www.aber.ac.uk/interpol Issue 90a
Siwrnal Materion Mewnol’
INTERSTATEJournal of International Affairs MANAGING EDITOR’S COMMENTS
THE INTERSTATE TEAM
Photo by: Eilif Swensen Managing Editor Greetings and Welcome from Interstate! Sam Garbett hat a year 2009 was. It has been quite himself made famous through the film The Pianist, a year for me and my newly assem- who placed their lives on the line to feed and shelter
Wbled team. Not only have we gorged the violently oppressed Poles and Jews.2 From their Senior Editors our way through another year of academic study lives we can learn that behind the most dreadful of Marius William but we’ve revived an old friend of Aberystwyth’s. regimes and in the darkest of times, hope can find Eilif Swensen Interstate, our very own journal of world affairs, is her allies. There are many, many names I would Martin Taggart back after over 6 years of being shelved. And al- like to list in thanks here; their selflessness in times though 2009 has been a tough year for the world, where cowardice often dominates is an inspiration I believe, as always, there is much to be grateful for all mankind. Assistant Editors for. Accordingly, this will be a message of thanks, Sophie Kartalova my first of which must of course go to you, the So what of the future? The world staggers into 2010 Ilona Dudaite reader, and also my excellently enthusiastic team bruised, shaken and sobered. For us students there Tanaka Sarah Muchatuta of fellow students whose hard work has made this has been one overriding source of optimism, posi- celebratory issue possible. tivity and, above all, hope. Students in America and Roseanna Medd around the world flocked in their thousands to the Zakia Anwar It has been an important year for the Depart- aid of Senator Barack Obama and formed the bed- Rory F Lowings ment of International Politics too. After taking on rock of his successful grassroots campaign to be- yet another industrious batch of undergraduates come the most powerful man on Earth. For many of Igor Mechiem-Eyre and continuing to cruise with the best of them our generation, George W. Bush has been all we’ve at the top of the league tables we’ve also wel- known. It is to Barack Obama, a man who continu- Translation comed new academic staff. In 2009 the Depart- ally drives us to challenge ourselves to and to rise Elin Angharad Roberts ment turned 90 years old, a milestone that allows above history, where my third and final round of us all to reflect upon the history of international thanks resides. Thanks for reminding us of what we Nia Blackwell relations. Thinking back to 1919 and the work of can do at our best. Bethan Foweraker the Department’s founder, David Davies, I can- Bleddyn Bowen not help but to think of trenches, no-man’s-land Bethan Eleri Court and endless lengths of barbed wire draped in the Sam Garbett fog of war. So my second round of thanks goes out to human calibre shown by those who have or Online Editor still occupy places like these. My thanks goes to Managing Editor: 2009/2010 Darragh Horgan the human, any human, civilian and soldier, who battle for peace and international harmony - the ideas that so embody our Department’s concep- Graphics tion. It goes to those who stood with Ghandi, (ENDNOTES) Anja Bergersen Luther King or Mandela and achieved legacies Darragh Horgan which have become the gold-medals of the 20th 1 Dallaire, Roméo. Shake Hands with the Devil (Vintage Canada, Toronto, 2004). Century. I am grateful for the human sprit that can be found amidst our greatest tragedies. Departmental Advisors When the world turned its back on Rwanda, the Alastair Finlan 2 Telegraph Foreign Staff and Agencies, UN Force Commander, Roméo Dallaire, sacrificed German Officer of ‘Pianist’ fame honoured in Israel (Daily Gwenan Creunant every ounce of his strength, in the face of unwin- Telegraph, Jerusalem, February 16 2009) http://www. telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/israel/4639609/ nable odds, to do all in his power for peace and German-officer-of-Pianist-fame-honoured-in-Israel.html humanity.1 German officers like Wilm Hosenfeld, (accessed December 4 2009).
INTERSTATE THE INTERSTATE TEAM
Photo by: Eilif Swensen
Issue 90a
“Any opinions expressed in articles in this journal are solely those of the contributors and are not to be attributed to the Interstate Committee, the Department of International Politics AU, or Aberystwyth University.”
Panta Rei: The Next Ninety Years of International Politics 3.
Barack Obama And The Nobel Peace Prize: Justified Or World Optimism? 8.
The Lisbon Treaty: Am I A Real Boy Now? 10.
Surveillence Society - Selling Our Secrets? 14.
A Parcel Of Rogues - Scotland’s Politicians And The Issue Of Independence 18.
Still The Good Fight? The Commonwealth Of Nations Turn 60 23.
A Report on Electoral Turnout In The United Kingdom: Long Term And Contemporary Factors Of Voting 30.
“Interstate is a journal of World Affairs, put together completely by the students of Aberystwyth University. The content of the journal is dictated by the contributor who can be student, staff or politician. If you wish to submit an article or if you have a query about the journal then please contact the following:”
The Managing Editor Interstate Journal of World Affairs Department of International Politics Aberystwyth University Penglais Aberystwyth SY23 3FE Wales
Or contact:
INTERSTATE PANTA REI: THE NEXT NINETY YEARS OF INTERNATIONAL POLITICS
Panta Rei: The Next Ninety Years Of International Politics By Igor Merheim-Eyre
rom Heraclitus to Marx, intellectuals war era into a supra-national organisation, have often recognised changes in the co-ordinating socio-economic policies of its Fflow of history. Certain periods tend member states. Whilst bitter arguments to be more dynamic than others but, in rage between Europhiles and Europhobes the end, all things move. Just as the past over the effects of EU’s increased powers ninety years have been some of the most on the sovereignty of its member-states, memorable mankind has known, the next the main focus should be on the direction ninety years are promising to be no less and effectiveness of the EU policy strategy. intensive. Whilst it is not possible to predict the full ninety years, it is at least possible Along with the Lisbon Treaty, the positions to see what the current developments and of a President of the European Council patterns in International Relations might and High Representative of the Union for bring in the immediate future. Whether Foreign Affairs have been established in as a result of human nature, folly or the order to provide a strengthened forum for hand of God, we can be almost certain common policies. Herman Van Rompuy, that wars, famines, disappearances and President of the Council, has already appearances of states and alliances will pledged a more dynamic role for the still occur. Often enough history repeats European Union in solving the current itself, and sometimes avenges itself with economic crisis, considering it the most the most devastating effect. important part of the domestic agenda for 2010.1 With the BBC terming it a long- EUROPEAN UNION term economic coordination plan, it may be possible to say that the EU institutions From the European Coal and Steel are finding a new confidence to deal with Community (ECSC) to the European Union, issues that were once dealt with by the the bureaucracy of Brussels has evolved member-state.2 from a trading organisation of the post- As the current economic crisis in Greece
INTERSTATE 3 INTERSTATE PANTA REI: THE NEXT NINETY YEARS OF INTERNATIONAL POLITICS
is showing, the Union may find itself in a Russian intervention in South Ossetia, so position strong enough to prevent in future Russia took an uncompromising stance on one of its member-states from announcing the issue of the missile bases. bankruptcy, despite the current EU rules that prohibit its members from lending But, whilst the first year of the Obama money to member states struggling with Administration has seen Russia allowing high deficits. But, with the Greek debt at 4,500 over flight rights through Russian 121 per cent of its GDP and a deficit of territory per year and a promise (however 12.2 per cent, the German magazine Der vague it may be) to help in preventing Iran Spiegel believes that the EU is prepared from creating nuclear missiles, political to bend the rules, as the ‘consequences analysts believe that both sides expect too would also be dire’ and ‘confidence in the much. Fyodor Lukyanov, editor of Moscow’s euro shattered’.3 Russia in Global Affairs, for example, claims that it is a Western ‘fantasy’ that Russia RUSSIA AND THE US holds a key to solving the Iranian problem, arguing that the best Russia can do is to Despite it being too early to suggest intensify its diplomatic efforts in the near whether the increased powers of the future. On the other hand, Alexander Rahr European Union and its President will of the German Council on Foreign Relations eventually lead to anything comparable doubts the Western, particularly American to Schlesinger’s ‘Imperial Presidency’, it is and Central European, desire to accept also too soon to predict the direction of the President Medvedev’s rapprochement and European Common Foreign Policy. Whilst desire for ‘eternal peace’, by creating ‘an Kissinger will soon be granted the long- expanded alliance in which Russia and awaited dialling code for Europe, the lack the West act in concert to stabilize the of European Armed Forces may prompt the European continent’.4 major powers to ask the twisted Stalinist question, ‘how many battalion does However, the Middle-East may prove the Europe have?’ Thus, one can cautiously testing point for such future alliance. With argue, that if Europe is aspiring to become Turkish-Israeli relations currently being a major global player it must, in the style re-considered in Ankara (as, for example, of Count Andrassy, be prepared to back its Israeli’s exclusion from the planned military policies with a cannon, whether it is to be exercises in Turkey shows), the country’s interpreted metaphorically or literally. foreign policy is becoming more ‘multi- Whilst a new Partnership and Cooperation dimensional’, as it seeks new partnerships Agreement was reached between the EU with Syria and Iran.5 What is disturbing and Russia, and the US abandoned its the West (particularly Israel and the US) original plans for missile bases in Poland is Prime Minister’s Erdogan’s regard for and the Czech Republic, a degree of tension President Ahmadinejad, the man who is exists between the West and Russia. Just threatening to wipe Israel off the map, as the West strongly condemned the as ‘a good friend’. Similarly, while Russia
INTERSTATE 4 PANTA REI: THE NEXT NINETY YEARS OF INTERNATIONAL POLITICS
agreed to purchase pilotless planes from whether countries such as Zimbabwe are Israel and Medvedev’s uses rhetoric against capable of directing world aid programmes. the Iranian enrichment programme, there Therefore, the UN has the potential to co- is further tension because of the flow of ordinate more effective ways of dealing Russian weapons to Iran and Syria, which with the Third World just as having a clear are destined for Hamas and Hezbollah, stance on other aspects of global affairs. something Israel under Benjamin In other words, we must take control of Netanyahu is not prepared to tolerate and events and not let them run their own may even prompt West to review course.
THE UN AND THIRD WORLD DEVELOPMENT As the current developments in IR shows, the next ninety years are promising to be If the UN is to function more effectively almost as colourful as the past although, let and is to take on an increasing role in us hope, less extreme. The former ninety global affairs, it may have to consider the years saw the emergence of the European current discontent over the leadership of Union and the UN, the fall of the Soviet its Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. Most Union (followed by the subsequent rise of recently, a leaked report by the Norwegian modern Russia) and increased fears about Foreign Ministry states that at a time of world the consequences of the climate change. economic crisis and an on-going deadlock In the next ninety years new challenging in the Middle-East peace process, when the events will no doubt occur, but we will still UN should seek solutions , the Secretary- live with the effects of the current ones. General and the UN are ‘conspicuous in Therefore, we must take control of events their absence’.6 If such report is to be taken and not let them run their own course. If into consideration, then it is not enough we don’t, in the future history may revenge for a Secretary-General to just put on a itself upon us. brave face at the end of what has been perceived as a disappointing conference in Copenhagen, but he must become a (ENDNOTES) mediator between nations and a character 1 Council of The European Union ‘Year of with a clear agenda able to bring forth a Renewal’ CONSILIUM – President of the European clear agreement on the subject. Council (January 8 2010). http://www.consilium.europa. eu/showFocus.aspx?id=1&focusId=435&lang=en (accessed January 15 2010). Finally, it is very important that there is a review of aid flowing into the Third World. As Jacek Rostowski, the Finance Minister 2 Sinner, M. ‘Greek 2010 budget right step, more needed-Juncker’ Reuters (January 15 2010). http://www. of Poland, recently exclaimed it is neither reuters.com/article/idUSLDE60E1UX20100115 (accessed wise nor sensible that countries such as January 15 2010). Poland should be supporting the likes of 7 Brazil which is in real terms richer. At 3 Reuter, W. ‘Timebomb for the Euro: Greek Debt the same time, it should be questioned Poses a Danger to Common Currency’ Spiegel Online International (December 12 2009). http://www.spiegel.de/
INTERSTATE 5 INTERSTATE PANTA REI: THE NEXT NINETY YEARS OF INTERNATIONAL POLITICS
international/business/0,1518,665679,00.html (accessed January 15 2010).
4 Rahr, A. ‘Reaching Out to Russia’ IP Global: Published by the German Council on Foreign Relations (Spring 2009). http://www.ip-global.org/archiv/ volumes/2009/spring2009/reaching-out-to-russia.html (accessed January 15 2010).
5 Steinvorth, D. ‘Ankara’s New Foreign Policy’ Spiegel Online International (October 19 2009). http:// www.spiegel.de/international/world/0,1518,655974,00. html (accessed January 15 2010).
6 Isherwood, J. ‘Leaked document says Ban Ki- Moon lacks leadership skills’ Spiegel Online International (August 19 2009). http://www.spiegel.de/international/ world/0,1518,643809,00.html (accessed January 15 2010).
7 BBC News Europe. ‘EU push for climate funding unity’ BBC (October 30 2009). http://news.bbc. co.uk/1/hi/8332484.stm (accessed January 19 2010).
INTERSTATE 6 BARACK OBAMA AND THE NOBEL PEACE PRIZE: JUSTIFIED OR WORLD OPTIMISM?
Barack Obama and the Nobel Peace Prize : Justified or world optimistic? By: Michelle Jones
Graphics by: Mathilde Abelson Sahlén
n the 20th January, 2009, millions to negotiate with Iran. However, do any of of people celebrated the inaugu- these constitute being awarded the Nobel Oration of Barack Obama, the 44th Peace Prize? President of the United States and also the The Head of the Nobel Committee for the first African- American President. Yet the prize believes so stating, “It is because news that he had been awarded a Nobel we would like to support what he is try- Peace Prize in October 2009 shocked and ing to achieve.” The emphasis on many of confused many people. Their infatuation the congratulatory reports focus on what for this man had not faded but the ques- Obama is going to do or trying to do. It tion escaping everyone’s lips was, “What soon becomes apparent that the question had he done to deserve this prestigious shouldn’t be “What has Obama done?” prize?” but, “What is Obama going to do?” Paul Within nine months in office, Obama has Reynolds from BBC News stated that the, managed to help re-build the US economy, “award was unexpected and might be re- create new regulations to limit the effects garded as more of an encouragement of climate change, has expressed his de- for intentions rather than a reward for sire for better relations between the US, achievement.”1 According to a BBC news Russia and the Middle East and attempted article, the majority of world leaders had
INTERSTATE 7 INTERSTATE BARACK OBAMA AND THE NOBEL PEACE PRIZE: JUSTIFIED OR WORLD OPTIMISM?
expressed their support for Obama receiv- him to a god-like, saint-like superhuman.”4 ing the award whilst 75% of the comments Awarding this prize based on, “what he is received from the public showed them to trying to achieve,” surely is placing him on be bewildered by the decision. a pedestal, where if he fails to bring about the necessary changes to the international In previous years the prize was awarded order there will be a harsh reprisal await- to people after they had completed or ing him. contributed to an act that led to greater peace amongst the international commu- Since it became public knowledge that he nity. Theodore Roosevelt was awarded the would be entering the Presidential race, he prize in 1906 after helping put an end to has become such a well-known and loved the Russo-Japanese war; Wilson received figure. Yet is it fair to deem him the miracle the prize in 1919 due to his participation maker? As the former President of Finland in the creation of the Versailles Treaty and suggests, “the world expects that he will 5 vision for world peace. The end of the Cold also achieve something.” After the con- War saw Mikhail Gorbachev being recog- troversy surrounding the Bush Administra- nised for the prize. Yet others deem the tion and the bad press they received their Nobel Peace Prize to be losing its prestige. foreign policy, Obama is seen in a more After Henry Kissinger won the prize for his hopeful light. A mediator not a fighter, in- participation in the Paris Peace Accords of terested in the affairs of the world, not just 1973, shortly before the catastrophic ac- affairs affecting US interests. As Glenn Gre- counts of war crimes were leaked to the enwald stated, “Obama has changed the Graphics by: Mathilde Abelson Sahlén 6 press, Tom Lehrer stated that, “political tone America uses to speak to the world.” satire becomes obsolete when Henry Kiss- In a world with corruption, terrorism and inger was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.” global crime, will peace ever be attainable? Yet World Leaders seem to be congratulat- And can it ever be achieved by one man? ing Obama on his premature award and see It seems to me that Obama’s Nobel Peace it as a template for the future. Germany’s Prize has been orchestrated in such a way Angela Merkel stated that it was an “incen- that despite the pessimism in the world to- tive to the President and to us all to do day, Obama has been a ray of hope not more for peace.”2 French President Nicho- only within his own country but on a larger las Sarkozy believes that the Nobel Peace international scale, that by developing this Prize has, “confirmed America’s return to superior, unification seeking image then the hearts of the people and the world.”3 the world’s leaders will follow suit and only Although many of the World Leaders are then can we, in a united hope for peace, congratulating Obama for the award, some begin the necessary steps in creating a figures have refuted the idea and believe world focused on harmony. that it has completely undermined the tra- It may be optimistic to grant such a pres- ditions of the prize. Mehdi Hasan disagrees tigious award based on a promise. But by with the nominated winner and suggest- promoting that promise and encouraging ed that, “the cult of Obama has elevated
INTERSTATE 8 BARACK OBAMA AND THE NOBEL PEACE PRIZE: JUSTIFIED OR WORLD OPTIMISM?
others to support and carry forward that promise. Obama must succeed and carry forth the vision of peace or risk another humiliating blow to America’s superpower status.
(ENDNOTES)
1 “Obama wins 2009 Nobel Peace Prize” taken from http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8298580.stm. (accessed: 7.11.09).
2 “Surprise Nobel for Obama stirs praise and doubts” by Steven Erlanger and Sheryl Gay Stolberg. Cited from: http://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/10/ world/10nobel.html (accessed: 7.11.09)
3 Op Cit no: 2
4 Hasan, Mehdi. “Obama wins the Nobel Peace Prize, is this a joke?”, NewStatesman, 9th October 2009.
5 Op Cit no: 2.
6 “Obama’s Nobel Peace Prize” by Glenn Green- wald, 9th October 2009.
INTERSTATE 9 INTERSTATE THE LISBON TREATY: AM I A REAL BOY NOW?
Treaty: Am I A R The Lisbon eal Boy Now? TRATADO DE
By Sofiya Kartalov
“But you can’t grow,” answered the Fairy. Graphics by: Anja Bergersen “Why not?” “Because Marionettes never grow. They are born Marionettes, they live Marionettes, and they die Marionettes.” “Oh, I’m tired of always being a Marionette!” cried Pinocchio disgustedly. “It’s about time for me to grow into a man as everyone else does.”
“The Adventures of Pinocchio” by Carlo Collodi
he European Union has always that it demonstrates a desire to change been a unique phenomenon. For and evolve. The EU has already ac- Thalf a century this experiment of quired personal will and now it seeks international co-operation “attempts to integrity as a whole individual. The Lis- deal with the fact that politics is local bon Treaty makes a bold claim towards and economics global”1 and walks the this final goal by not only preserving thin line between national and supra- the soul of the Union, but also striv- national interests. The Lisbon Treaty is ing to turn democracy, transparency supposed to help reform this unusual and efficiency into concepts of flesh institution, so as to utilise its full po- and blood, part and parcel of a func- tential and take it to the next level. tioning organism. This piece explores the Lisbon Treaty as a highly contro- The Lisbon Treaty operates under the versial attempt towards making the presumption that the EU is an incom- EU a structural entity capable of deal- plete individual, seeking to remedy the ing with the challenges that lie ahead. defects and omissions in its body. This organisation has taken on a quest for The Lisbon Treaty promises to en- self-improvement similar to that of Pi- sure a more democratic and trans- nocchio, the wooden marionette whose parent decision-making process only wish is to become a real boy, in at an internal level. The new vot- ing procedure, the enhanced role of
INTERSTATE 10 THE LISBON TREATY: AM I A REAL BOY NOW?
the Parliament, the further reach- net ensuring that “decisions are taken as ing influence of the national govern- closely as possible to the citizen and that ments and the direct link between the constant checks are made as to whether citizens and the Commission are all action at Community level is justified in said to be the instruments of this posi- the light of the possibilities available at tive change. Clearly, these reforms are national, regional or local level.”5 Na- aimed at doing away with the inherent tional parliaments will have a greater bureaucratic clumsiness of the system. control over the contents of draft pro- One of the main provisions of the Lis- posals, which is expected to improve the bon Treaty introduces a new voting sys- interaction with other EU institutions and tem. Qualified majority voting will now promote a greater level of democracy.6 have a broadened scope of influence, covering areas such as climate change, However, the genuinely noble ambi- security and humanitarian aid. The in- tion for self-improvement may encoun- novative element here is the fact that ter unpredicted hurdles. The Lisbon decisions in the Council of Ministers will Treaty makes a heroic attempt to deal need the support of 55% of Member with some of the most obvious flaws States (currently 15 out of 27 EU coun- in the current EU situation and to pull tries) representing a minimum of 65% the organisation together once and of the EU’s population. Theoretically the for all. Sadly, it fails to foresee that only impediment towards a decision be- the interaction between the new vot- ing adopted would be a blocking major- ing system and the enhanced role of ity of four member states. The new sys- the Parliament may have a surprising out- tem is expected to take effect in 2014.2 come. It has been argued that the Par- liament failed to perform its main func- The Lisbon Treaty guarantees a new tion – to guarantee the connection with role for the Parliament which will share the voters. The problem is that the level the same level of power with the Coun- of awareness of the Parliament activities cil in terms of the co-decision proce- and significance has fallen drastically, dure. Its authority will be reinforced in which is mirrored by a small turnout in the sphere of EU legislation, EU budget European elections. Though the Parlia- and international agreements.3 As to ment is endowed with great decision- new areas of influence, the Parliament making power by the small states, it will have a say in farm subsidies, fish- still lacks the necessary level of author- eries, asylum and immigration policies.4 ity to induce them to comply with its or- ders.7 This analysis exposes one point National parliaments are for the first time of clash between the “good inten- fully recognised as part of the democratic tions” of the officials that draft- fabric of the European Union. Their pri- ed the Treaty and the practical mary task is to facilitate the implementa- application of their design. tion of the principle of subsidiarity, a te-
INTERSTATE 11 INTERSTATE THE LISBON TREATY: AM I A REAL BOY NOW?
the Treaty: “Lisbon is not just a bad The Treaty is supposed to help maintain treaty because it facilitates centraliza- a more coherent image and clear voice tion and the prospective militarization of of the EU on the international stage. Europe. It also erodes the core principle The new positions High Representative of subsidiary, and is baroque, incompre- for the Union in Foreign Affairs and Se- hensible and does nothing to make Eu- curity Policy and Vice-President of the rope itself more legible to its citizens.”10 Commission will constitute the repre- sentative figures that will be in charge It should be noted that it is no longer a of utilizing the diplomatic potential matter of ratification, but of distrust to- and economic resources the EU has in wards the assumption that this step will stock in order to achieve this new goal.8 be sufficient to bring the long-awaited balance. Currently, the question at hand “The introduction of the two new po- is whether the Lisbon Treaty will be the sitions of a High Representative and a pathway towards an evolution in the President of the EU are expected to pro- Union leading to the fulfillment of the mote institutional stability. The Lisbon promise originally invested in its creation Treaty is a bit hazy about what the presi- – a haven of democracy and unity. Only dent is to do, beyond organising summit time will tell if the Treaty has equipped meetings of the European Council and the Union to deal with the challenges of representing the EU in meetings with the future. “Critics say the Lisbon Treaty world leaders. One of his unexplored will already be out of date when it comes functions, suggests the Brussels-based into force. A new global economic order ambassador, is to act as gatekeeper for has emerged in the eight years it took countries unhappy with a decision made Europe to ratify it. The G-20 has replaced under majority rules, who wish to kick the G-8 as the global forum of leading the dossier up to the more consensual economic powers and the EU has lost European Council. In other words, the some of its global clout. While the Lisbon president, who for the first time will be Treaty will improve the EU’s outward rep- a permanent presence in Brussels, may resentation, critics say the bloc isn’t good become a standing dispenser of nation- enough at defending its economic inter- al vetoes. Or then again, he may not.”9 ests against those of the US and China. Most EU states continue to behave like All these ambitious undertakings mirror competitors, which leads to internal Euro- the admirable struggle of Eurocrats to pean battles for prestige within the G-20.”11 maintain stability and internal harmony within the complex interconnections be- The Lisbon Treaty may or may tween the main organs. However, po- not turn out to be the miracle litical minds cannot but experience a that will transform the European considerable degree of skepticism to- Union with the swish of a wand. But wards the actual benefits flowing from real life rarely turn out to be the ex-
INTERSTATE 12 THE LISBON TREATY: AM I A REAL BOY NOW?
act duplicate of a fairy tale. In the end com/world/europe/displaystory.cfm?story_id=14585996 (Date accessed: 14/11/2009). it is the desire to become a better ver- sion of yourself that is the inducement of progress and this ought to count for 8 The Lisbon Treaty at a Glance. http://europa.eu/ something. Unfortunately, it is doubt- lisbon_treaty/glance/index_en.htm (Date accessed: ful that after adopting the Lisbon Trea- 15/11/2009). ty the EU will be able to look back like Pinocchio, seeing his former wood- 9 The Future’s Lisbon, (The Economist en body lying in the corner, and sigh Newspaper Limited, 8/10/2009). http://www.economist. “How ridiculous I was as a Marionette! com/world/europe/displaystory.cfm?story_id=14585996 (Date accessed: 14/11/2009). And how happy I am, now that I have become a real boy!”12 10 Kinsella, R. Vote ‘No’ to Reinvigorate Europe Ray Kinsella, (The Wall Street Journal, New York, 1/10/2009). http://online.wsj.com/article/SB100014240527 48704471504574444452151215092.html (Date accessed: (ENDNOTES) 17/11/2009).
1 The Future’s Lisbon, (The Economist Newspaper Limited, 8/10/2009). http://www.economist. 11 Volkery, C. Europe: What Next After Lisbon com/world/europe/displaystory.cfm?story_id=14585996 Treaty? (Business Week Bloomberg, New York, (Date accessed: 14/11/2009). 4/11/2009.
http://www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/nov2009/ gb2009114_240635.htm (Date accessed: 17/11/2009). 2 Questions and Answers about the Treaty of Lisbon. http://europa.eu/lisbon_treaty/faq/index_en.htm#5 (Date accessed: 15/11/2009). 12 Carlo Collodi, The Adventures of Pinocchio. Final line.
3 The Lisbon Treaty at a Glance. http://europa.eu/ lisbon_treaty/glance/index_en.htm (Date accessed: 15/11/2009).
4 The Future’s Lisbon, (The Economist Newspaper Limited, 8/10/2009). http://www.economist. com/world/europe/displaystory.cfm?story_id=14585996 (Date accessed: 14/11/2009).
5 Questions and Answers about the Treaty of Lisbon. http://europa.eu/lisbon_treaty/faq/index_en.htm#5 (Date accessed: 15/11/2009).
6 The Lisbon Treaty at a Glance. http://europa.eu/ lisbon_treaty/glance/index_en.htm (Date accessed: 15/11/2009).
7 The Future’s Lisbon, (The Economist Newspaper Limited, 8/10/2009). http://www.economist.
INTERSTATE 13
SURVEILLENCE SOCIETY: SELLING OUR SECRETS
15 groups, to create a three-tier classification.6
“Personal information is increasingly While geo-demographic services claim to have the basic fuel on which economic ac- irrefutably benefited profit driven organisations, this form of surveillance and social sorting brings 1 - tivity runs.” Perri 6 with it major risks of exclusion to certain seg- ments of society. According to a government re- port by the Surveillance Studies Network, geo- s early as 1978 the Henley Center identi- demographically inspired store placement and fied that household interactions were be- consumer targeting is resulting in public spaces Acoming increasingly ‘cellular’ rather than being restructured resulting in the decline of uni- ‘nuclear’2; that is increasingly family interaction versal access to services based on traditional as a unit was becoming far less regular and more notions of democratic citizenship, universal open divided - combined with the diversification of TV access and universal tariffs in favour of targeted channels it was recognized that the growth in in- services accessible only to those who are al- dividualism would require new marketing strate- lowed access, and priced very differently to dif- gies which in turn shifted from the promotion of ferent people and places7, as government servic- universal products in mass markets through the es are being target to select audiences instead of mass media such as BBC 1 & 2 to the promotion of the traditional model of democratic access for all. highly differentiated product’s target to particular Social exclusion and isolation resulting from de- niche markets3 - enter geodemographic profiling. mographically inspired store locations, aimed at Geodemographics is an information technology targeting key consumers and maximising profits that enables marketers to identify trends and pat- for a given company, is most noticeable in the terns in various databases and create profiles of lower income areas of inner cities where the loss a consumer preferences distributed over a given of retail businesses such as supermarkets, phar- area. Geodemographics works by collecting spa- macies, non-fast food restaurants, banks and tially referenced data on society, constructing sta- other leisure facilities are lacking, creating a ‘re- tistical models of identity, and mapping distribu- tail desert’. The lack of retail facilities has several tions of social characteristics or types.4 Experian, effects upon society and social behaviours in af- the UK’s largest data profiler utilises one such fected communities such as contributing to high geodemographic program called MOSAIC unemployment, increases in crime rates as well as that collects and overlays data from numerous severe implications for health and social mobility. sources including government collected data Geodemographic marketing research is not such as the electoral roll, council tax property cheap and as such it is usually the chain stores valuations, house sale prices, police crime sta- or larger service providers that utilise such mar- tistics and consumer data including store loyalty keting methods, and it is these chain corpora- cards.5 From this data Experian can socially sort tions and services that are usually absent from and categorise the population into one of 141 the lower socio-economic segments of towns person (stereo)types, 67 household types and and cities. Research carried out over the past
INTERSTATE 15 SURVEILLENCE SOCIETY: SELLING OUR SECRETS
few decade’s shows that chain supermarkets on tation of data sharing within the government, average have lower prices than independent gro- meaning that data collected once can be used ceries stores, but independent stores are more effectively and efficiently for other similar uses, common in poorer areas. As such those with less saving time and effort. The justification for this income generally pay more for basic produce,8 is that when different types of information about reducing both quality and quantity of consump- a particular place are compared or related to tion options. In addition to the price paid for food each other, it can considerably increase the un- the nutritional importance of access to fresh fruit, derstanding and therefore the power to make vegetables, and meat which is reduced when ac- effective decisions about a particular ‘place’.12 cess to the diverse selection of goods provided While this is entirely true, the government ac- by large chain supermarkets are removed from a knowledges that while the data it collects will be community is highlighted by a report by Shaffer.9 utilised to help benefit the community and citi- zen and government policy decisions, the data The emphasis placed on postcodes in determin- will also be used by businesses in formulating ing status by geodemographics also has the ef- the best location for stores: with increasingly fect of reducing prospects of social mobility: for accurate information the stores will have ac- example if geodemographic profiling classifies cess to more reliable information to discriminate an area as high risk or in a low socio-economic against locations, and store location seldom is income grouping, organizations such as banks, based on moral over profit based consideration. insurance and credit companies make decisions partly based on this information; resulting in the While the concept of data sharing in this man- residence of a given area receiving higher in- ner is incredibly efficient in concept, may well terest rates on loans or mortgages; increased have many considerable advantages over pre- premiums or lower credit ratings increasing the vious forms of data collection by government, difficulty in accessing selling a home; insuring and be a natural extension from other current property or indeed accessing credit. Individuals policy indicatives by the government such as in turn become aware that having an address in the national identity card and DNA databases a given area attracts a lower credit rating or high- and the general labour strategy of joined up er insurance premium then has good reason to government; the issue of privacy for the individ- leave that area,10 in effect creating a self fulfilling ual citizen too must be considered in all of this. prophecy as those with greater access to econom- While geodemographics is largely marketing ic resources relocate; something that then has a hype, the implications of its usage by profit driv- knock on effect for remaining residents who lack en industries inevitably has direct implications for social ties to more affluent neighbors, a factor that society at large. Unfortunately however geode- Wilson identifies as facilitating in social mobility.11 mographics are not as omnipotent as one may A recent government report titled ‘place matters’ be led to believe; not all data used in the con- highlights the importance of location in decision struction of profiles is accurate, most notably due making in both the public and private sectors. to age or reliability of sources. Moreover Gross The report recommends the implementation of identifies that geodemographic models operate universal standards in geographic based data on several flawed principles such as the assump- collection and the integrations and implemen- tion that social identity is reducible to a finite
INTERSTATE 16 SURVEILLENCE SOCIETY: SELLING OUR SECRETS
number of characteristics and that these charac-
teristics can be classified into a limited number 4 Gross, J. - “We Know Who You Are and We of static stereotypes; second, that social sorting Know Where You Live”: The Instrumental Rationality of Geodemographic Systems (1995) p.2. and stereotypical identity is predictive of behav- iour -particularly that of consumption - and third, that location is a determinant of both identity and 5 Experian – MOASAIC’s UK sales Brochure behaviour, following “the fundamental sociologi- (2009) p.4. cal truism that ‘birds of a feather flock together’13.
While it is easy to dismiss government surveil- 6 Experian – MOASAIC’s UK sales Brochure (2009) p.5. lance and data collection as harmless and geode- mographic profiling as merely a consumer mar- keting tool, its usage has significant implications 7 The Surveillance Studies Network – A report on the Surveillance Society (2006) p.32. for society and the social behaviours of those targeted or indeed excluded. Geodemograph- ics is contributing to the reshaping of our urban 8 Larson, T. - Why there will be No chain super- environment as profit driven businesses move markets in Poor inner-city neighbourhoods (2003) p.33. location to seek the greatest potential customer coverage, they often in doing so exclude less 9 Shaffer, A - The persistence of L.A.’s grocery desirable segments of society – either directly or gap: The need for a new food policy cited in Larson, T. - indirectly - denying them democratic access to Why there will be No chain supermarkets in Poor inner- city neighbourhoods (2003) p.35 services and goods with a myriad of social reper- cussions such as unemployment, diminished long and approach to market development (2002) cited in T. Larson - Why there will be No chain supermarkets in Poor term health, social exclusion and reduced social inner-city neighbourhoods (2003) p.40. mobility. Remember in 2011 when filling out cen- sus data or when next completing a survey, you are being watched, and you are being recorded. 10 M Evans - The Glass Consumer, p. 30.
11 Wilson, W. J – When work disappears: The world of the new urban poor (New York, Vintage, 1996) p.53. (ENDNOTES)
1 6, P. – The Glass Consumer: Life in a Surveil- lance Society (2005) p.17. 12 The Geographic Information Panel - Place Matters: The Location Strategy for the United Kingdom (2008) p.8.
2 M Evans - The Glass Consumer: life in a surveil- lance society (Bristol, Policy, 2005) p.101. 13 Gross, J. - “We Know Who You Are and We Know Where You Live”: The Instrumental Rationality of Geodemographic Systems (1995) p.2. 3 Swenson (1990) cited in Gross, J. - “We Know Who You Are and We Know Where You Live”: The Instrumental Rationality of Geodemographic Systems (1995) p.5.
INTERSTATE 17 A PARCEL OF ROGUES - SCOTLAND’S POLITICIANS AND THE ISSUE OF INDEPENDENCE
By Matthew Cambell
“Scotland is a foreign country. Strange, often beguiling. It is so foreign because of its very familiarity.” - Jonathan Meades[1]
n article about Scotland. In an In- push through this parliamentary year.[2] ternational Politics Journal. This may This article will look not at whether In- Aseem odd, but it could become rel- dependence is popular with the Scottish evant in the next few years. It is possible Populace, or whether Independence would that in twenty years that Scottish Politics be good for Scotland. Rather, it will look will be International. Nationalists in Wales at where the political parties stand on the and Scotland can both be said to have an issue. This is for three reasons: One, it International slant – they want the current would be impossible to cover all of the issue cultural and social issues between them in one article. Two, because the Bill may and England to be international issues. never make it out of parliament – it could Wales and Scotland are Nations, but they live or die in the debating chamber. And aren’t States. They have a National Identi- three, because the wrangling of the par- ty, but not Political Independence. Despite ties is one aspect of the issue that is rare- all the powers that have been devolved ly examined from a neutral perspective. – education, environment, culture and What does the current political climate more – perhaps some of the most impor- in Scotland say about Devolution and tant powers are the ones that remain with the British political parties in General? Westminster – defence, and sovereignty. Let us examine each party in turn... Not surprisingly, Independence (the flagship policy of the Scottish National THE SCOTTISH NATIONALIST PARTY Party) is one of the hot topics in Scot- tish Politics right now. Having danced The SNP may be the ruling party, but cur- around the issue for two years, Alec Sal- rently they only hold 47 of the 129 seats mond has declared that a Referendum on in the parliament, well short of a majority. the issue is one of the Bills he wants to [3] Unlike in Wales, the Nationalists have
INTERSTATE 18 A PARCEL OF ROGUES - SCOTLAND’S POLITICIANS AND THE ISSUE OF INDEPENDENCE
not formed a coalition with another par- Labour, by comparison would lose no ty – the two Memebers of Scottish Parlia- less than 39 MPs. While this is less than ment (MSPs) from the Green Party voted their current majority, it is still a sig- for Alec Salmond’s appointment as First nificant number of MPs, especially if you Minister, but did not join his cabinet. They consider that Scotland contains some of rule as a minority Administration. This is Labour’s safest seats, as well as the con- difficult at the best of times, but with an is- stituencies of the current Prime Minister, sue as important and divisive as Indepen- Chancellor and two other Cabinet Mem- dence, this becomes almost impossible. bers. Many of these seats are probably out of the Tories reach anyway, as Labours In short, the SNP need to persuade 18 main opposition in Scotland has been other MSPs to vote with them. Can Sal- the SNP for some time now. At the re- mond rustle up the required votes? Which cent Glasgow North East by-election (held of the other parties is most likely to sup- to find a replacement for former speaker port (or benefit from) his flagship policy? Michael Martin) Labour had 12,231 votes, THE SCOTTISH CONSERVATIVES the SNP 4,120 and the Tories just 1,075 (only 62 more votes than the BNP).[7] The Tories (or more precisely “The Conser- vative & Unionist Party”) have perhaps the So while they are opposed to Inde- most curious position. Because of propor- pendence in terms of policy, the To- tional representation, they have a healthy ries have perhaps the most to gain po- 16 MSPs - the same number as the Lib litically, should the Union be sundered. Dems. Indeed they would have been the Does this mean that David Cameron wants 3rd largest party at Holyrood, had Alex Fer- to see an independent Scotland? Probably gusson not become the Presiding Officer. not, he will most likely be our next Prime As the Unionists, their manifesto clearly Minister anyway, but he must be aware of states that they wish Scotland to remain the possible political implications. There part of the UK.[4] While the party were ini- have been occasions when controversial La- tially opposed to the creation of a Scottish bour Bills have only gone through with the Parliament, David Cameron has since said support of Scottish MPs, whose constituen- that he would allow it to remain if he wins cies the legislation had no effect on – “Top the next election. The Conservative po- Up Fees” for universities went through by [8] sition would seem to be straight forward. only 5 votes, for example. This is the so called “West Lothian Question”, which the But the position becomes more interest- Tories have raised on several occasions, ing if one looks at how the House of Com- but no simple solution has presented itself. mons would be affected by the removal of all the Scottish MPs. The Tories have only An independent Scotland would cut this one MP in Scotland[5] (the constituency of problem off at the source: It solves the “West Dumfriesshire, Clydesdale and Tweeddale), Lothian Question” and reduce any Labour out of a grand total of 193 UK wide.[6] majority in the future to a level here con-
INTERSTATE 19 A PARCEL OF ROGUES - SCOTLAND’S POLITICIANS AND THE ISSUE OF INDEPENDENCE
troversial legislation is a lot harder to pass. THE LIBERAL DEMOCRATS
THE LABOUR PARTY The Lib Dems (12 MPs, 16 MSPs) are also opposed to Independence and would In light of this, it is unsurprising that in fact lose an even greater proportion Labour have the most straightforward of their Westminster seats than Labour. position. The second largest party in the Parliament (46 MSPs), they are In early November, the Lib Dems confirmed both politically opposed to a split and their opposition to a referendum, the posi- have the most to lose at Westminster. tion they took in their manifesto.[11] But at this year’s Party conference, there were Labour were of course the party who re- rumblings about a possible change of posi- established the Scottish Parliament in the tion. Even now, the Lib Dems are regarded as first place. At the time, Donald Dewer the party most likely to change their minds and other senior Scottish figures believed and support a referendum. Why is this? that a Scottish Parliament would lessen support for the SNP. In reality, the SNP As the BBC’s Brian Taylor points out, have gone from strength to strength – they are the Liberal Democrats, and may partly because of Proportional Represen- wish to see the public get the chance to tation, partly because of a greater na- vote, even if it risks a result that they tional awareness of Self-Determination don’t want.[12] This is comparable to their and partly because of the film Brave- past policy of wanting to hold a Referen- heart, which provided a palpable boost to dum on Britain’s membership of the EU: the SNP following its release in 1994.[9} Wanting to let the public make their own choice, even if the Party is pro Europe. In a bizarre turn of events in May last year, Wendy Alexander (the then Scottish La- This suggestion reflects a wider concern bour Leader) called for Alec Salmond to among Scotland’s politicians: That even if put forward the referendum bill immedi- the people are opposed to Independence, ately.[10] Labour’s thinking was that if the they may resent the decision being taken Bill passed but the public voted no (which for them by politicians. This would be a was seen as likely), the SNP administration legitimate concern at the best of times, would lose its primary mandate. Salmond and is even more when public confidence did not call her bluff. Instead he declined in our politicians is at an all time low. to put forward the bill, saying that he would THE OTHER MSPS wait until 2010, and that he would expect Labour support then. Alexander’s subse- The final three seats in the Parliament quent removal as Scottish Labour leader are occupied by two Green Party MSPs allowed the party to climb down from this and Margo MacDonald. The Greens sup- potentially dangerous position, and they port Independence “not out of nationalistic have since reverted back to their old policy. fervour, but as a means to create a more locally-based, sustainable, and democratic society” to quote their manifesto.[13] Indeed,
INTERSTATE 20 A PARCEL OF ROGUES - SCOTLAND’S POLITICIANS AND THE ISSUE OF INDEPENDENCE
the Greens voted for Alex Salmond’s ap- SNP if they can’t get the bill through? How pointment as First Minister. Margo Mac- are people likely to vote in a referendum? Donald is both an Independent and a sup- And what will happen to the parties after porter of Independence. She was deputy a referendum, depending on the result? leader of the SNP from 1974 to 1979, but Those are questions for another article. left the party between 1982 and the mid 1990s and then again in 2003.[14] Even though they occupy just three seats be-
tween them, the Green’s and Margo’s (ENDNOTES) support for Independence is important. 1 Meades, J., in Jonathan Meads: Off Kilter (Epi- sode 2), BBC4, 16 September 2009 DO THE VOTES ADD UP?
The more mathematically minded among 2 ‘SNP outlines plans for referendum’ (BBC, you will already be ahead of me here: 3 September 2009) http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scot- The SNP needs 65 of the 129 votes land/8233788.stm (Accessed 16/11/09). to secure a referendum: They have 47 MSPs, plus Margo and the Greens. 3 ‘The Scottish Parliament: Current Members’ That’s 50 – leaving them 15 votes short. (Scottish Executive). http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/ apps2/msp/msphome/default.aspx (Accessed 16/11/09). But if they were to court the Tories or the Lib Dems (16 MSPs each) into voting for their bill then they would have reached the required 4 ‘Manifesto – Scottish Conservative Party’ (Scot- tish Conservative Party) http://www.scottishconservatives. number. (Incidentally, a tie would probably com/yourvoiceinparliament/manifesto.aspx (Accessed result in a failed bill, as the Presiding Of- 16/11/09). ficer is obliged to vote for the Status Quo.) 5 ‘Scotland – Unitary Authorities’ (House of CONCLUSION Commons Information Office) http://www.parliament.uk/ mpslordsandoffices/mps_and_lords/clomps/clmscot.cfm As time of writing, it does not appear (Accessed 16/11/09).
that the SNP will be able to push through 6 ‘Current State of the Parties’ (House of Com- a referendum. While Labour and the Lib mons Information Office) http://www.parliament.uk/ mpslordsandoffices/mps_and_lords/stateparties.cfm Dems have flirted with the idea of- sup (Accessed 16/11/09) porting a Bill, their positions have so- lidified as time has gone on. Without a shift from another party the Bill simply 7 ‘Labour Wins Glasgow North East’ (BBC, 13 November 2009) http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/ will not pass. But Salmond is a skilled glasgow_and_west/8355282.stm (Accessed 16/11/09). political operator – you never know what might be possible. Watch this space. 8 ‘Blair wins key top-up fees vote’ (BBC 27 Janu- What would the question on such a Bill ary 2004) http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/3434329. stm (Accessed 16/11/09). be? Would it include the possibility of ex- tra powers for Holyrood, but stop short of independence? What will happen to the 9 Farquarson, K. and Rifkind, H., ‘Braveheart
INTERSTATE 21 A PARCEL OF ROGUES - SCOTLAND’S POLITICIANS AND THE ISSUE OF INDEPENDENCE
Battlecry is now but a Whisper’, (Sunday Times, London, 24 July 2005) http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/ scotland/article546776.ece (Accessed 17/11/09).
10 ‘‘Bring on’ referendum – Alexander’ (BBC, 4 May 2008) http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/7383035. stm (Accessed 17/11/09).
11 ‘Lib Dems: No to Independence Vote’, (BBC, 1 November 2009) http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scot- land/8336195.stm (Accessed 16/11/09).
12 Taylor, B., ‘Lib Dems Pina Colada Blues’ (BBC, 22 September 2009) http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/there- porters/briantaylor/2009/09/lib_dems_pina_colada_blues. html (Accessed, 16/11/09).
13 ‘2007 Manifesto: A Manifesto for Green Gov- ernment’ (Scottish Green Party, 2007) http://www.scottish- greens.org.uk/sendfile.php?id=5709 (Accessed 16/11/09).
14 Parker, P.M., ‘Speciality Definition: Margo MacDonald’ (Webster’s Online Dictionary, 2009) http://www.websters-dictionary-online.org/definition/ MACDONALD,+MARGO (Accessed 16/11/09)
INTERSTATE 22 STILL THE GOOD FIGHT? THE COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS TURN 60
“A Sentimental, disintegrating club for Blimps”
uch was the BBC’s indictment of the Fully a quarter of the Earth’s surface and Commonwealth after its 1950 For- population was united under the red, white Seign Minister’s conference in Colom- and blue of the Empire. Had the British Em- bo.1 Yet despite the lampoons in its infancy, pire remained a sclerotic, sedentary racial the Commonwealth of Nations has, in 2009, hierarchy, like the contemporary French reached its 60th Anniversary, having in- and Portuguese empires, it might have creased in size since its foundation from ten died a slow, painful death, as did they. But to fifty-three independent states. Nonethe- Britain’s development of infrastructure, less, the soul-searching process within the both in education and industry, facilitated post-colonial Commonwealth continues. the growth of national identities within the Commonwealth, whose claims upon inde- Where do we go from here? This was the pendence grew in direct proportion to Brit- question posed by the Royal Common- ish decline during the Inter-War period.3 wealth Society on the 20th of July this year when RCS Director Danny Sriskandarajah After the Second World War, Britain, partly and British Foreign Secretary David Mili- to facilitate the dismantling of an empire it band launched the Commonwealth Con- could no longer maintain, but partly too out versation, a massive public consultation of a genuine belief in democratisation and aimed at gauging the opinion of Com- racial equity in politics, facilitated the inde- monwealth Citizens on the organisation’s pendence of all its former colonies between future.2 What follows is an attempt to an- the period 1947-1997.As early as the Bal- swer this question, by analysing the Com- four declaration in 1926, the term British monwealth’s origins, its historical goals, Commonwealth of Nations was used to de- its achievements, and finally, the views scribe Britain and her “White Dominions”, of modern critics regarding its future. and the ‘British’ element of the title seem- ingly fell into disuse following the inde- THE BRITISH COMMONWEALTH pendence of India and Pakistan.4 In 1965, Once upon a time, Britain ruled the world. the Commonwealth Secretariat was found- ed, shifting control away from the Britain’s
INTERSTATE 23 STILL THE GOOD FIGHT? THE COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS TURN 60
Commonwealth Relations Office towards 1960 to the South African Parliament that a genuinely independent association.5 the “Wind of Change”10 was sweeping Af- rica, institutionalised racism was com- Geographer David Lowenthal, writing in monplace in the post-colonial world and a 1989, described the new independent clear adversary for Commonwealth gov- states of the Commonwealth as an exem- ernments to unite, despite societal antipa- plar of “the anti-Imperialist ethos of self- thy, against. Since the fall of the Apart- determination”.6 This conception of the heid regime, the Commonwealth dream Commonwealth has held true throughout of a free and equal world has seemingly the twentieth century. The Commonwealth been realised. Consequently, the organi- has championed majority rule in many sation finds itself facing a new challenge: post-colonial countries around the world. how to remain relevant when its traditional During the period of decolonisation the purpose – to maintain amicable links and Commonwealth was able, by brokering the cooperation during the progress of decolo- Lancaster House Agreement in 1979, to nisation – has apparently been served? resolve the bloody and contentious Rho- desian War, granting majority African Rule THAT MYSTERIOUS INSTITUTION CALLED in the new state of Zimbabwe. The Com- THE COMMONWEALTH monwealth Heads of Government Meeting In truth, today the Commonwealth faces (CHOGM) at Lusaka, where pressure from problems similar to those it faced sixty years member states resulted in the Agreement, ago. Racism, bad governance, and cultural has been cited as one of the “Greatest Suc- division between member states are as per- cesses” of the Commonwealth by Malcom tinent issues today as they were in 1949. Fraser, former Prime Minister of Australia.7 The Commonwealth’s core principles, as Throughout, the Commonwealth present- presented in the Harare Declaration of ed a clear moral consensus and a united 1991, include “Peace and order, global front on post-colonial issues. In the view economic development, and the rule of of Shridath S. Ramphal, Commonwealth international law”, as well as “The Lib- Secretary-General in 1986, the organisa- erty of the Individual” and “Equal rights tion represented the “supremacy of com- for all”.11 It has never lacked opportuni- munity over otherness”, in relation to the ties to promote these principles abroad. “common purpose” of deconstructing ra- cial inequality both in Sub-Saharan Afri- The Commonwealth Ministerial Action 8 ca and worldwide. In his article of 1966, Group (CMAG)’s ‘Good Offices’, a multilat- twenty years before, Canadian Professor eral peace negotiation body, have admin- William B. Hamilton referred to the Com- istrated, within the last decade, conflict monwealth as “an association unique in resolution missions in Kenya, Fiji, Zanzi- 9 world history”, in its preservation of po- bar, Swaziland and Lesotho, as well as litical ties despite cultural dissociation. overseeing the election process in the Mal- So much is history. When Britain’s Prime dives.12 Despite experiencing some suc- Minister Harold Macmillan announced in cess, the editor of Commonwealth Journal
INTERSTATE 24 STILL THE GOOD FIGHT? THE COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS TURN 60
The Round Table, Peter Lyon, nonetheless • From Britain’s Lord Janvrin, former views CMAG’s contribution as disappoint- private secretary to the Queen; ing;13 one of the most publicly visible world “The Commonwealth is in a unique po- disasters of the early 21st Century, the vio- sition to help people understand some lence surrounding the 2008 Zimbabwean of the global issues of climate change elections has seen the Commonwealth, and economy in this day and age”20 (from which Zimbabwe seceded in 2003 following its suspension in 2002) power- • From Trinidad and Tobago, 14 less to help. Fiji has been suspended football star Dwight Yorke; from Commonwealth involvement since the First of September 2009, and little “The Commonwealth unites the progress in restoring the democratic proc- world. It brings different eth- 21 ess has been made.15 Due to differences of nic backgrounds together.” opinion in member states, the Common- • And from Kenya’s Vice Presi- wealth also faces a difficult decision on dent, Kalonzo Musyoka; whether or not to engage Sri Lankan au- thorities on the controversial Tamil intern- “The Commonwealth has the best creden- ment camps in the North of the country.16 tials of any grouping in the world”.22 Opti- mism is commonplace among world leaders The Commonwealth is also involved heav- and officials from within ‘the establishment’. ily in economic development – at time of writing, the Commonwealth Secretariat is But, as Mr. Musyoka adds in the managing a $400 million USD investment same interview, “We don’t hear the in African private enterprise by The Aureos voice of the Commonwealth enough”. Africa Fund aimed at consolidating the de- It may be partly due to the Common- velopment gains made by Member States’ wealth’s media silence that there are con- economies, and to compensate for the mas- siderable misconceptions and a growing sive loss of capital in the developing world tide of disillusion with the Commonwealth, as a result of the 2008-2009 economic cri- especially in the more advanced Member sis.17 Economic support, whether through States. Canadian journalist Doug Saun- this type of direct management, by giving ders puts his finger on the problem; “It no business training to individuals with small longer means anything to us, for a very businesses, as in Botswana,18 or by advis- good reason: it no longer does anything for ing and working with Member Governments us.” Later, he adds; “It’s just as well we’re in order to construct their own regulators, pulling away from the Commonwealth.”23 as with the Petroleum Revenue Manage- 19 ment fund in Belize, has led, once again, Mr. Saunders’ feelings are mirrored in the to considerable gains for member states. polls run by the Commonwealth Conversa- tion in early 2009. The understanding of That this is virtuous work is without ques- the Commonwealth in Canada is especially tion. The Commonwealth’s approval dire, with 51% of citizens polled being una- among member states is considerable:
INTERSTATE 25 STILL THE GOOD FIGHT? THE COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS TURN 60 STILL THE GOOD FIGHT? THE COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS TURN 60
ble to name any of the activities undertaken terns emerging which may provide clues by the Commonwealth. In Britain the figure to the Commonwealth’s future role. was 49%, and in Jamaica, 63%. 10% of Ca- nadians and 19% of Australians would be THE ONCE AND FUTURE COMMONWEALTH actively happy to see their respective coun- M. Sayeedur Khan, Bangladesh High Com- 24 tries secede from the Commonwealth. missioner in London argues that “Because of this global warming-up, due to climate Perhaps one reason for the ignorance and change... Bangladesh is going to be the negativity in the societies of the Organi- worst sufferer in the world” 27It appears that sation’s oldest Members is the degree to climate change will receive top billing at which it is still associated with very negative the 2009 CHOGM, possibly paving the way memories of Empire. Or in the words of Aus- for Commonwealth cooperation in deal- tralian journalist, Richard Flanagan: “There ing with its effects upon Member States. was no Commonwealth, only a... memory 25 of a master race and its dominion people.” The dangers posed to Commonwealth coun- tries across the spectrum of size and eco- Zimbabwean Minister for Regional Integra- nomic potential are evident. For example, tion and International Cooperation Priscilla according to the Global Humanitarian Fo- Misihairabwi-Mushonga, in her position as rum’s 2009 report from Geneva, Members a representative of a government which affected by severe climate change-induced may be considering reintegration with the drought or flood will include Mozambique, Commonwealth, sheds light on the discon- Malawi, Tanzania, and Nigera. In addition to nection which many citizens of the Com- this, small island Members such as Kiribati, monwealth feel today; “What has been Tuvalu, and the Maldives may suffer severe lacking is the translation of that relation- damage from erratic weather conditions, ship [With the Commonwealth] into things including cyclones. Bangladesh is expect- people can relate to at a practical level.”26 ed to suffer severely from coastal flooding. Ms. Misihairabwi-Mushonga is part of a Yearly deaths directly resulting from cli- new Zimbabwean government which may mate change could rise 59% to 500,000.28 be considering reintegration into the Com- This is a considerable risk, both in terms of monwealth. The Commonwealth needs to human life and wider social upheaval across present an organisation with something the globe. Population displacement and the valuable and unique to offer. If the existing mass relocation of up to 75 million refu- Commonwealth does not show itself to be gees would put untold pressure on the In- tackling practical issues, it will continue to ternational Community’s ability to respond. lose support and interest around the world. British Foreign Secretary the Right Hon- The Royal Commonwealth Society has ourable David Miliband seems determined heard many suggestions regarding the to organise the resources of the Common- Commonwealth’s future in the interna- wealth against this threat. According to tional relations of its members. Fortu- an interview with the RCS in September, nately for the Secretariat, there are pat-
INTERSTATE 26 STILL THE GOOD FIGHT? THE COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS TURN 60
Mr. Miliband has chaired a meeting of his WHERE NEXT? counterparts in the Commonwealth, and Such values as expressed by Sir Peter are intends to use the 2009 CHOGM as an op- laudable – is this not the Commonwealth portunity to build a consensus on environ- dream? The Secretariat’s ongoing efforts mental issues among Member States be- to establish these ideals at centre stage fore the much-anticipated United Nations in Member States and the International Conference on Climate Change to be held in Community are undoubtedly of great val- Copenhagen from December the 7th. In the ue. Yet the sense of disengagement, the interview, he suggests that “The Common- fact that concrete, practical results of the wealth can be a place to send a warning Commonwealth’s work in the world are about the dangers of climate change; it can rarely seen – and its limitations, its inabil- be a place to forge and argue out the com- ity to come to terms with the ‘big issues’ promises that are going to be necessary”.29 of the modern world are all too obvious. Certainly, the Commonwealth will possess The Commonwealth clearly feels the need considerable credibility where international for renewal. Current Secretary-General compromise is required, seeing as it consists Kamalesh Sharma wants to make sure of both developed and undeveloped states; that his organisation is “No longer seen it has members from every continent on to be working along rigid paths or some- Earth; and it has a long and productive his- thing belonging to the past.” It may be tory of cooperation on international issues. that by bringing modern issues like cli- It is this cooperation which seems to be mate change to the table, by continuing the central issue and rallying point of many to build consensus among Members whose contributors to the Commonwealth Conver- cultural and social differences grow wider sation. For British Economist and MP Vince each year, the Commonwealth can revital- Cable, the spirit of consensus is a particu- ise its role in the world and usher in a new larly central theme for the Commonwealth age of world community and cooperation. to focus on. Member states, according to For many, the Commonwealth Conversa- Cable, should be concerned with “Keeping tion will represent but another forum for an interconnected system alive, so we don’t high principles and platitudes to be ban- retreat into nationalism.”30 It may be that died about. Nothing practical, certain- this is the essence of the Commonwealth ly, has been achieved as yet; the 2009 – the sense of connection, of consensus CHOGM is, at time of writing, a fortnight despite geographical and cultural distance. away – it is simply another example of Sir Peter Marshall, former Deputy Secre- the organisation’s only real function as a tary-General, certainly values “the way in talk shop for politicians and diplomats. which people treat one another, a sublime blend of maturity, tolerance, respect, re- But is there anything inherently wrong with sponsibility, commitment and warmth – this? Should the Commonwealth be vilified recognition of our mutual affinities as well simply for trying to find common ground? as our common values and interests.”31 At time of writing, consensus within the
INTERSTATE 27 STILL THE GOOD FIGHT? THE COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS TURN 60 STILL THE GOOD FIGHT? THE COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS TURN 60
European Union during the build-up to Co- 32 penhagen seems unlikely; For Britain at 8 Ramphal, S. (1986) ‘The Commonwealth and least, the Commonwealth is perhaps an Common Purpose’. In A Common Culture? Edited by Richard Maltby and David Quartermaine, p. 16 University opportunity to find allies for the long-term of Exeter Press, 1989. future; not only on the subject of the envi- ronment, but also regarding future relations with the African Union and a more powerful 9 Quoted in McIntyre, The Commonwealth, p.448. India. Self-evidently, nothing practical can possibly be achieved by non-engagement.
The Commonwealth could 10 McIntyre, The Commonwealth, p.445. do worse than keep talking. 11 Commonwealth Secretariat (2004) ‘Harare Commonwealth Declaration 1991’. http://www. thecommonwealth.org/shared_asp_files/GFSR. asp?NodeID=141095 (Accessed 14th November 2009). (ENDNOTES)
1 James, L. The Illustrated Rise & Fall of the 12 See ‘Democracy and Consensus British Empire (London, Little, Brown, 1999) p.296 Building’, Commonwealth Secretariat. http://www. thecommonwealth.org/subhomepage/190591/ (Accessed 14th November 2009). 2 Commonwealth Secretariat (2009) “Global public consultation on the Commonwealth begins” http:// www.thecommonwealth.org/news/34580/34581/211388/2 13 Lyon, P. (2006) ‘CHOGM and/or CPF – the th 10709conversation.htm (accessed 14 November 2009). complex mysterious Commonwealth’ The Round Table 95, p. 3.
3 Marks, S. The Ebbing of European Ascendency (London, Hodder Arnold 2002) pp.132-141, 14 McWilliam, M. (2003) ‘Zimbabwe and the pp.148-149. Commonwealth’ The Round Table 92, pp. 89-98. 4 McIntyre, W. D. The Commonwealth of Nations, Origins and Impact, 1869-1971 (University of Minnesota Press, 1977) pp. 5-6. 15 BBC News (2009) ‘Fiji suspended from Commonwealth’ http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia- pacific/8231717.stm (Accessed 14th November 2009). 5 McIntyre, The Commonwealth, p. 401.
16 The Commonwealth Conversation (2009) ‘Should Sri Lanka be suspended 6 Lowenthal, D. (1989) ‘Size and Statehood: from the Commonwealth?’ http://www.
The Geography of politics’ in A Common Culture? thecommonwealthconversation.org/wp-content/ Edited by Richard Maltby and David Quartermaine, p. 80, uploads/2009/07/Sri-Lanka-Page-from-RCS-Exchange. University of Exeter Press, 1989. pdf (Accessed 14th November 2009).
7 Fraser, M. (2009) Interview by the RCS. http:// 17 Commonwealth Secretariat (2009) www.thecommonwealthconversation.org/wp-content/ ‘Commonwealth teams up with private equity uploads/2009/08/Fraser-Kaunda-interview-transcripts- th firm to deliver up to $400 million in investment Final2.pdf (accessed 14 November 2009). in Africa’ http://www.thecommonwealth.org/ news/215560/021109aureoscapital.htm (Accessed 14th
INTERSTATE 28 STILL THE GOOD FIGHT? THE COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS TURN 60
November 2009). 14th November 2009).
18 Commonwealth Secretariat (2008) ‘Farming 27 Khan, M. (2009) Interview by RCS. http://www. for the Country and not the individual’ http://www. thecommonwealthconversation.org/2009/11/bangladesh- thecommonwealth.org/news/34580/34581/181200/030708 on-the-frontline-against-climate-change/ (Accessed 14th farmbotswana.htm (Accessed 14th November 2009). November 2009).
19 Baird, T. (2007) ‘Making oil a cure, not 28 GHF Geneva (2009) ‘Human Impact Report: a curse’. Commonwealth Quarterly, http://www. Climate Change, The Anatomy of A Silent Crisis’ http:// thecommonwealth.org/EZInformation/172202/making_ ghfgeneva.org/Portals/0/pdfs/human_impact_report.pdf th oil_a_cure__not_a_curse/ (Accessed 14th November pp. 6-16 (Accessed 14 November 2009). 2009).
29 Miliband, D. (2009) Interview by RCS. http:// 20 Janvrin, R. (2009) Interview by RCS. http:// www.thecommonwealthconversation.org/2009/09/uk- www.thecommonwealthconversation.org/2009/07/ foreign-secretary-david-miliband-on-the-commonwealth- lord-janvrin-queens-former-private-secretary-speaks-of- and-climate-change/ (Accessed 14th November 2009). commonwealths-relevance-and-value/ (Accessed 14th November 2009).
21 Yorke, D. (2009) Interview by RCS. http:// 30 Cable, V. (2009) Interview by RCS. http:// www.thecommonwealthconversation.org/2009/11/ www.thecommonwealthconversation.org/2009/11/ dwight-yorke-on-trinidad-tobago-and-the-commonwealth/ commonwealth-still-valuable-in-an-interdependent-world- (Accessed 14th November 2009) says-vince-cable/ (Accessed 14th November 2009).
22 Musyoka, K. (2009) Interview by RCS. http:// 31 Marshall, P. (2009) ‘Consensus versus www.thecommonwealthconversation.org/2009/11/we- Voting’ The Commonwealth Conversation, http://www. dont-hear-the-voice-of-the-commonwealth-loud-enough- thecommonwealthconversation.org/2009/11/consensus- th says-kenyan-vice-president/ (Accessed 14 November versus-voting/ (Accessed 14th November 2009). 2009).
23 Saunders, D. (2009) ‘The old, grey Commonwealth ain’t what it used to be’ The Globe and 32 BBC News (2009) ‘EU Strikes Climate Funding Mail, http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/ Deal’ http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/8334146. the-old-grey-commonwealth-aint-what-it-used-to-be/ stm (Accessed 14th November 2009). article1327311/ (Accessed 14th November 2009).
24 The Commonwealth Conversation (2009) ‘Results from Commonwealth polls’ http://www. thecommonwealthconversation.org/wp-content/ uploads/2009/07/Commonwealth-Poll-FINAL.pdf (Accessed 14th November 2009).
25 Flanagan, R. (2002) ‘A ghostly memory of a master race’. The Guardian, http://www.guardian.co.uk/ world/2002/jul/19/australia.monarchy (Accessed 14th November 2009).
26 Misihairabwi-Mushonga, P. (2009) Interview by RCS. http://www.thecommonwealthconversation. org/2009/10/i-see-a-day-when-zimbabwe-will-rejoin-the- commonwealth-says-zimbabwean-minister/ (Accessed
INTERSTATE 29 A REPORT ON ELECTORAL TURNOUT IN THE UNITED KINGDOM
across the United Kingdom through the form of e-mail, phone, post and town.
When we started the questionnaire, our goal By Bethan Foweraker was to ask a sufficient amount of people from different ages and backgrounds. Due to the fact that Aberystwyth is such a highly populated student area, we thought this spectrum would be hard to achieve; we would have had to have asked a large A report on Electoral proportion of students in order to have Turnout in the United Kingdom: a fair and robust survey sample. We Long term and decided that we would extend our question contemporary factors gathering to the whole of the United of voting Kingdom. By using the census data from
Graphics 2001, we could establish as to how many
by: A people we needed from various age ranges, nja B ergersen and male and female. To succeed in this aspect of the task, we had to get 48.61% lectoral turnout in the United of our sample male and 51.32% female.3 Kingdom varies significantly from With regards to age, we also looked at the Eone election to the next, be that in census to discover how many people from a general election or in local elections.1 We each age range we needed, which in the originally wanted to discover the reasons 56+ age range we needed over 70 people. as to why the public choose to vote or not. Having read research by academics such To achieve the correct number of people as Denver, we discovered that this question in age and gender range we targeted has already been asked on numerous certain groups that we knew of for age occasions and therefore wouldn’t be very ranges, such as the Women’s Institute, beneficial. For many years voting has been offices and students. We were successful seen as irrational.2 To expand our idea, to a certain extent, attaining 47.66% we decided to establish what persuades male and 52.33% female. This gave us a voter when voting. We were curious to fair representational results gender wise. know what persuaded the voter in deciding The majority of the people surveyed were as to what party they would vote for, be from Cardiff, Cornwall and Reading, the that due to a contemporary factor such as places where we knew had the offices or the state of the economy, or a long term the Women’s Institute. factor such as family voting habits. In total, the four of us collectively gathered 300 In order to achieve a clearly structured questionnaires from a mixture of locations questionnaire, we created 3 sections; an
INTERSTATE 30 A REPORT ON ELECTORAL TURNOUT IN THE UNITED KINGDOM
introduction section, a ranking question factors would be a significant influence and expansive questions. Our first section on people when deciding to vote, as this was to establish who the person was and is how the public hear their campaigns. to ease the person into the questionnaire. This is something argued by Scammell, We then had our primary question which who says that political marketing, i.e. is what inspired our the campaign “is seen Party Leader project, a ranking primarily as a response to Good Party Image system section where developments in media, we had a series of Poor Party Image of and communication Opposition 8.67% 4 options that they had Tactical Voting technologies.” It seems to rank from 1 to 10 6% 22.33% that the public don’t listen Media Suport of Party in concern with what 3% to this as much anymore, influences you the 9% Economic Conditions but decide to vote on the 25.33% most when voting, 3.67% Specific Policies basis of what they have these had a mixture 3.33% Family Voting Habits experienced or can see, of contemporary and such as how they have 3.33% Class Based Voting long term factors. done economically or how 15.37% Following this, we Party campaign their policies are relevant had some expansive to them. Party leader is questions. These 1: FIRST something that is shown to were questions that expanded from some the public by the media in general, such of the 1 to 10 ranking system. We thought as TV interviews or newspaper articles. this would be of use when we had our most It is again therefore interesting that the influential and least influential factor, be public failed to connect the fact that they that a contemporary or a long term factor. see these things through the effect of the We could then analyze into more depth media. We found that the majority of the as to what precisely the reasons were for top ranking factors were contemporary voting the way people do. factors, demonstrating that public opinion on a party can change very quickly. Good Having put all the information into an SPSS party image was the fourth highest factor, computer data analysing programme, we and from our expansive questions we found that the most important factor to found that the most important factor in people when voting was specific policies, determining party image was significantly followed by party leader and then the the competence of the party (appendix 2.). economic conditions (appendix 1). We had Competence of party is built up over time anticipated as a group that these would thus making it a long term factor, which is have been on the top of the list, but were something we had considered, but had not surprised to find that Media support of the thought that it would rank as highly, and party and the party campaign were not thought that lack of scandals surrounding high up in the ranking system at all. We the party could have been higher. predicted that these two contemporary
INTERSTATE 31 INTERSTATE A REPORT ON ELECTORAL TURNOUT IN THE UNITED KINGDOM A REPORT ON ELECTORAL TURNOUT IN THE UNITED KINGDOM
and the media isn’t such an important factor. Perhaps the fact that the television is a contemporary factor, are the reasons behind this. Bartle argues that “the Unity of Party media is important for elections because it is assumed to influence the attitudes 16.00% Lack of Scandals Surrounding and opinions of voters. If the press 1.67% Party and broadcasters have any influence on 8.33% 8% voters; moreover, it is via the steady drip- Competence of Party drip of information rather than through either their election coverage or formal endorsements.”5 This again demonstrates 66.33% History Of Party the factor that the media is important, despite our findings. Other
Education 2: WHAT IS THE MOST IMPORTANT FACTOR IN DETERMINING PARTY IMAGE? 18.67% Healthcare Television 4.00%
Foreign Policy
39.33% 19% 50.67% Leaflets 10.67% Crime
12.00% 5.33% Radio 13.67% Economy 10.67%
Public Appearances Other
16%
Other 4: WHAT IS THE MOST IMPORTANT POLICY AREA TO YOU WHEN VOTING?
The factor that answered our question as
3: WHAT WOULD INFLUENCE YOU THE MOST DURING A CAMPAIGN? to what influenced the voter most when Despite this, we were intrigued to find that voting was answered by the economy. In when asked, “What would influence you every situation in which the economy was the most during a campaign”, television mentioned in our survey, it was placed was ranked first (appendix 3.) We were higher than we had originally anticipated. confused as to why public appearances When asked, “What is the most important didn’t rank higher if the image of the party policy area to you when voting?” the leader is the second most important factor, economy was an overwhelming majority
INTERSTATE 32 A REPORT ON ELECTORAL TURNOUT IN THE UNITED KINGDOM
(appendix 4). When we did the survey there found to be the important factor when was hype within the media concerning the voting. I feel that this was the most global financial crisis, which demonstrates important finding in our project, as we had how a short term factor can sway the way not expected the economy to be such an in which people vote. Had we asked this important factor, and had not considered when the state of the economy wasn’t the possibilities at the time we conducted at its lowest, perhaps it would not have this survey would have made it such a been such an issue. Our findings for the bigger impact that expected. least important factor (appendix 5), were things we had known already through reading.6 Class based voting is no longer an important factor, and neither is family
based voting. (ENDNOTES)
1 Denver, D Elections and voters in Britain Party Leader (Basingstoke ; New York, N.Y. : Palgrave Macmillan, 2007) p. 25. Good Party Image 2.66% 2% Poor Party Image of 2 Denver, D Elections and voters in Britain Opposition (Basingstoke ; New York, N.Y. : Palgrave Macmillan, 4.00% Tactical Voting 1.67% 2007) p.35-36. 7.33% Media Support for Party 14.67% 39% Economic Conditions 3 Census Data (2001) http://www.statistics.gov. uk/census2001/pyramids/pages/UK.asp (last accessed 4.67% Specific Policies 04/12/08). 2.67% Family Voting Habits 12% Class Based Voting 4 Scammell, M ‘Political marketing: lessons for political science’, Political Studies (1999) Vol.47, p 720. Party Campaign
5: TENTH 5 Bartle, J Britain Votes 2005 (Oxford : Oxford In conclusion, by answering out question University Press, 2005) p.700. “Long term and contemporary factors of voting”, finding that contemporary factors 6 Denver, D Elections and voters in Britain seemed to be the most important factors; (Basingstoke ; New York, N.Y. : Palgrave Macmillan, we found some of the findings contradicting 2007) Chapter 4 Dealignment and its consequences. themselves. We discovered that the factor that was the most influence to the public at the time of our survey was the economy, something that reflected what was happening politically at that time, demonstrating that the contemporary factors are what the majority of people
INTERSTATE 33