Alwaleed Bin Talal Center for Muslim-Christian Understanding at Georgetown University. vivi A Commentary on A MUSLIM ARCHIPELAGO: ISLAM AND POLITICS IN SOUTHEAST ASIA Allen L. Keiswetter Dr. Max Gross, a trained historian, has written a baseline history of Islam in Southeast Asia. Starting with basic questions such as how did Islam come to this region, he connects the interaction of local authorities, colonial powers, and governments with the challenge Islam has presented to governance for more than a thousand years. Especially strong are the introductory and concluding chapters. The former provides a short scan of the history of the expansion of Islam into Southeast Asia and of the relationship of colonial legacies of the British, Dutch, Portuguese, Spanish, and Americans to Islam today in the region. The last chapter traces the development of the idea of an Islamic state from the time of Mohammad in Medina to its present-day role in the politics of Southeast Asia. Still, this is a book with a contemporary focus. Dr. Gross’s purpose is to use history to explain today’s Islamic insurgencies in Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and the Philippines and to offer perspectives for the future.
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