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PV) Technologies Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 8(6) April 2014, Pages: 455-468 AENSI Journals Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences ISSN:1991-8178 Journal home page: www.ajbasweb.com Current State-of-the-Art Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Technologies Banupriya Balasubramanian and A. Mohd Ariffin Center of Renewable Energy (CRE), Universiti Tenaga Nasional (UNITEN), Jalan IKRAM – UNITEN, Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT Article history: One of the most rapidly emerging renewable energy technologies is solar photovoltaic Received 25 January 2014 (SPV) cell. SPV cell is a specialized semiconductor device that converts visible light or Received in revised form 12 light energy directly into useful electrical energy. This paper work aims to provide a March 2014 comprehensive overview on the current state-of-the-art solar PV technologies. Each Accepted 14 April 2014 technology is reviewed in detail particularly on its use of light absorbing materials Available online 25 April 2014 together with its structure and deposition processes. Furthermore, conversion efficiency, advantages and disadvantages of these technologies are also discussed. This Keywords: comprehensive review is hoped encourage more participation from various parties in Solar PV technologies, Review, SPV, advancing the use of SPV as an alternative to generate electricity. Silicon, Thin film © 2014 AENSI Publisher All rights reserved. To Cite This Article: Banupriya Balasubramanian and A. Mohd Ariffin., Current State-of-the-Art Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Technologies. Aust. J. Basic & Appl. Sci., 8(6): 455-468, 2014 INTRODUCTION Renewable energy is a naturally available energy that replenishes rapidly for instance solar, wind, hydro and biomass. Solar energy is a form of renewable energy that has zero carbon emission and can be produced almost at any time, as long as sunlight is present. A small conductive device converting photons in solar rays to direct-current and voltage and the associated technology are termed as Solar Photovoltaic (SPV) (Jayakumar, 2009). In 1839, a French physicist, Edmund Becquerel at his age of 19 discovered the world‟s first PV effect which is the physical phenomenon accountable for transforming light into electricity. He observed that voltage may appear by illuminating electrolytic cell made up of two metal electrodes in a weak conducting solution with different types of light, including sunlight. The basic physical process of the PV effect is that when photons which contain innumerable amounts of energy striking a PV cell may be reflected or absorbed or passes right through. The absorbed photon then transfers sufficient energy to release electrons; creating the photo voltage which can be utilized to drive a current through an electrical circuit (Friedrich Sick and Thomas Erge, 1996; Basic Photovoltaic Principles and Methods, 1982). During the last century, the first solar cell had been made with selenium as the semiconductor and it was very inefficient with 1-2% efficiency only. Since then, substantial research has been done in semiconducting materials by various scientists. During the 1920s and 1930s, advancements in the era of quantum mechanics provided the theoretical foundation on the quantum nature of light and electrons which subsequently made the research on PV more attractive. Yet, a breakthrough happened during the 1940s and early 1950s when Jan Czochralski, a Polish chemist, developed a technique to create highly pure crystalline or single-crystal silicon named as Czochralski method. In the 1950s solar cells had been produced for the space activities and also the transistor industries evolution which triggers the solar PV industry. Similar materials used to produce transistors and PV cells and as well identical physical mechanisms encouraged many of their working principles (Friedrich Sick and Thomas Erge, 1996). The fast evolution of the global PV market in recent years leads to a cutting-edge research field at a tremendous rate in order to produce the most reliable solar cells which comprises of several parameters such as a good overall efficiency, a reasonable production cost and the possibility to be produced on an industrial scale (Green Technologies Research, 2014). New era of solar PV cells has been produced and this review paper provides an in-depth insight into those available technologies with its strengths and weaknesses. Solar Photovoltaic Technologies: Solar PV cells use light-sensitive semiconductor materials that exhibit the photovoltaic effect that absorbs photons and emits electrons which can be channeled into an electrical current. Material substitution possibilities are very limited in manufacturing PV cells due to its electrical properties. Majority of the solar cells are made from silicon, however many manufacturers are looking at cadmium telluride and copper indium (gallium) di- Corresponding Author: Banupriya Balasubramanian, Center of Renewable Energy (CRE), Universiti Tenaga Nasional (UNITEN), Jalan IKRAM – UNITEN, Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia. E-mail: [email protected] 456 Banupriya Balasubramanian and A. Mohd Ariffin, 2014 Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 8(6) April 2014, Pages: 455-468 selenide. All of these materials have their own electrical properties and traits which will determine the cell‟s performance and efficiency, manufacturing method and cost. The semiconducting material alternatives characterize the two prime categories of solar PV technologies as either silicon in the form of wafers (wafers will be sliced from a solid ingot block of silicon) or thin films of other materials (low-cost substrates will be deposited by a very thin coating of a semiconductor material). Some of the categories of the PV cells are mono- crystalline, polycrystalline or multi-crystalline or multi-silicon and amorphous or thin films essentially based on the type of photovoltaic materials used (Utility Scale Solar Power Plants, 2012). Currently existing solar PV technologies are determined in the form of family tree in Fig. 1. Solar panel is the basic and most crucial unit of the solar PV power generation system. The following are the three primary steps summarizing the photovoltaic effect (Jayakumar, 2009): The light-sensitive semiconducting material for absorbing light or photons and converting it into electron- hole pairs. The p-n junction and barrier potential appearing across the depletion region within the semiconductor, which separates and prevents further movement of the photo-generated carriers (holes and electrons). The connection of top layer and the bottom layer of the cell which allows for free flow of electrons and so the current to the external load. 2.1 Crystalline Silicon (c-Si): c-Si lays the basis for all the industry advancements in semiconductor technology and thus becomes the most preferable PV semiconducting material. Innovations developed in solar cell technologies results in a production of highly efficient solar cells with efficiency reaching up to 20% (Jayakumar, 2009). As such in solid semiconductor chips, very expensive ultrapure single crystal silicon raw material is manufactured. Normally 150-200 microns width (that is one fifth of a millimeter) silicon wafers are utilized (Handbook for Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Systems, 2011). c-Si cell (typically between 12.5 cm2 and 20 cm2) circuits are sealed in an environmentally protective lamination to form crystalline silicon modules. Encapsulation of the c-Si modules has been done between the front glass of the panel (or the transparent rigid outer layer) and PV back sheet or a backing material which is typically made from plastic or glass (Utility Scale Solar Power Plants, 2012). The most common solar cells nowadays are wafer-based c-Si and its global market share is estimated to be 85% to 90%. Market share of c-Si PV modules is anticipated to be about 50% by 2020 and so until that time, c-Si PV modules will remain as the t leading PV technology (IEA‟s Energy Technology Perspectives, 2013). Durability, longevity, weather resistance and abundant primary resources are the reasons for c-Si technology popularity. However, increasing its efficiency, improving the cell concepts and, automation in the manufacturing process would still be the main challenges for c-Si modules. The following section discusses the different types of c-Si as shown in Fig. 1 employed by various solar PV manufacturing industries. 2.1.1 Mono Crystalline Silicon / Single Crystalline: Mono-crystalline cells are sawn into thin wafers from a singular continuous crystal of silicon which is quite an expensive process (Utility Scale Solar Power Plants, 2012). Highly pure single-crystal silicon rods will be developed and sliced in to tinny wafers to form mono-crystalline silicon cells. Single crystalline wafer cells tend to be more expensive since it has been sliced from ultra-pure silicon cylindrical ingots. Substantial waste of refined silicon cannot be avoided since it couldn‟t able to cover the square solar module completely. Due to its purity level, mono-crystalline silicon cells have reached efficiencies between 17-18% (Jayakumar, 2009). Laboratory experimental PV cells made of single-crystal have achieved efficiencies as high as 29%. In the solar PV market, PV cells with efficiencies close to 20% can be found, which is made of single-crystal silicon more often also called as mono crystalline cells (Fig. 2 (a)) (Friedrich Sick and Thomas Erge, 1996). 2.1.2 Poly Crystalline / Multi Crystalline Silicon: For this type of PV cell, a cast
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