Scientific Papers Series Management, Economic Engineering in Agriculture and Rural Development Vol. 19, Issue 2, 2019 PRINT ISSN 2284-7995, E-ISSN 2285-3952 POLISH AGRICULTURE. A CASE STUDY: EXTENSION SERVICES – RETROSPECTIVE PERSPECTIVE AND CURRENT ISSUES

Benon GAZINSKI

Institute of Political Sciences, Warmia and Mazury University in Olsztyn, 11 Szrajbera Street, 10-007 Olsztyn, Poland. Phone (mobile): +48-506-138-524, Fax: +48-89-527-08-01 Email:[email protected]

Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract

An attempt of this article is to review experiences of the Polish agricultural extension services in a broad historical context. In the introductory part, turbulent history of the one century (1918-2018) is outlined. Then, experiences of agricultural extension are briefed, coming back to the 19-th century, a period of the partition and including achievements of agricultural extension in a brief interwar period. In the following section of the article, dilemmas of agricultural extension services during a Centrally Planned Economy regime are presented. It is pointed-out that they were a victim of dominating ideological concerns over the economy with resultant half-hearted approach towards dominating peasant sector. Then, experiences of the Polish system transformation and European integration processes are overviewed. In particular, a new initiative (emerged in 2015) – “Network for Innovation in Agriculture and Rural Areas” is briefed. In the concluding part, Polish experiences, both successes and shortcomings, are summarized.

Key words: agricultural extension, contemporary Poland’s history

INTRODUCTION totally changed (before the war there was above 300-kilometer section of the common During a century (1918-2018) Poland border with Romania). The territory of the witnesses a stormy history. Together with the country decreased by approx. 48% – from 380 end of the 1-st World War terminated 123- to 312.7 thousand square km. with over 1/3 year long period of partitions (the Polish of the present Polish area being post-German territory was ruled by Tsar Russia, the Austro- lands. Consequently, ethnic and religious Hungarian empire and Prussia). Rebirth of the relations were substantially impacted. Before state meant the necessity to shape and protect the war, about one third of the total population borders (the Greater Poland and Silesian were national minorities with different uprisings, Bolshevik-Polish war) and the religious denominations – in today Poland, introduction of uniform administrative and their share fell tenfold. Nowadays Poland is legal structures throughout the territory. There one of the most uniform European countries were three separate currencies, systems of and approx. 90% of the population declares education, customs or taxes. Therefore, the belonging to Catholic traditions. currency (introduction of the Polish mark, Particularly significant consequences for the replaced by złoty since 1924), solutions in development of Poland had the enforcement education or in the financial system were of a system of Centrally Planned Economy gradually unified. During a short interwar lasting until September 1989, until the period, the first attempts to organize democratic breakthrough of the Tadeusz nationwide agricultural extension were Mazowiecki cabinet. undertaken. During the socialist regime, Poland enjoyed The outbreak of the 2-nd World War ended the largest relative “margin of freedom” this almost 20-year period of peaceful within so-called the socialist camp. It is due to development and, once again, led to a number of interrelated issues: relatively fundamental changes in both state and social strong position of the Catholic church; structures. The state borders were almost 145 Scientific Papers Series Management, Economic Engineering in Agriculture and Rural Development Vol. 19, Issue 2, 2019 PRINT ISSN 2284-7995, E-ISSN 2285-3952 population resistance to solutions coming development of the democratic opposition. from the "East" (still vivid memory of the war The two stages of economic reforms declared with the Bolsheviks and deportations to by the authorities failed but, from the mid- Siberia during the Soviet occupation of 1939- 1980s, cracks began to appear in the old 1941) and peculiarities of the Gomułka and structures of the socialist system – since 1985 Gierek regimes – the first and one of the last some solutions appropriate rather to the Communist rulers of the country. Gomułka liberal market economy were introduced. The tried to use a small margin of freedom, being Constitutional Court began its judicial activity – among others – against the rapid and forced in 1986. In 1987, the Rural Foundation collectivization of agriculture, while Gierek Supporting the Supply of Water, independent was looking for "socialism with a human from the Communist government and initiated face" and his policy of “opening to the West” by the Church, was established. At the same made him popular in the society. time, the Office of the Ombudsman for A significant distinction of Poland from all citizens' rights was also established. The Act other countries controlled by the Kremlin was on Freedom of Economic Activity, adopted in not only the survival but also the dominance December 1988, was the real breakthrough in of the peasant sector in agriculture. However, economic life [7]. after the unsuccessful attempts of forced However, the Polish economy of the late collectivization, the state's agricultural policy 1980s was declining (described even as the (after 1956) was characterized by a certain "bankrupt estate"). Under the pressure of schizophrenia. In milder forms, policy of further strikes, caused by the deteriorating collectivization was continued (difficulties in socio-economic situation, famous Round access to means of production and agricultural Table negotiation took place. They brought an machinery, tax burden, lack of agricultural agreement between a part of the opposition pensions or access to medical services on and the government – its most important point general principles) with parallel pragmatic was the holding of partly free and democratic support for peasant farming through, among elections to the Seym and the Senate (the others, agricultural advisory system. Hence, in newly appointed upper chamber of the 1989, the year of the fall of socialism, Polish Parliament). These elections, carried out on 4- peasants owned more than 80% of the total th June 1989, resulted in the loosing of the agricultural land. Half-hearted attempts of power of the Communists and, in September reforms in the 1970s (for example, Poland 1989, non-communist government of T. was at that time the only one socialist country Mazowiecki was constituted, the first one in where a citizen could have a bank account in the Central and Eastern Europe in the post- convertible currencies) failed and did not save war period. socialism in Poland from its fall [9]. At the turn of the 1980s and 1990s, a radical Dramatic market failures led, in the second reform package was launched, bringing the half of the 1970s, into the introduction of the end of more than forty years of socialism in food rationing system, gradually extended to Poland. System transformation meant a the entire range of different products. The fact simultaneous rebuilding of the political that a democratic breakthrough took place in system, structures of the state and the 1989 could be attributed to several factors. introduction of a market economy: Since 1985, the Brezhnev doctrine of keeping privatization, exchangeable currency and the the satellite states in line, began to give room resultant regulation of the economy by the to the policy of "glasnost" and "perestroika" market. The structure of a land ownership in introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev. The Poland in 1989 was a kind of inverted peaceful "Solidarity" revolution, initiated in pyramid as compared to other COMECON August 1980, despite being crushed by the countries: state farms occupied only 20% of authorities through the introduction of martial agricultural land, agricultural cooperatives law (13-th December 1981), contributed to the below 5% and the remaining over 80% were

146 Scientific Papers Series Management, Economic Engineering in Agriculture and Rural Development Vol. 19, Issue 2, 2019 PRINT ISSN 2284-7995, E-ISSN 2285-3952 in the hands of private farmers. One of the we can still learn from the past, following a difficulties in the transformation of agriculture Latin proverb: “historia magistra vitae est”. was the significant diversification of the Consequently, four different political periods agrarian structure between the regions. While are considered: the partitions, brief inter-war in the area of Ostrołęka (nowadays a part of period, decades of the socialist regime and last the capital Mazowieckie voivodship) over era of the system transformation and the 90% of the land was owned by farmers, in the European integration. Therefore, basically it is North and West regions (lands incorporated not an empirical work but the review article, into Poland after 2-nd World War), socialist instead off. The monography approach and sector in agriculture often exceeded 50% – in descriptive method is applied in this article, those areas rapid collapse of state farms took based on extensive literature studies. Personal place with resultant unemployment and many experiences of the author as an academic painful social problems. Already in the first teacher and an expert involved in rural years of system transformation, the aspirations development projects and a number of of the membership in the then European interviews with professionals engaged in rural Communities were clearly confirmed by the development contributed to the concluding preamble of the Association Treaty, signed opinions and remarks. 16-th December 1991. The Office of the Government Plenipotentiary for European RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Integration and Foreign Assistance was created in 1991, transformed in 1996 into the Agricultural extension in Poland. ministerial Office of the Committee for Retrospective outlook European Integration. Development of contemporary agriculture is The beginnings of transformation were due to a dynamic progress of science and difficult for agriculture. Despite the provisions methods of production during 19-th century. of the "asymmetry of benefits" in the an age of “steam and electricity”. This also Association Treaty (easier access to European applies to Polish lands, for a whole century markets), the completely opposite divided between three neighboring countries. phenomenon took place – the balance of Until 1918 (regaining independence), the agricultural trade became negative for Poland. development of agricultural sciences, rural This was due to radical reforms, including associations and the beginnings of advisory liberalization of foreign trade. At that time, consultancy took place in various conditions Polish farmers lived in more market economy and therefore exhibited a lot of dissimilarities. environment than the European ones, enjoying One of the important factors in the social the CAP "umbrella”. In the period preceding development of the village was the the accession, there was a significant enfranchisement of peasants. It was initiated modernization of the food industry and in 1807 in the Prussian partition (the process changes in the farms themselves. As a result – was completed in 1850). In the Austrian partition, the enfranchisement took place as a contrary to many earlier fears – the one-step act, by virtue of the edict of 1848. At integration of the Polish agri-food sector (1-st the latest, in 1864, liquidation of feudal May 2005 – EU membership) was smooth relations occurred in the Russian partition (as and without major perturbations [8]. a political consequence of the January Uprising) [20]. Newly liberated peasants, MATERIALS AND METHODS often of low education level and managing small and indebted farms and were not The purpose of this article is to deliver the prepared for independent management – overview experiences of the Polish bringing them into the independent "on their agricultural extension services in a broad own" farmers required time and support. historical perspective, covering the period of the two centuries. A research question is put if 147 Scientific Papers Series Management, Economic Engineering in Agriculture and Rural Development Vol. 19, Issue 2, 2019 PRINT ISSN 2284-7995, E-ISSN 2285-3952 The first step to progress in agriculture is from his father, he went to England, where – research related to education. The beginnings working on the farm – he learned in depth the of the University level agricultural education best agricultural practices of that time. After in the Polish lands date back to the early returning, he successfully implemented them nineteenth century. Already in 1803, the in his land estate. Then, he propagated them Department of Agriculture was founded in practically by educating about 80 farm Vilnius at the local University – one of the managers. In this way, he initiated a specific pioneers of Polish agricultural sciences, school of modern agriculture [4]. Michał Oczapowski was a Member of its Staff Voluntary agricultural organizations A during a period 1819-1831. At the significant role in the system of support for Jagiellonian University of Cracow rural development and agriculture played (established in 1364, the oldest in Poland), the social organizations, voluntary and emerging Department of Agriculture was established in in a bottom-up way. Very often they were for 1806. However, it was abolished three years the chambers of agriculture a kind of their later by the Austrian authorities. At the executive apparatus: “In principle, all direct University of Lvov, the Department of activities on the dissemination of agricultural Agriculture was erected in 1814. In those progress were carried out by county years alone, in 1816 the Institute of associations of agricultural circles, by Agriculture in Marymont was founded (it initiating works in agricultural circles, initiated today's the SGGW, the Warsaw industry associations and circles of rural University for Agriculture) [3]. housewives, or supporting work in ... the The advancement of agricultural sciences was circles of rural youth.” [16]. accompanied by the expansion of scientific As early as 1810, a Business and Agricultural literature. It is estimated that 98 agricultural Association was established in the territory of journals were issued during a period 1795- the Russian partition. Liquidated after only 1860. Some of them are worth to be two years, revived operations in 1858, to be mentioned as they are available to the readers liquidated again by the Tsarist authorities. It until today. In Warsaw, since 1820 “Sylwan” was not until 1907 that the Central is issued, recognized as one of the world Agricultural Society was established. In Lvov, oldest journals on forestry. In 1903, the first the Austrian partition, in 1829, the Galician volume of “Roczniki Nauk Rolniczych” Agricultural Society was established, which – [Yearbooks of Agricultural Sciences] under the name of the Eastern Minor Polish appeared in Cracow. Dissemination of Economic Association – survived until the progress in agriculture was not yet outbreak of the war in 1939. institutionally organized. In the society under A bit later, in 1836, the Agricultural Society annexed Poland, it was one of the elements of began its works in Gniezno, in the area of the "organic work", long-term activities covering Prussian partition. not only economic issues, but also broadly In 1918, immediately before regaining understood social and cultural ones. They independence, there were 862 agricultural were aimed for the protection of cultural circles in the Prussian partition, 1882 – in the heritage, because they were accompanied by Austrian partition and 1899 – in Russian. In patriotic expectations – regaining the last years of the interwar period, the independence of the state, whenever Central Society of Organizations and convenient conditions would emerged. Agricultural Circles with headquarters in A part of gentry was the mainstay of such Warsaw operated and four other independent traditions. It is worth mentioning one regional associations gathering together significant example – of the important role voluntary agricultural organizations. It is played by Dezydery Chłapowski, the estimated that they covered around 14% of all landowner from Turwia, the region of Great farm owners. There were, however, Poland. After taking over the indebted estate 148 Scientific Papers Series Management, Economic Engineering in Agriculture and Rural Development Vol. 19, Issue 2, 2019 PRINT ISSN 2284-7995, E-ISSN 2285-3952 significant differences between regions: from agricultural economist and politician began to 48% in Pomerania to 5% in the Vilnius region use it in 1928 (he is especially known as the and only 2.5% in Polesie. author of the currency reform of 1924, when In the rural environment, there were generally the Polish mark was replaced by the złoty). high prestige industry associations, such as According to his definition, the social the Association of Cattle Breeders, or the agronomy is: “a social activity, based on a Association of Planters of Sugar Beet. private initiative, or on associations, or on Another important form of self-organization institutions, or on local government and the of local communities was the cooperative state, consisting in dissemination of movement, the most developed in the second agronomic knowledge and its application by half of the nineteenth century in the Prussian the broadest classes (from priests to peasants, partition. Banks played a major role in this inclusively)”. It is therefore a coherent system movement, not only economic one but also of socio-professional agricultural education important for conservation of national feeling and upbringing in the spirit of making an and social activists such as Father Piotr active attitude to life. Thus, it concerns both Wawrzyniak played a great role in it [23]. the sphere of agricultural production and During the interwar period, the cooperative social relations: cooperation of various movement developed further, but not in a economic institutions (such as rural territorially evenly manner. cooperatives or agricultural circles) and socio- In the years 1938-1939, the largest in number cultural ones (for example, youth associations were (3,707) credit and agri-food cooperatives and rural housewives' circles). Therefore, at (3,207). Dairy cooperatives (1,475) also the focusing point was the man as a subject. played an important role. In addition, 454 Emphasis was placed on shaping the agricultural and trade cooperatives were teamwork habits [16]. registered. This concept was connected with two However, nationwide structures were not directions of agricultural education – the developed during that period, as well as the development of agricultural extension service unification of agricultural education. To and extramural agricultural courses. One of establish a nationwide representation of the important elements of these activities was agriculture, a resolution of the Central the dissemination of agricultural knowledge Congress of the Society of Organizations and and progress – agricultural innovations Agricultural Circles of March 1936 was covering all the rural environment. Therefore, unanimously adopted – but that postulate social agronomy, as a tool of spreading remained only on paper. innovative methods in agriculture, was a In addition, socio-economic organizations construction based itself on three pillars: competed with each other for influence and agricultural sciences and education, were politically diverse. The conflict between agricultural organizations and associations the interests of landowners and small-farm framework and agricultural producer's associations was particularly significant. network. Rural youth was also associated in several University level research and education were organizations with a different ideological and conducted in one Agricultural University, the political profile, such as the Central Union of SGGW of Warsaw and four Agricultural Rural Youth "Siew" [“Seeds”] and the Union Faculties at Universities in Cracow, Lvov, of Rural Youth of the Republic of Poland Poznań and Vilnius with total number of [16]. graduates of around two thousands. Thus, the Social agronomy and practical concept included previously established implementation of this concept The term institutions, and also used former experience. "social agronomy” was used in the title of the Its important new structural element were the book by the Russian author Tachaianov chambers of agriculture. (1888-1937). In Poland, W. Grabski, an

149 Scientific Papers Series Management, Economic Engineering in Agriculture and Rural Development Vol. 19, Issue 2, 2019 PRINT ISSN 2284-7995, E-ISSN 2285-3952 Significance of agricultural chambers voluntary associations from a few to a dozen Agricultural chambers were the most farmers, conducting a close experiments in important institution of agricultural self- their farms. They received subsidies from the government. Their beginnings on Polish Ministry of Agriculture and agricultural territories date back to 1894, when the chambers. During a period 1926-1938, 84 Prussian authorities issued a bill under which such experimental circles were created. In the Agricultural Chamber in Poznań was addition, agricultural schools run by established – its first meeting took place in agricultural chambers participated in the February 1896. As a result of the victorious experimentation in Pomerania and Greater Greater Poland Uprising in January 1919, it Poland. passed into Polish hands. Under the ordinance An important form of support for progress in of the Minister of the former Prussian district the methods of farming by agricultural – from the beginning of March 1919 – the chambers was the organization of "leading chamber obtained the right to organize lower farms". These were teams of 4-5 farmers who, agricultural schools and other similar as local leaders, undertook various initiatives institutions, as well as the right to control in their environment, for example in the field these schools. In the Constitution of the of collective management of meadows and Republic of Poland, adopted on 17-th March pastures [1]. 1921, a provision was made (Article 68) on In 1935, the Association of Chambers and the establishment of a future separate act of Agricultural Organizations was established, economic self-government, including bringing together 13 regional Chambers of agricultural chambers and, moreover, craft, Agriculture. A year later, the Rural Culture commercial and industrial ones, associated in Institute was established, conceived, among the Supreme Chamber of Commerce. The first others as an advisory and auxiliary body of all-Polish act regarding the activities of government administration [16]. agricultural chambers was the President's Coordination of all agricultural tasks was the Regulation of March 1928, announcing their responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture establishment throughout the country. and Agricultural Reform. The intermediary Nevertheless, attempts to introduce body between the territorial self-government homogeneous structures of agricultural and the central level of state administration chambers in the whole of Poland had failed. was the economic self-government, including Thus, agricultural chambers covered the area the chambers of agriculture. Voluntary socio- of one province. agricultural associations at the local level The basic tasks of agricultural chambers were involved in the “work from the bottom”. included: Agricultural extension In the period discussed -representing and defending the interests of here, as many as 2/3 of the total population agriculture; relied on agriculture. The overpopulation of -undertaking independent initiatives in the rural areas was particularly severe in the field of comprehensive support of agriculture South-Eastern part of the country. Activation and of agricultural production was not conducive -performing the tasks entrusted to them – to farm fragmentation – 64% of them did not especially in the field of establishing and exceed 5 ha. The principles of modern running agricultural schools, agricultural agriculture, developed in the nineteenth experimentation and consulting. century, therefore required translating into a In the interwar period of Poland, 26 farm-gate level. agricultural enterprises were involved in The beginnings of today's adviser, or how it experiments – 16 of them belonged to the was described at that time – an agricultural agricultural chambers. An interesting form of instructor – goes back to 1860. when the experimental work by the chambers of Royal Danish Agricultural Society appointed agriculture were "experimental circles", the first consultant for dairy sector. In the 150 Scientific Papers Series Management, Economic Engineering in Agriculture and Rural Development Vol. 19, Issue 2, 2019 PRINT ISSN 2284-7995, E-ISSN 2285-3952 Polish lands at the earliest, at the end of the to implement these assumptions was to 19th century, agricultural instructors appeared organize model farms. It usually started with in the region of Greater Poland. They were so- group visits of farms belonging to members of called itinerant teachers engaged by the farm circles, during which advice was given Agricultural Society. In the 1920s, after on improvements to farming practices – such regaining the independence, three pillars of actions were taken at the earliest in Greater advisory services can be distinguished: Poland and then covered other parts of the a)agricultural instructors dealing with the territory. The adopted method of operation issues of peasant farms and its modernization; was mainly based on the principle: “example - b)instructors for rural household and – implementation". Thus, the institution of the educational work among women; leading farm was shaped by practice, to a c)instructors supporting rural youth. large extent by method of trial and error. In 1935, a total of over 1,500 instructors were The farms targeted to be the leading ones employed in all 241 counties. They were were selected by county instructors. The supported by the staff of agricultural instructor appreciated as a partner enlightened chambers and rural cooperatives as well as and entrepreneurial farmer and, at the same teachers of agricultural schools. Thus, time, enjoying respect in his environment. approximately three thousand professionals Around such a farmer, who was the owner of dealt with the instructor's work for rural the leading farm, a cluster of several other societies, a great success for the then realities. farms was formed, usually belonging to the The basis for the staff distribution were best farmers in the village. The range of county agricultural instructors varied in the territorial impact in "breadth" and "in depth" number from five to ten. As early as in 1918 was increased by the creation of the network they established Union of Instructors of Rural of the leading farms. Therefore, over a dozen and Social Work, counting 130 members in leading villages such as Lisków, Albigowa 1921 and publishing for some time even their and Cupryły were emerged throughout the own journal, “Głos Instruktorski” country. Each of them was often the purpose ("Instructor's Voice"). of peasant exploration tours. The The first school that educated instructors and aforementioned actions were supported by the teachers of agricultural schools was the State Ministry of Agriculture, in which a School of Rural Economy in Cieszyn. A few Committee of the Organization of Small-scale years later, in 1927/29, the specialization of Farms was established in 1934. Among social agronomy was created at the Main others, it was to elaborate the rules of School for the Rural Economy, the SGGW in organization, including the methods of Warsaw. For the purpose of education, the cooperation between leading farms and Social Agronomy Department at the Faculty agricultural chambers. The solutions of Agriculture was established, the first discussed here belong to the long-term scientific and didactic unit of that type in achievements of the agricultural advisory Europe. In addition, since 1929, the Central services of the interwar period, which were Office for Upgrading Agricultural Instructors squandered by the wartime and its subsequent at the Museum of Industry and Agriculture political consequences. That is why they are was involved in teaching activities and, since worth to be remembered today. 1933, the Central Commission for the Some difficulties faced by the instructors also Training of Instructors at the Central Society have to be to mentioned as they sound also of Organizations and Agricultural Circles quite contemporary. One of them was wage [13]. issues. The wages were paid irregularly. The mission of the agricultural instructor was Before 1-st April, the first day of the new to inspire the rural environment so that it budget year, there were some dismissals would be able to act and develop on the basis resulting from shortages in county budgets. of its own strength. One of the practical ways

151 Scientific Papers Series Management, Economic Engineering in Agriculture and Rural Development Vol. 19, Issue 2, 2019 PRINT ISSN 2284-7995, E-ISSN 2285-3952 Often, agricultural instructors did not have a expansion of industry, especially the heavy paid-up pension fund [16]. one. People’s Poland (1944-1989). Split: Adopted at that time, a reorganization of collectivization vs. peasant farming support agricultural service served as an In the conditions of the war destructions and implementation tool of doctrinal assumptions. massive migrations due to the changes of Part of it was subordinated to the management borders, one of crucial issues was the food boards of agriculture at the voivodship and security and, at the same time, installation of county level, and the rest was transferred to the forced political system. Therefore, the the political and economic departments of the years 1944-1948 were transient. The State Machine Centers. The imposed duty of reconstruction was accompanied by these services was the obligation to participate reactivation of many pre-war institutions, in the collectivization campaign and to including agricultural chambers, and persuade peasants to join the production cooperatives. In the conditions of acute staff cooperatives. Farmer’s associations and shortages – many advisors were killed, some branch unions were also liquidated. During stayed outside the borders, and those this period, the previous experiences and remaining in the country were often promoted traditions of agricultural advisory and self- to much higher positions – three districts were organization of rural communities were formed, grouping together several provinces: largely squandered. the Pomeranian Training District; the Correction of agrarian policy took place Cracovian Training District and the Warsaw during the "thaw" of October 1956, along with Training District. An uniform training the change at the top of the ruling party. The programme for advisers was applied. In this majority of agricultural production way, 453 instructors were trained until 1947, cooperatives, created under pressure, had been that is about 43% of all the staff. During a self-dissolved. Agricultural circles resumed period 1946-1948, agricultural advisers were their activity, but they no longer had their employed in the two categories: instructors for former role as a bottom-up structure – their farm organization or instructors for rural main role was to modernize farms mainly by households. Because for one adviser from providing them with mechanization services. each of these categories there were about 45 In 1957, agricultural instructors were thousand farms with an acreage of more than transferred to the administrative structures of 2 ha, other tried pre-war patterns were applied agricultural councils. Then, the position of the agronomist of the district was created (it – leading farms and leading villages. The included several of communes). He was institution supporting the revitalization of the formally an employee of a County village were reactivated agricultural chambers Association of Agricultural Circles, hence his [20]. the main duty was to carry out his employer's With the strengthening of the new regime, instructions, consisting in setting up there had been a growing trend of centralizing agricultural circles, organization of meetings social and economic life and elimination of and performing various administrative tasks bottom-up independent social structures. At [14]. the turn of 1946/1947 agricultural chambers Moreover, in those years, District Agricultural were liquidated. The campaign of the "battle Experimental Units, subordinated to the for trade" was accompanied by subordination agricultural departments at the provincial of the cooperatives to superior central level, were established. Within their structures – in the case of rural areas it was framework, specialist consultants were the Peasant Self-help Union. At the end of appointed. They were obliged to undertake 1948, took place – like in other countries of experimental and implementation activities. the Soviet block – the imposed turn of the Their consulting work included such forms as: socio-economic strategy relying on the forced demonstrations, farm visits, exhibitions and collectivization of agriculture and rapid 152 Scientific Papers Series Management, Economic Engineering in Agriculture and Rural Development Vol. 19, Issue 2, 2019 PRINT ISSN 2284-7995, E-ISSN 2285-3952 trainings. However, in a centralized own agricultural farm and its acreage varied administrative management system, inspectors significantly from 150 to even 4,500 hectares were guided by all the authorities of various [10]. levels, not always aware of the realities of Agricultural advisory services (1989- agriculture and sometimes inconsistent. Lack nowadays): system transformation and of coordination of various decision-makers European integration was not conducive to the effectiveness of The fundamental difficulty in the functioning undertaken actions, and being even source of of advisory services of the socialist period chaos. Therefore, in 1968, the next changes was the inconsistency of agricultural policy. were introduced. Agronomists, employed by Significant support was received by the agricultural circles, went to work in the nationalized agriculture, preferred by the state Commune Councils, along with many other despite the fact that they gave way to peasant advisers from the agri-food industry, dairy farms in terms of effectiveness. Under the cooperatives or associations. However, the system of the Centrally Planned Economy, methods of operation remained the same – the private property was treated as an alien, unconditional execution of top-down unwanted body. During the 1970s, in spite of guidelines was in force leaving little room for some important pragmatic solutions inserted strictly advisory activities. by the E. Gierek regime (introduction of a Along with this, there were further changes in pension scheme and general public health the organization of agricultural advisory system for farmers and removal of archaic services. Agronomists and zootechnicians compulsory purchasing system), the policy of were replaced by municipal agricultural collectivizing agriculture was still carried out, instructors. The basic composition of the albeit in milder and more hidden forms – there municipal agricultural service team was were administrative directives so that the land composed of: rural farm instructor, rural transferred by farmers to the state treasury construction instructor, instructor for agro- was no longer available for sale to other amelioration, and – depending on the local interested farmers (it was transferred to an conditions – such specialists as for orchards, artificial structure, Joint Farms of Agricultural vegetable growing, or sheep farming. Circles, often with negative economic According to formally written rules, the outputs). Only under conditions of a peaceful agricultural service should perform advisory, revolution, under the pressure of the organizational, educational, and social- agricultural "Solidarity", the stability of education functions. However, in practice, the peasant farming in the system of socialist agricultural service was still overloaded with economy was guaranteed by a Parliamentary administrative tasks, often replacing other law. This time, unlike the earlier ones, due to institutions appointed to cooperate with the terrible and deteriorating economic agriculture. situation, these records were respected. Subsequent changes in advisory services Compared to other socialist countries, the organization took place in 1975, when in the specificity of 1980s Poland was characterized administrative structure of the country by an economic decline, but at the same time counties were liquidated and the number of a greater scope of political freedoms. These provinces was increased from 17 to 49. circumstances decided in 1989 about the District Agricultural Experimental Units had adoption of a strategy of system been converted into the Provincial Centres for transformation. Radical economic reforms, Agricultural Progress. The actions taken at described as a “shocking therapy” and known that time meant some advance in bringing from the name of their architect as a consultancy closer to farmers – the needs of “Balcerowicz reform package”, were farmers began better recognized and new accompanied by much more slower political technological solutions implemented more transformation. effectively. Each of such a Centres run its

153 Scientific Papers Series Management, Economic Engineering in Agriculture and Rural Development Vol. 19, Issue 2, 2019 PRINT ISSN 2284-7995, E-ISSN 2285-3952 The new situation in agriculture consisted of: Introduced in 1999, changes in the liberation of prices, suppression of the administrative division reduced the number of hyperinflation that occurred at that time, provinces from 49 to 16 and restored counties liberal policy in foreign trade, resulting in an as an intermediate level of public easy access of subsidized in the European administration. They also caused changes in Communities agricultural commodities to the the structures of agricultural advisory Polish market (with simultaneous restrictions services. Under the law adopted by the on the access of Polish products to the Parliament, agricultural advisory centers European market) and economic collapse of obtained legal personality and were the state farms. subordinated to Marshal Offices, the The “economy of shortages”, typical for the voivodship self-government structures, with socialist economy [12] was quickly replaced their co-financing from the state budget made by the abundant offer of goods on the food via the Voivode as a regional representative of market. The first time for many decades, a the state authority. The solution was farmer learnt that manufacturing of a product controversial because of a certain two- in his farm constitute only a part of his partism. In the autumn of 2016, after eight interests – at least of equal importance is just years of government of D. Tusk (today's to sell it. President of the European Council), the power At the beginning of the 1990s, in the new was overtaken by the opposition party “Prawo system reality, subsequent changes in i Sprawiedliwość' ("Law and Justice"). Under agricultural advisory services took place. the provocative slogan of "a good change", Using the existing material and personnel another centralistic and anti-European policy base, Provincial Centers of Agricultural has been enforced. Provincial Agricultural Progress, had been replaced by Provincial Advisory Centres were overtaken by the Agricultural Advisory Centers. Reformed Voivode Offices with resultant "tsunami" in system was focused on the needs of private staffing of managerial positions – all directors farmers. Changes in the agricultural advisory of the Provincial Centers have been removed organization included, among others: from the posts, as well as a significant part of -establishment, since 1991, of the Social the lower management staff. Advisory Councils; The work and scope of activities on the -withdrawal from the production activity Provincial Agricultural Advisory Centre can (resignation from running own farms) – they be illustrated by an example of the Warmia- became units financed from the public budget; Mazury Agricultural Advisory Centre in -subordination to the Voivode (the province Olsztyn. In 1990, the Voivodship Agricultural governor) as funding authorities. Appointing Progress Centre was located in Bęsia, in rural directors through open competitions. areas – following the reform that was adopted. Budgetary difficulties, as well as competition It was then transferred to more easily from private advisory units, resulted in the accessible Olsztyn, the centrally located introduction of partial payment for some capital of the province. The Centre works for consultancy services (this applies in particular one of the less densely populated provinces to filling out applications for the EU subsidies but with well-recognized values of the natural or preparing business plans). One of the environment (vast forests and the “land of achievements of changing the mission of state thousands lakes”). In the former political advisory services was acting in accordance regime, agriculture was dominated by state- with the principles of grassroot development, owned farms. Therefore, there are larger taking into account the previously recognized family farms and a remarkable number of needs of farmers and rural communities large-scale commercial ones. In the province, instead of fulfillment of top-down directives the average farm size is the highest in the under the former political regime [22]. national scale (2.3 ha vs. 10.7) and some of

154 Scientific Papers Series Management, Economic Engineering in Agriculture and Rural Development Vol. 19, Issue 2, 2019 PRINT ISSN 2284-7995, E-ISSN 2285-3952 2/3 of agricultural land is cultivated by farms Support Centre) and the Agency for above 30 ha [5]. Restructuring and Modernization of As the first in the country, already after Agriculture. The flow of agricultural submitting in 1994 the application for the EU knowledge and innovations, in which membership, the Centre undertook systematic Agricultural Advisory Centers perform a propagation and training activities related to significant role, includes various forms and broadly understood European integration. activities: Training activities cover not only farmers, but -organizational and economic (including broadly understood strata of the rural subsidies from the EU budget); population, including school youth. Since -marketing; 1995, one of important areas of activities is -cooperatives and farmer group actions; development of agro-tourism. There is -production technologies; permanent cooperation with the Warmia and -agro-environmental (including organic Mazury University (former Agricultural farming); University) in Olsztyn. The publishing -cultural heritage. activity is carried out on an ongoing basis, Agricultural Advisory Center in Brwinów is including its own monthly “Bieżące an institution for “training agricultural Informacje” ("Current Informations"). In 1994 consultants, agricultural school teachers, for the first time "Wama Agro Food" was representatives of agricultural institutions and organized and, one year later, horticultural organizations, local governments, Local "Uniflora". Then their number increased by, Action Groups, farmers and residents of rural among others "Autumn Agricultural Fair", areas, organizing trainings, seminars, "Everything for a Farmer" and "Warmia- conferences, competitions and other forms of Masurian Exhibition of Farm Animals". For professional development”. It is a state more than twenty years, the Center has been organizational unit, subjected directly to the inviting all those willing so to its gates for Minister of Agriculture and Rural "Open Days". Development and having Branches in Already in 1993, cooperation was initiated Krakow, Poznań, Radom and Warsaw [15]. In with the Kaliningrad Oblast of the Russian addition, universities and research institutes as Federation, bordering the region. A year later, well as other implementation units also in the field of cattle and dairy farming, a co- contribute into these processes. operation with a Danish consulting center in Particularly prominent results of Agricultural Skejby was established. Other foreign partners Advisory Centers' work include: worth to be mentioned are France and Ukraine -implementation of legal solutions related to [17]. the Common Agricultural Policy; The Centre supports organization of the -assistance in elaboration of the business agricultural producer' groups (dairy, swine, plans; poultry, cereals, horticultural and others) and -implementation of the system of agricultural assists farmers involved in agro- accounting (the FADN); environmental programmes, including organic -support of agro-tourism activities and other farming. forms of non-agricultural sources of Activities for innovations The system of additional incomes; disseminating knowledge and agricultural -activities for the protection of the natural innovations in Poland includes Agricultural environment (agro-environmental Advisory Centers, Agricultural Chambers, programmes, local garbage utilization units, local associations and organizations (NGOs) alternative energy sources, etc.); and state agricultural Agencies: the -cooperation in creating local development Agricultural Market Agency and the strategies and reviving social activity of local Agricultural Property Agency (merged, in 1-st communities; September 2017, in the National Agricultural

155 Scientific Papers Series Management, Economic Engineering in Agriculture and Rural Development Vol. 19, Issue 2, 2019 PRINT ISSN 2284-7995, E-ISSN 2285-3952 -the traditional involvement is the promotion newsletter “European Union Partnership – of new agricultural technologies. Agricultural Productivity and Sustainability”, Therefore, the scope of interests and actions available online. In its issues, among others undertaken by Agricultural Advisory Centers information, it can be found news about goes beyond the narrowly understood upcoming events and announcements about agriculture [11]. organized research projects. The European Innovation Partnership The institutionalized form of such cooperation (EIP) is the creation of Operational Groups, which In the earlier part of this work, the include not only interested farmers, but also achievements of entire previous generations agricultural farmers, scientists, or agricultural concerning the introduction of innovativeness entrepreneurs. According to the data for in agriculture were briefed. The constraints March 2018, around 600 such Groups that hinder this process were also well operated or started their activities in the entire recognized: the specificity of agriculture as Union. Examples are "ArboNovateur" in such, a shortage of financial resources, France, grouping fruit producers looking for deficiencies in the level of education, or fears sustainable and innovative methods of fruit of change, especially among older farmers. cultivation, in particular exploring irrigation The contemporary proposal for solving the systems and management methods assisting problems indicated here is the European apple, plum, grape and kiwi growers or Innovation Partnership, undertaken in recent "UNDERCORK", the Portuguese Operational years. This programme is one of the practical Group bringing together cork oak growers. forms of implementation of the EU strategy In the national and regional Rural "Europe – 2020 ", in which, among others, it Development Programmes, adopted for 2014- was assumed that the basis for the 2020 (the seven-year planning period in the development of the EU economy is to Union), a total of over 3,200 such Groups are increase its innovativeness by creating a assumed to be established [6]. single innovation market. The European The domestic response to these pro- Innovation Partnership (EIP). It covers a innovation activities undertaken by the Union variety of thematic areas, such as active and is the SIR – a network for innovation in healthy aging of societies, water resources, agriculture and in rural areas. It covers raw materials, and smart development of different institutions focused on the improving cities and societies [21]. the implementation of agricultural Since 2012, the next venture, the European innovations. The central unit at the national Innovation Partnership – AGRI is introduced level is the Agricultural Extension Center in for the development of competitive and Brwinów, coordinating activities at the sustainable agriculture and rural areas. regional level, undertaken by Voivodship Supporting innovations in agriculture is Agricultural Extension Centers (the WODR). focused on: In each the WODR, a Liaison Officer is -more effective resource management; appointed, to whom all interested farmers or -reinforcing the ecological economy; enterprises can turn in order to find partners -protection of biodiversity; for intended undertakings or to get required -development of innovative products; information. The Operational Groups are the -food quality. bottom-up structures directly related to the EIP is a kind of platform with which implementation of innovations. They are innovative farmers have the opportunity to created for the implementation of specific find partners with similar aspirations, to innovative objectives – solutions developed establish and strengthen cooperation and to by them are addressed to a specific group of exchange knowledge and experience on recipients and are a response to their needs. innovation in agriculture [18]. Information Their composition includes entities classified about its activity is spread by a monthly as:

156 Scientific Papers Series Management, Economic Engineering in Agriculture and Rural Development Vol. 19, Issue 2, 2019 PRINT ISSN 2284-7995, E-ISSN 2285-3952 -Category A: farmers, foresters, entrepreneurs government, with the support of which from the agri-food sector, or acting for these experiments were carried out in collaborating sectors; farms. "leading farms" were also co-organized -Category B – covering the territorial units of to demonstrate agricultural innovations in local government, consumer and industry their rural environment. A web of leading organizations operating in the agri-food sector farms led to the creation of "leading villages". as well as entities providing consultancy This rich heritage was in large degree wasted services and scientific units. after the 2-nd world war, while the centralized The Operational Groups obtain legal socio-political system of socialism was personality, which enables them to enter into imposed – agricultural advisory services were contracts and undertake other obligations. subordinated to ideological goals. They may also raise funds for their financial Since 1989, departure from socialism was, activities under the EU Rural Development therefore, a turning point. Transformation and Programme, the "Cooperation" activity, European integration processes basically covering the years 2014-2020 [19]. changed various areas of socio-political life of This network has been operating in Poland the country, including the system of since the second half of 2015. The designated consultative services. Liaison Officers, who are advisors to the The strengths of public agricultural advisory individual WODRs, hold working meetings, services include: their legal personality, usually taking place in Brwinów. support from the state budget and the availability of experienced staff, knowing CONCLUSIONS rural realities, well developed territorial structures and a relatively good material Agricultural extension in Poland. background. As examples of their Retrospection and prospects achievements one can cite: Linking together research, education and -enforcement of the Common Agricultural innovation in agriculture is not something policy regulations (including procedures to new – it dates back to the beginning of the get the EU subsidies); 19th century, when the dynamic development -implementation of the farm accountancy (the of agricultural sciences was accompanied by FADN); the growing importance of transferring their -support in agricultural practices for agro- results into practice. Despite the diversity of tourism, organic farming and pro-ecological the political and social situation in the Polish measures; territories, being under the partitions, the -contribution to the development of beginning of education at the agricultural producer’s groups. university-level are dated for the first decades They have also their part to the revival of of the 19-th century, following of which social activity of local communities and the development of professional agricultural increase of their ecological awareness. literature is observed. Some decades later, the The change of the system and related profession and ethos of agricultural adviser economic conditions resulted in the disclosure had been formed and a number of local social of a number of weak points, as well: and economic associations emerged, being a -due to reductions in running their own farms, good example of the grassroot development. ”residual” participation in experiments, which After the regaining in 1918 the independence, weakens ties with science; the interesting concept of the “social -political fluctuations and numerous agronomy was introduced to spread reorganizations with the accompanying innovative agricultural methods into the changes in the management staff; practice in the vast context of local societies. -changes in the organization of agricultural A network of agricultural chambers was universities, in the names of which, as well as developing as a form of economic self- their faculties, disappeared or was hidden the

157 Scientific Papers Series Management, Economic Engineering in Agriculture and Rural Development Vol. 19, Issue 2, 2019 PRINT ISSN 2284-7995, E-ISSN 2285-3952 word "agriculture" – this has affected the [3]Brzozowski, S., 1997, Nauki o gospodarstwie content of their teaching curricula; wiejskim, [in:] Historia nauki polskiej, Vol. 3 (ed. B. Suchodolski), PAN, Warszawa: 517-546 -uniform organizational structure but [4]Burny, Ph., Gaziński B., 2015, The EU membership diversified regional conditions – in particular, vs rural development. A case study of Eastern Poland, lack of sufficient preparation to address the [in:] Strategie gospodarcze i społeczne Unii problems of large-scale farms; Europejskiej (ed. Opolski K., Górski J.), Wydział Nauk -reduced importance of apprenticeships of Ekonomicznych Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, Warszawa: 197-206 students, lower professional qualifications of [5]Chłapowski [Dezydery]: Żołnierz, rolnik, obywatel. graduates (as compared with former decades); Available online: https://nowahistoria.interia.pl/drogi- -low wages – limited inflow of new cadres, do-wolnisci/news-dezydery-chlapowsi-zolnierz-rolnik- departure of young people after obtaining obywatel,nld1856912#utm_source=paste&utm_campai some professional experience. gn=chrome (Retrived in August 2018) [6]Collaborate to innovate. Operational Groups Certainly this list is not a full one. A large part networking across the EU, European Commission 2018 of the advisory work is dealt with issues https://ec.europa.eu/eip/agriculture/en/publications/eip- related to the fulfillment of various EU agri-brochure-operational-groups-collaborate (Retrived applications. "These activities have distanced in August 2018) employees from typical technological [7]Davies, N., 2011, God’s playground: a history of Poland, Vol. 2, 1795 to the present, Oxford University consultancy – one of the advisers complains – Press those starting work after 2004 (Poland's [8]Gaziński, B., 2016, Poland recast. Agriculture and rural accession to the EU) ... are usually specialized development during a period of the transformation and in aid programmes". Introduced restrictions in European integration. An overview, “AgroLife. Scientific the limits of car trips meant that "advisors Journal”, Vol. 5(1): 69-82 remain to work behind the desk to await for a [9] Gaziński, B., 1991, Prawidłowość przemian w rolnictwie. Wprowadzenie do ekonomiki client" [2]. rolnictwa, Wydawnictwo ART, Olsztyn Challenges facing agricultural consultancy [10]Kania, J., 2017, The beginnings and development result not only from changes taking place in of agricultural advisory services in Poland. Acta Sci. Poland after the fall of socialism. The modern Pol. Oeconomia, Vol. 16 (2): 77–85 world has been changing dynamically, [11]Kania, J., 2007, Doradztwo rolnicze w Polsce w affecting agriculture and rural areas. The świetle potrzeb i doświadczeń zagranicznych, Zeszyty Naukowe AR Kraków, Vol. 440, Rozprawy, 318: 201 issues of insufficient agricultural income and [12]Kornai, J., 1980, Economics of shortage, North- the search for alternative sources of revenues, Holland Publishing Company, Amsterdam the aging of the rural population or [13]Maziarz, Cz., 1984, Andragogika rolnicza, PWN, depopulation of rural areas have been known Warszawa for a long time. However, new threats [14]Michałowski, Cz., Szafrański, L., 1993, Wybrane zagadnienia doradztwa rolniczego, Wydawnictwo appeared that demand quick responses: Akademii Rolniczej, Lublin preventing climate change, seeking renewable [15]O nas. Available online: http://www.cdr.gov.pl/o- energy sources, and protecting species nas (Retrived in August 2018) diversity and water resources. [16]Pawlikowski, W., 1975, Agronomia społeczna. Cz. That is why it is increasingly important to I. Rozwój agronomii społecznej w Polsce w latach 1918–1939, PWN, Warszawa exchange mutual experiences and to cooperate [17]Pilarek, B., 2016, Doradztwo rolnicze na Warmii, in finding the best possible solutions for these Mazurach i Powiślu, Wojewódzki Ośrodek Doradztwa and other problems, both on a local, national rolniczego, Olsztyn and international scale. [18]Sieć EIP-AGRI 2015, Komisja Europejska 2015. Available online: http://agroinnowacje.eu/wp- content/uploads/2017/06/EIP-AGRI-network-polish- REFERENCES web.pdf , Accessed on August 10, 2018. [19]Upowszechnianie innowacyjnych rozwiązań [1]Bernacki, A., 1995, Koncepcje organizacji izb rolnictwa precyzyjnego w gospodarswacgh rolnych. rolniczych w Polsce. Rys historyczny. Wieś i Broszura poseminaryjna, 2017, WODR Olsztyn Rolnictwo, 4: 146-159. [20]Wawrzyniak, B., 1980, Służba rolna w Polsce, [2]Borczyński, P., 2011, Doradztwo państwowe – LSW, Warszawa historia i specyfika, Hasło Ogrodnicze, 6: 14-17

158 Scientific Papers Series Management, Economic Engineering in Agriculture and Rural Development Vol. 19, Issue 2, 2019 PRINT ISSN 2284-7995, E-ISSN 2285-3952 [21]Wiatrak, A. P., 2016, Sieć innowacji w rolnictwie – istota, cele i uwarunkowania, Roczniki Naukowe SERiA, Vol XVIII (3): 380-384 [22]Witeska, E., 1995, Problemy doradztwa rolniczego w Polsce. Uwarunkowania przemian organizacji rolnictwa, Wieś i Rolnictwo, 4: 194-205 [23]Wojciechowski, S., 1939, Historia spółdzielczości polskiej do 1914 roku, Spółdzielczy Instytut Naukowy, Warszawa

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