Humans and Animals in the Norse North Atlantic Lara M. Hogg This dissertation is submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. School of History, Archaeology and Religion. Cardiff University. 2015 SUMMARY It is a well-established fact that all human societies have coexisted with and are dependent upon animals and it is increasingly recognized that the study of human-animal relationships provides vital insights into past human societies. Still this is yet to be widely embraced in archaeology. This thesis has examined human-animal interdependencies to explore the social identities and structure of society in the Norse North Atlantic. Benefitting from recent research advances in animal studies and the ever increasing volume of archaeological reports from Norse period archaeological excavations the North Atlantic this thesis was able to develop previous scholarship and define directions for future research. The thesis explored the role of animals in human society in the North Atlantic to reveal the complex Norse societies that existed. It revealed through human interdependencies with animals that these societies were far from homogeneous and had their own distinct identities with the individual islands as well as across the North Atlantic. The thesis achieved this by examining several important discrete but interlinked themes. These themes were divided into four chapters that focused on the individual aspects. This included an examination of previous North Atlantic Viking Age scholarship, consideration of human construction and perception of landscape through archaeological excavations, investigation of the role of domestic animals in human social activities, and an exploration of the role of domesticated animals in beliefs. Although these are all connected the structure of the thesis was deliberately chosen to restrict repetition, although given the interconnected nature of human social identities, society and worldview this was not entirely possible. This thesis addressed some of the most fundamental questions in Norse archaeology. Notably, through examination of human-animal interdependencies, it provided a detailed insight into how Norse society understood and perceived the world, and consequently the structure of Norse society and social identities. ii DECLARATION This work has not been submitted in substance for any other degree or award at this or any other university or place of learning, nor is being submitted concurrently in candidature for any degree or other award. Signed (candidate) Date 21/10/2015 STATEMENT 1 This thesis is being submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of PhD. Signed (candidate) Date 21/10/2015 STATEMENT 2 This thesis is the result of my own independent work/investigation, except where otherwise stated. Other sources are acknowledged by explicit references. The views expressed are my own. Signed (candidate) Date 21/10/2015 STATEMENT 3 I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available for photocopying and for inter-library loan, and for the title and summary to be made available to outside organisations. Signed (candidate) Date 21/10/2015 STATEMENT 4: PREVIOUSLY APPROVED BAR ON ACCESS I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available for photocopying and for inter-library loans after expiry of a bar on access previously approved by the Academic Standards & Quality Committee. Signed (candidate) Date 21/10/2015 iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It is possible that writing the thesis acknowledgements is the hardest part of writing a PhD. Over the four years there have been so many people who have helped this thesis come to completion. Without their support and advice, sometimes unwittingly, I would never have been able to finish. First and foremost I must offer thanks to my supervisor Professor John Hines for all his support and advice over the past four years. Without his patience, support, and insightful feedback this thesis would never have been completed. I would also like to thank Dr Jacqui Mulville for her insight and helpful comments. I wish to thank Dr Lloyd Laing who first inspired and encouraged me to pursue my interest in medieval archaeology. I must also thank Dr Chris Loveluck and Dr Naomi Sykes for guiding me through my master’s degree, and helping me to secure a funded PhD position. Over the four years I have been extremely fortunate to have been a Visiting Scholar at the University of Iceland and a Visiting Researcher at the Faroese National Heritage Agency. For facilitating these opportunities I must thank Profs. Orri Vésteinsson, Gavin Lucas and Anna Agnarsdóttir, in Iceland, and Símun Arge, in the Faroe Islands. I am extremely grateful to a number of people including fellow PhD students and researchers at Cardiff University and the University of Iceland, as well as those I have had the good fortune to meet and work with on various projects. At Cardiff, amongst all my wonderful peers, I particularly wish to thank Hannah Buckingham and Heather Crowley, who have been with me from the start, and Roz Warden for her endless cups of tea. Similarly my time in Iceland would have been much less fun without the following people, Albína Pálsdóttir, Magda Schmid, Rebecca Merkelbach, Joanne Shortt Butler, Anna Millward, Janis Mitchell, Julia Tubman, Martina Ceolin, and Zuzana Stankovitsova. Also, Elizabeth Walgenbach for participating in ‘tea and cake working Wednesdays’ during the final months of writing. For stimulating discussions and mutual PhD-related support I would particularly like to thank, Patrycja Kupiec (who has been with me on my North Atlantic journey from the very beginning), Ellie Rye, Dale Kedwards, and Siobhan Cooke. Many thanks must also go to my colleagues at the Reykjavík City Museum, especially Sólrún Inga Traustadóttir and Jón Páll Björnsson, and to Robin Wilson for helping with the maps. For opportunities to expand and develop my skills beyond my own research in collaborative training projects, fieldwork and organizational roles I must thank Judith Jesch, Christina Lee, Dawn Hadley, Mark Gardiner, Karen Milek, and Margrét Hallmundsdóttir. To those I haven’t directly named, and there are many, please accept my profound thanks. Lastly, I would like to thank my family; my mother, brother, sister and godparents in particular. The final thanks must go to Elliði, who has put up with the most. This PhD research was funded by a studentship from the Arts and Humanities Research Council. During the PhD I have also been the recipient of several grants and bursaries that allowed me to travel for research purposes and to present parts of this research at several conferences. Therefore thanks must go to the institutions and organisations that provided these, including Fróðskaparsetur Føroya, the Viking Society for Northern Research, the Society for Medieval Archaeology, Medieval European Congress, and Cardiff University. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Summary ii Acknowledgments iv Table of Contents v List of Figures viii List of Maps ix List of Tables ix Notes x 1. Introduction: Humans and Animals in the Norse North Atlantic Animal Studies in Archaeology 1 The Viking Age and the Norse North Atlantic 3 Animals in the Norse North Atlantic 7 The structure of this thesis 17 The aims of this thesis 19 2. Viking-age Society and Social Identities 25 What is society and what do we mean by it? 28 Identifying Identity 30 The Development of Viking-age Studies 34 Viking-age Social Identities 46 Ethnic Identity 47 Status and Rank 52 Religion 58 Gender 67 Viking-age Social Identities 74 3. Animals in the Norse North Atlantic 79 The North Atlantic Region 80 Terrain 82 Weather and Climate 84 Natural Phenomena 86 Faunal Assemblages from North Atlantic Excavations 89 Iceland 96 Hofstaðir 98 Hrísheimar 101 Sveigakot 102 Granastaðir 102 v Aðalstræti 16 104 Alþingisreiturinn 106 Vatnsfjörður 107 Hólmur 108 Hrísbrú 109 Eiríksstaðir 110 Greenland 112 Gården under Sandet 114 Sandnæs 116 Brattahlið 117 Canada 118 L’Anse Aux Meadows 119 Baffin Island 120 The Faroe Islands 122 Undir Junkarinsfløtti 126 Argisbrekka 129 Toftanes 131 Niðri á Toft in Kvívík 133 Vestmanna 136 Some Conclusions 138 4. The Role of Animals in Human Society 141 Product Processing and Manufacture 146 Animal Husbandry and the Seasonal Movement of Livestock and People 146 Textile Production and Manufacture 154 Dairy Products: Milking and other Associated Tasks 166 Butchery 171 Horn, Bone and Leather Working 174 Working with Animals 176 Pastimes 183 Conclusions 188 5. The Role of Animals in Belief 191 Pre-Christian Beliefs 197 Animals and Pre-Christian Beliefs 206 Animals, Belief and the North Atlantic 218 Animals and Death: the Evidence from Burials 218 Consumption Patterns 240 Animal Imagery and Symbolism 251 Special Deposits 257 Cult Sites and Buildings 263 The Role of Animals in Belief 274 6. Conclusions: Animals and Humans in the Norse North Atlantic 281 vi An Overview of the Chapters 284 Overall Conclusions of the Research 293 What Questions does this Research Raise and is there Potential for future research 302 Bibliography 305 vii LIST OF FIGURES 1.1 A small map of the North Atlantic 9 1.2 Tjängvide I image stone 10 2.1 Viking Festival in Hafnarfjörður 35 3.1 Diverse landscapes in the North Atlantic 81 3.2 Þjórsárdalur 87 3.3 Phase 1 settlement plan at Hofstaðir 99 3.4 Space interpretation at Granastaðir 104 3.5 Plan of Aðalstræti 16 105 3.6 Plan of the excavated Viking-Age farm at Hrísbrú 110 3.7 The landscape around Undir Junkarinsfløtti, Sandoy 127 3.8 Bone preservation at Undir Junkarinsfløtti,