United States Department of Prescribing Silvicul Agriculture Treatments in Hardwood Forest Service Stands of the Alleghenies Northeastern Forest Experiment Station (Revised)

General Technical David A. Marquis Report NE-96 Richard L. Ernst Susan t. Stout Abstract

This publication brings together the results of 20 years of research and experience in the silviculture of hardwood forests of the Allegheny region. Part I provides a brief synopsis of silvicultural knowledge and recommended practices. Part II provides guidelines, decision tables, and step-by-step .instructions for determining silvicultural prescriptions in individual stands.

The Authors

David A. Marquis received his bachelor of science degree in forestry from the Pennsylvania State University in 1955, and his master's and doctoral degrees in forest ecology and silviculture from Yale University in 1963 and 1973, respectively. He joined the Northeastern Forest Experiment Station's silviculture research unit in New Hampshire in 1957, where he studied problems of regeneration and thinning in northern hardwoods. Between 1965 and 1970 he served on the timber and watershed management research staff at the Station's headquarters in Upper Darby, Pennsylvania. Between 1970 and 1990, Dr. Marquis was project leader of the silviculture research unit at Warren, Pennsylvania, where he headed a program of research on problems related to the regeneration and culture of high-value hardwoods on the northern Allegheny Plateau. Currently, Dr. Marquis is Coordinator for the Northeastern Forest Experiment Station's Stand Culture Working Group, which is developing a silviculturai decision model for multi-resource management of all major forest types in the Northeastern United States. In addition, he is an Adjunct Professor of Forestry at the College of Environmental Science and Forestry, State University of New York at Syracuse, and is Forestry Director of Plessey Pension Investments, Inc.

Richard 1. Ernst received his bachelor of science in forestry and master of science in forest management/operations research from the Pennsylvania State University in 1974 and 1979, respectively. He joined the Northeastern Forest Experiment Station's silviculture research unit at Warren, Pennsylvania, in 1976. Since that time, his research has concentrated on the effects of thinning on the growth and yield of Allegheny hardwoods and on the development of cultural guidelines for the valuable hardwood species found in this type.

Susan Laurane Stout received an A.B. degree in applied mathematics from Radcliffe College in 1972.' In 1983 she completed an M.S. degree in silviculterre at the State University of New York, College of Environmental Science and Forestry. Since 1981 she has been employed by the Northeastern Forest Experiment Station in the Forestry Sciences Laboratory at Warren, Pennsylvania. In 1991, she became project leader of the silviculture research unit at Warren, Pennsylvania. This unit conducts research to develop multi-resource management guidelines for forests of the northeast, especially those d the Allegheny Plateau region. Her special research interests include the development of mixed-species stands and quantifying multiple resource effects of forest management practices.

Manuscript received for publication 1 June 1990

Northeastern Forest Experiment Station 5 Radnor Corporate Center, Suite 200 100 Matsonford Road Radnor, PA 19087485

January 1992 CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION ...... 1 LIMITS OF APPLICABfLlT'f ...... 2 PART I- SYNOPSIS OF RECOMMENDED StLVICULTURAL PRACTICES ...... 3 EVEN-AGED REGENERATION ...... 3 Advance Seedling Regeneration ...... 3 Sprouting Potential ...... 3 Sapling and Pole Advance Regeneration ...... 4 Interfering Understory Plants ...... 4 SiteLimitations ...... 5 DeerBrowsing ...... 5 Seedsupply ...... 6 CuttingMethods ...... 6 INTERMEDIATE WEN-AGE CULTURE ...... 7 Phifosophy of Thinning Practices ...... 7 Application of Thinning Practices ...... 8 Evaluating Stand Density ...... 8 Stand Density Manipulation ...... 9 Stand Structure Manipulation ...... 10 Quality Manipulation ...... 11 Species Composition Manipulation ...... 11 STAND MATURITY- ROTATION LENGTH ...... 12 ALL-AGE CULTURE AND REGENERATION ...... 12 Appropriate Conditions for Use ...... 12 AICagedRegeneration ...... 13 All-ageCu#ure ...... 13 SOIL FACTORS AND SOIL PROTECTION ...... 14 LITERATURECITED ...... 17 PART 11.- SILVICULTURAL GUIDELINES ...... 27 STANDEXAMlNATlON ...... 27 Samplecruise ...... 27 Determine Stand Boundaries ...... 27 Select Sampling Scheme ...... 27 Overstory Data Collection ...... 28 BasalAreaTally ...... 28 Computer Overstory Tally Form ...... 28 Manual Overstory Tally Form ...... 34 Overstory Procedural Errors ...... 35 Understory Data Collection ...... 36 Expanded regeneration tally ...... 36 Small Advance Regeneration ...... 36 Residuals ...... 38 Sapling Regeneration ...... 38 Woody Interference ...... 38 Laurel and Rhododendron ...... 39 Fern ...... 39 Grass ...... 39 Grapevines ...... 39 Site Limitations ...... 39 Checkmark Regeneration Tally ...... 40 SrnaH Advance Regeneration ...... 40 Any small regen ...... 40 Residuals ...... 40 AnyregenorRes ...... 40 SaplingRegeneration ...... 40 Interference ...... 40 Anyinterference ...... 40 Sitelimitations ...... 40 IdentificationData ...... 40 Stand Identification ...... 41 Owner/Agency ...... 41 Forest/Property ...... 41 County/District ...... 41 Compartment/Unit ...... 41 StandNumber ...... 41 Remarks ...... 41 Cruise Information ...... 41 Speciescodes ...... 41 d.b.hclasses ...... 41 Tally Month and Year ...... 41 Overstory cruise Type ...... 41 #plots ...... 41 BAF/plotsize ...... 41 RegencruiseType ...... 42 #plots ...... 42 Plotsize ...... :...... 42 Acreageinstand ...... 42 StandAge ...... 42 Stand, Site, and Management Information ...... 42 Covertype ...... 42 Habitattype ...... 42 Soiltype ...... 42 Siteclass ...... 42 Sitespecies ...... 42 Sitelndex ...... 42 Ht.Adj...... 42 Elev ...... 42 Aspect ...... 42 Slope% ...... 42 Topo-position ...... 42 Operabiiii ...... 42 Access ...... 42 Watercode ...... 42 W/Ilmile ...... 42 Management Goals ...... 43 Managementvalue ...... 43 Deerlmpactlndex ...... 43 GypsyMoth ...... 45 Stress ...... 45 STANDANALYSIS ...... 45 ManualDataSumrnary ...... 45 Understory Data Summary ...... 45 Expanded regeneration tally data summary ...... 45 Checkmark regeneration tally summary ...... 47 Overstory Data Summary ...... 47 Other Stand Parameters ...... 48 ManagementGoal ...... 48 DeerlmpactIndex ...... 48 SeedSourcelndex ...... 48 Sitetimitations ...... 49 AnysmallRegen ...... 49 Any regen or Residuals ...... 49 Any small Regen, no deer ...... 49 Any regen or Residuals, no deer ...... 49 Saplingflegen ...... 49 Anylnterference ...... 49 SaplingBasalArea ...... 49 Shade Tolerant Basal Area ...... 49 Relative Stand Density ...... 49 Refative density AGS ...... 49 Stand Diameter (MD) ...... 52 Merchantable Stand Diameter (MDM) ...... 52 Years to Maturity ...... 52 Computer Data Summary ...... 53 DataEntry ...... 53 Dataoutput ...... 53 Summary Interpretation ...... 53 STAND PRESCRIPTION ...... 56 Determining Appropriate Treatment ...... 56 Prescriptions ...... 62 All-Age won't work, Re-examine Goals ...... 62 Single-Tree and Group Selection Cutting ...... 62 Single-Tree Selection Cutting with Maximum Number of Large Trees for Visual Goals . . 63 Commercial Thinning ...... 63 Thin-Harvest ...... 64 Combined Commercial Thinning .Timber Stand Improvement ...... 64 Precommercial Thinning ...... 64 DeferCutting ...... 65 Final Removal Cut ...... 65 Final Removal Cut with Residuals ...... 66 Final Removal Cut, Fence ...... 67 Final Removal Cut with Residuals, Fence ...... 67 First Removal Cut ...... 67 First Removal Cut with Residuals ...... 68 First Removal Cut, Fence ...... 69 First Removal Cut with Residuals, Fence ...... 69 Seedcut ...... 69 Herbicide, Seed Cut ...... 70 Herbicide, Wa it ...... 70 Seedcut, Fence ...... 71 Herbicide, Seed Cut, Fence ...... 71 Fence. Wait ...... 71 Herbicide, Fence, Wait ...... 71 Grapevinecontrol ...... 72 Herbicide Understory ...... 72 FencingAgainstDeer ...... 73 Fertilization of Regeneration ...... 73 Consider Artificial Regeneration and Fencing ...... 94 Regeneration Follow-up ...... 74 Distribution Of Cut ...... 76 Instructions for Distribution of Cut ...... 77 Timber Marking Procedures ...... 82 APPENDICES ...... 84 TABLES. FIGURES AND APPENDICES

Table 1. Soil limitations to forest practices on selected Allegheny Plateau soils ...... 15 .16 Table2. Speciescodes ...... 31 Table 3. Codes for quality. tree grade. and wildlife ...... 33 Table 4 . Number of seedlings required on stocked plots for different levels of deer pressure ..... 45 Table 5. Amount of interference required to consider a plot stocked ...... 46 Table 6. Cut relative density to come from and relative density to be retained in various size classes. in percent ...... 80

Figure 1. Tree-area curves for relative density determination ...... 9 Figure 2a . Computer Overstory Tally Form ...... 29 Figure 2b Manual Overstory Tally Form ...... 30 Figure 3. Sawlogheights ...... 34 Figure 4 . ID&RegenTallyForm ...... 37 Figure 5 . Deerlmpactlndex ...... 44 Figure 6. Manual Overstory Summary ...... 50 Figure 7. Prescription Summary Worksheet ...... 51 Figure 8. Decision charts for silvicultural prescription ...... 57 .61 Figure 9. Decision chart for regeneration follow-up ...... 75 Figure 10. Distribution of Cut Worksheet ...... 81

Appendix A. Sample Manual Overstory Tally Form ...... 85 Appendix B . Sample ID & Regen Tally Form ...... 86 Appendix C. Sample Manual Overstory Summary Form ...... 87 Appendix D. Sample Prescription Summary Worksheet ...... 38 Appendix E. Sample Distribution of Cut .Commercial Thinning ...... 89 Appendix F. Sample Distribution of Cut .Standard Selection Cut ...... 90 Appendix G . Sample Computer Overstory Tally Form ...... 91 Appendix H. Sample printout, SILVAH stand inventory. analysis. and prescription program . . 92 .101

The computer program described In this publication is available on request with the understanding that the U.S. Department of Agriculture cannot assure its accuracy. completeness. reliability. or suitability for any other purpose than that reported. The recipient may not assert any proprietary rights thereto nor represent it to anyone as other than a Government-produced computer program. INTRODUCTION

This publication brings together the results of perfect for all of the many possible circumstances 20 years of research and experience in the likely to be encountered. So, these guides must siIviculture of hardwood forests of the Allegheny be used as an aid to professional judgment, not region. It is designed primarily as a guidebook as a substitute for it. for practicing foresters whose goal is timber production, but includes options and Part I provides a brief synopsis of silvicultural modifications for coordination of wildlife, knowledge and recommended practices in aesthetics, recreation, and other forest uses hardwood forests of the Alleghenies. This where appropriate. Although intended as a guide background material is essential to the to short-term silvicultura~ prescriptions in understanding and proper use of the guidelines in individual stands, it also contains information Part II. More complete details on this scientific needed for long-term management planning. background are contained in the articles cited in Part I, and we urge anyone using this guidebook The prescription process outlined here is built to examine the articles. When specific research around a series of decision charts that indicate results were not available, the guidelines had to appropriate treatments for particular stand be based upon judgment and experience. In other conditions. To use these charts, it is necessary to situations, research from other geographic areas make a stand examination, and then to analyze was adapted to fit conditions in the Alleghenies. the data collected to determine present stand We have indicated the source of all guidelines so condition and the potential for future growth or that the user can evaluate the reliability and regeneration. This information is then used with applicability to his or her particular situation. the decision charts to arrive at a course of action--a prescription outlining the work to be Part II of this publication contains the done in that stand to achieve specific forest step-by-step procedures, decision charts, and management objectives. guidelines used to arrive at silvicult~sral prescriptions. This system of stand inventory, analysis, and prescriptionrelies heavily on numerical guidelines. The data analysis and prescription writing What we have tried to do is assign mathematical portions of the system can be automated, and a quantities to things we have had to guess in the computer program called SILVAH is available past. This system reduces the amount of (Ernst 1982, Stout 1983, Marquis 1986b)l on subjectivrty traditionally used in making request. For information, please write: U.S. siivicuftural decisions, providing instead an Department of Agriculture, Forestry Sciences objective, measurable, and remeasurable basis for Laboratory, P.O.Box 928, Warren, PA 16365. judgment. These guidelines have been applied successfully on both public and private lands over ~esearchleading to the development of these the past 10 years, and have produced results that guidelines was conducted between 1971 and seem to be silvicufturally sound. They provide 1989 by scientists at the U.S. Department of prescriptions that are consistent among stands of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest similar characteristics, and among prescription Experiment Station, at the Forestry Sciences writers.

Nevertheless, these guides must not be applied uncritically. They represent only our best judgment at the present time; they will 1 Marquis, David A.; Ernst, Richard L. undoubtedly be improved and modified as User's Guide to SILVAH: A stand analysis, research results and experience accumulate. prescription, and management simulator program Furthermore, no guide can ever be complete and for hardwood stands of the Alleghenies. In preparation. Laboratory, Warren, Pennsylvania. In addition to factors as deer browsing, site characteristics, the authors, research contributing to these climate, and insect pests. Caution is definitely guidelines was done by Luther R. Auchmoody, needed even within the Allegheny region, and John C. Bjorkbom, David decalesta, Kurt W. local modification may be appropriate. The basic Gottschalk, Ted J. Grisez, Stephen B. Horsley, procedures and framework of the decision making Benjamin A. Roach, James Redding, Nancy G. process are universally applicable. If local silvical Tlghman, and Russell S. Waiters. f he assistance knowledge is sufficient to permit the needed of many agencies in the area contributed modification in decision variables, the system of substantially to the research and the testing of stand inventory, analysis, and prescription results. These include: Hammermill Paper described here can easily be adapted to any Company; International Paper Company; region. Texasgulf,Jnc.; Kane Hardwood Division of Collins Pine; Glatfelter Paper Company; The Allegheny We are most anxious to improve these guides National Forest; The Pennsylvania Bureau of and extend the region of applicability. Comments Forestry; The Pennsylvania Game Commission; on problems encountered or suggestions on and the New York Department of Environmental additional biological or ecological factors that Conservation. need to be incorporated to improve the guides' validity in any northeastern location &e welcome. LIMITS OF APPLICABILITY

The guidelines presented here are intended for use in the cherry-maple, beech-birch-maple, and oak-hickory forests of the Allegheny Plateau and Allegheny Mountain sections of Pennsylvania, New York, Maryland, and West Virginia.

Most of the guidelines for the cherry-maple type are based on research from a 6- or 7-county area in northwestern Pennsylvania. Most of those for the beech-birch-maple type come either from the same area in northwestern Pennsylvania, or from selected literature from northern New Hampshire, northern New York, or north central West Virginia. Most of the information on the oak-hickory type comes from the central states or West Virginia with a small amount of supplementary data from central Pennsylvania and southern New York. Although the guidelines have been used rather extensively throughout the Allegheny region since about 1980, they have been most thoroughly tested in northwestern Pennsylvania. Caution is therefore needed in the application of these guides outside of the tested area.

We believe the guides to intermediate even-age culture to be rather widely applicable, even outside of the Allegheny region, and would not hesitate to use them on a trial basis anywhere in hardwood stands of the Northeast. The guides to regeneration are much more restricted in applicability because of local differences in such PART !--SYNOPSIS OF RECOMMENDED SIWICULTURAL PRACTICES

In this section, recommended sifvicultural successfully with other vegetation, which tends to practices and important background information grow faster in the juvenile stage. Where large oak are described briefly. There are separate sections advance seedlings are present, very few stems for even-aged regeneration, intermediate even-age are needed. Unfortunately, few stands in the culture, stand-maturity/rotation-length Alleghenies contain oak seedlings as large as determination, all-age culture, and soil factors and those specified in current guides. Many more oak soil protection. seedlings are required if they are small, and even this may not suffice if regeneration of faster EVEN-AGED REGENERATION growing species occurs simultaneously.

Regeneration practices for even-age Our guidelines on the numbers and sizes of silviculture are determined by several factors that advance seedlings required in Allegheny and follow. northern hardwood stands in areas of high deer population are based on a series of studies in Advance Seedling Regeneration northwestern Pennsylvania (Grisez and Peace 1973, Marquis 1982, Marquis 1987, Marquis et al. In all forest types under consideration, a lack 1975, Marquis and Bjorkbom 1982). Guides for of advance seedlings prior to final harvest usually advance regeneration of large oak are based on results in unsatisfactory regeneration. studies in the central states (Sander eta/, 1976). Furthermore, the species composition of the Our guidelines for advance regeneration of small advance regeneration largely determines the oak, and for Allegheny and northern hardwoods species composition of the next stand. Thus, it is in areas of low deer population are based on extremely important that an adequate amount of experience and judgment. advance regeneration be established before the final overstory removal. Sprouting Potential

The adequacy of advance regeneration Stump sprouts can be an important depends upon the species being regenerated, the supplement to regeneration of many hardwood number of seedlings, their size, and the amount of species. In the oaks, stump sprouts are often the deer browsing. In areas of high deer population, primary source of regeneration, and special advance seedlings tend to be small; thus large guidelines on the sprouting potential of oak stems numbers of seedlings are required to provide (based on species and diameter) have been assurance that a few will grow out of the deer's developed. Thus, potential oak stump sprouts reach. In areas of tow deer population, advance can be substituted for oak advance seedlings, seedlings tend to be larger. Fewer are needed in reducing the amount of oak advance regeneration this situation, both because the larger seedlings required. survive exposure and competition better, and because fewer of them will be destroyed by deer Stump sprouts are very attractive to deer, and browsing. may be completely destroyed in areas of high deer populations. Thus, sprouting potentiaf is Black cherry advance seedlings survive better given considerably less weight as a source of than most other species, and fewer cherry regeneration in areas of high deer population. seedlings are required than maple or ash. This species difference is most pronounced where Our guidelines on oak sprouting potential are deer populations are high, because ash and based on studies in the central states (Sander et maple are preferred browse species. Oak a/- 1976), and modified by experience and advance seedlings must usually be very large (4.5 judgment to fig the higher deer populations of the feet tall or more) to ensure that they will be able Alleghenies. to grow well after release and compete Sapling and Pole Advance Regeneration northwestern Pennsylvania (Marquis 1981 e, Marquis 1981f). The guidelines on sapling Although we usually think of advance understories and intolerant residuals are based on regeneration as being seedling-size material, experience and judgment. some stands contain saplings and small poles that will also form a part of the next stand if not Interfering Understory Plants cut at the time of final harvest. Often these understory trees are poor quality or undesirable Herbaceous understory plants, such as timber species, and the best practice is to remove hayscented and New York fern, and grasses and them. However, there are several important sedges of many species can interfere with the exceptions. establishment of desirable tree seedlings, and can reduce the growth of these seedlings to the point Sugar maple, beech, or hemlock 3 to 10 that regeneration fails. Woody understory plants, inches d.b.h. will often survive well and maintain such as striped maple, beech root suckers, quality adequate for sawtimber if retained after the dogwood, sassafras, sourwood, blackgum, final overstory removal. Only shade tolerant hophornbeam, blue beech, mountain laurel, and species with good crowns and clean straight rhododendron can have a similar effect. The boles free of epkormic branches respond interference may result from competition among suitably. These species are often difficult to species, and allelopathy is a factor as well with regenerate in even-aged mixtures with faster some of the herbaceous plants. growing species such as black cherry and yellow-poplar unless they have a substantial head In general, established seedlings will develop start. Where high-quality saplings or poles of satisfactorily in the presence of sparse to these species occur, they can be retained as a moderate amounts of interfering plants when the supplemeni to seedling regeneration, reducingthe overstory is completely removed and the amount of advance reproduction necessary. seedlings have enough sunlight for rapid growth. But under partial shade (as in a sheltenvood cut), Species other than shade-tolerant sugar the interfering plants tend to spread rapidly and maple, beech, and hemlock may also be retained seedling growth is restricted, usually resulting in to preserve minor species or to meet wildlife unsatisfactory seedling development. Thus, these needs. Shade-intolerant species sometimes lose interfering understories must be controlled when timber quality when exposed in this manner, but shelterwood cutting is to be employed. If the may still meet diversity and wildlife goals. When interfering plants are extremely dense, they may trees are retained for these other purposes, the also have to be controlled even where advance total number of residuals should be limited to the seedlings are adequate for clearcutting. density specified for timber residuals alone. The only practical way to control interfering Another special situation involves stands that understory plants at this time is through the use contain a dense sapling understory of any of herbicides. Herbaceous plants and woody commercial species as a result of heavy cutting or stems less than about 20 feet tall can be disturbance over the past 10 to 25 years. Where controlled effectively using a skidder-mounted such sapling understories exist, they can often be mistblower. Larger wody stems must generally developed into the next stand simply by releasing be treated individually with a basal spray, frill, or them (cutting the remaining overstory). In this injection. situation, the sapling regeneration must usually contain sufficient numbers to form a new stand by Our guidelines on the amounts of interfering itself, since development of advance seedlings in plants that will restrict regeneration are based on the presence of such an understory is difficult. exploratory studies (Marquis et a/. 1975). Information on allelopathic effects of these plants Our guidelines on retention of residual is based on a series of controlled experiments in tolerants are based on several long-term northwesternPennsylvania (Horsley 1977a,1977b, experiments in the cherry-maple type of 1978, 1983, Horsley and Marquis 1983). Information about competitive effects of hay- percent or more. As with wet soils, it is scented fern on black cherry regeneration is also imperative that advance seedlings be well based on a series of controlled experiments in established and large enough to be rooted in northwestern Pennsylvania (Horsley 1986). mineral soil before final overstory removal. Recommendations on herbicide control of fern, grass, striped maple, and beech are based on a Our guidelines on site limitations are based series of time-rate experiments conducted with a on experience and judgment. Regeneration variety of herbicides in northwestern failures in tow-lying wet areas that act as frost Pennsylvania, plus operational experience since pockets are documented by Hough (1945). 1979 in the same area (Horsley 1981,1982,1989, 1990a, 1990b, Horsley and Bjorkbom 1983, Deer Browsing Horsley et a/. 1985). Guides on herbicide treatment of individual woody stems are based on High deer populations are without question research throughout the Eastern United States the major cause of regeneration failure in many (Kossuth et a/. 1980, Lindmark 1965, Shipman parts of the Allegheny region. The most serious and Farrand n.d., USDA, Forest Service 1969, situations occur when the deer population is high, Wendel and Kochenderfer 1982). and the available food is scarce due to a long history of overbrowsing and/or to a lack of Site Limitations farmland interspersed with the forest land to provide alternative foods. it is imperative that Wet, saturated soils can result in regeneration those prescribing regeneration treatments failure. The excess moisture, lack of aeration, estimate the deer browsing pressure on the tract tendency toward frost pockets, tendency for lush of land under consideration, and that this growth of some types of interfering herbaceous pressure be considered in arriving at a vegetation, and possible buildup of recommended prescription. The key to allelochemicals ail work to make seedling successfut regeneration when a large deer herd is establishment difficult and growth slow. In areas present is to provide so much deer food within of high deer population, the slow growth subjects the home range of the local population that the regeneration to deer browsing for an extended deer cannot consume ail of it, and some period and further reduces the chance of seedfings will escape to form the next stand. This success. Although regeneration is not impossible is accomplished by sefecting areas with abundant on such sites, the risk of failure is greater than on advance regeneration, stimulating advance betterdrained soils, and it is prudent to ensure regeneration through shelterwood cutting, using that advance regeneration is well established, free herbicides for site preparation where needed, and of interfering plants, and iarge enough to survive maximizing the area in a high well before the final overstory removal is made. deer-food-producing condition (thinning and Loss of advance seedlings due to logging harvest cutting in surrounding stands). damage also can be severe on wet soils (see section on Soil Factors and Site Limitations). In areas of extremely hi'gh population, it may be necessary to invest in protection against Those areas that are almost completely browsing. Electric fencing is the most promising covered with a surface layer of stones and rocks and economical form of protection available in also present difficulties for regeneration. Advance most situations, though standard cattle fencing or seedlings are often rooted only in the forest floor individual seedling protectors have advantages in material that covers the stony layer, and not in the some situations. All types of protection require a deeper underlying mineral soil. When the commitment to maintenance over a 5- to 10-year overstory is removed, the forest floor dries period if they are to remain effective. quickly, and small advance seedlings die from desiccation. The presence of surface stones An alternative to fencing in areas of high deer becomes increasingly important on welldrained population in the cherry-maple type is fertilization soils located on southern and southwestern about 2 years after clearcutting to force rapid exposures where slope steepness is 15 to 20 growth and get the seedlings above the reach of deer quickly. Aerial applications of nitrogen and that have poor seed sources and high deer phosphorus fertilizers have been effective in populations are extremely difficult to regenerate. getting black cherry seedlings above the reach of We recommend special caution in prescription of deer in a few years, thus circumventing browsing regeneration treatments when this combination of damage. difficulties is present.

Our information on the impact of deer Our knowledge of seed production and seed browsing comes from a series of experiments storage in the forest floor comes from a series of conducted over many years, in northwestern, studies in northwestern Pennsyivania, West south central, and northeastern Pennsylvania, and Virginia, and the Southern Appalachians northern New York (Gottschalk 1987, Grisez (Auchmoody 1979, Bjorkbom 1979, Bjorkbom et 1959a, Hough 1949, Jordan 1967, Kelty and a/. 1979, Downs 1949, Grisez 1975, Marquis Nyiand 1981, Marquis 1974,1975a, 1978b, 1981a, 1975b, Wendel 1977), as do the guidelines-on Marquis and Brenneman 1981, Marquis and adequacy of seed sources (Bjorkbom 1979). Grisez 1978, Marquis et al. 1976, Redding 1987, Shafer et al. 1961, Tilghman 1984, 1987, 1989). A few species, such as the birches and Guidelines on cutting methods and cultural aspens, reproduce in large numbers from seed practices to use in areas of high deer population blown into the area after cutting. Yellow-poplar come from studies in northwestern Pennsylvania often reproduces from seed stored in the forest and northern New York (Gottschalk and Marquis floor. We have been unable to predict 1982, Kelty and Nyland 1981, Marquis 1973, regeneration from these sources reliably from 1979b, 1981d, 1987). basal area of these species in the overstory. Therefore, regeneration may be more abundant Information on techniques of protecting than our guides predict in stands where these regeneration from deer browsing come from species occur. studies by several agencies in Pennsylvania (Brenneman 1982, Grisez 1959b, 1960, Marquis Cutting Methods 1977a, Tully 1985, Wingard et a/. 1981). lnformation and guidelines on fertilization come If adequate numbers and sizes of advance from experiments with black cherry in seedlings of desired species are present, northwestern Pennsylvania (Auchmoody 1982, clearcutting will satisfactorily regenerate a new 1983, 1985, Auchmoody and Filip 1993, Nelson stand in all forest types under consideration here. and Auchmoody, 1987). The only exceptions are stands with extremely dense understories of interfering plants (rare in Seed Supply combination with adequate advance regeneration), or sites with poor soil drainage or When advance seedlings are sparse, rocky surface soil. shelterwood cutting is the recommended procedure for all species. This provides If advance seedlings are inadequate, it may conditions favorable for seedling establishment be possible to increase their numbers and/or size over a period of 5 to 10 years, and minimizes through shelterwood cutting. if seed sources are concern about timing of cuts to coincide with adequate, site not limiting, and interfering bumper seed crops. Even so, an adequate seed understory plants sparse, a two-cut shelterwood source is required to provide the number of sequence (seed cut followed in 3 to 10 years by advance seedlings required. Because the amount a removal cut) will usually produce a satisfactory of seed produced is closely related to the basal new stand in the Allegheny and northern area of overstory trees of that species, the hardwood types. In the oak type, development of adequacy of seed production can be estimated advance regeneration often takes longer, and from overstory data. measures to control the other vegetation and favor the oaks over their competitors may be The amount of seed required (really the required. Procedures to accomplish this are still amount of advance reproduction required) also under study. Woody understory vegetation in the depends on the amount of deer browsing. Areas sapling sizes stiould usually be treated in the oak on three-cut shelterwoods are based on type. theoretical considerations (Marquis et al. 1980) that have not been tested in the field. Where interfering understory plants are dense, they should be treated with herbicide before the tNTERMEDlATE EVEN-AGE CULTURE seed cut of the shelterwood sequence to ensure that these plants do not expand further and Cultural practices in even-aged stands are prevent establishment of desired seedlings. In the based on the belief that maximum value from the oak type, removing interfering plants does not timber-growing enterprise comes from the guarantee that oak regeneration will become production of high-quality sawlogs and veneer. established. The reason for the absence of oak Although considerable volumes of pulpwood and advance regeneration should be determined other bulk products will be obtained as before attempts are made to regenerate the byproducts, primary attention will be focused on stand. maximizing the quantity and quality of sawtimber-size material. If poor soil drainage or rocky soils are present on the area to be regenerated, a three-cut Thinnings can increase the total yield of all shelterwood sequence is recommended. The products by salvaging volume in trees that would seed cut is made as above, but the removal is otherwise die; thinning also can increase value spread over two cuts to allow the advance yield by increasing growth (reducing rotation seedlings to reach large size, and ensure that length) and concentrating growth on the highest they are well-enough established to survive under vatue stems in the stand, the difficult environmental conditions that follow complete overstory removal. This three-cut Philosophy sf Thinning Practices sequence also can be used in areas where management goals make it desirable to have the The basic philosophy of hardwood sawtimber new stand tall enough to avoid the appearance of culture recommended here is the establishment of a fresh clearcut when the final overstory removal new stands at high density, and maintenance of is completed. However, if deer browsing is that high density throughout the juvenile years. severe, the three-cut procedure, which requires This stimulates the early pruning of lower limbs, the seedlings to grow under partial shade for an minimizes the tendency for forking, and develops extended period, often wilt not work. a clean bole with knots and other defects confined to a small core. Once an adequate NI shelterwood cuts depend on the presence length of clean bole has developed on the crop of an adequate seed source. Extremely large trees, the stand density can be reduced to amounts of seeds (advance seedlings) are stimulate more rapid diameter growth and hasten required where deer populations are high. Where development of the residual trees toward maturity. seed sources are inadequate, special measures such as underplanting, fencing, or a combination Although diameter growth of the crop trees in of the two may be required to ensure that the young stands can be increased by area will be regenerated satisfactorily. noncommercial thinning or cleaning, this growth advantage is at least partially offset by value lost Our recommendations on clearcutting and in quality. There are no analyses of the combined two-cut shelterwood cutting with and without growth-quality effects to suggest that the herbicide treatment come from a series of investments in precommercial thinning are experiments in the eastern hardwoods. (Bjorkbom economicaily advantageous. At this time, we and Waiters 1986, Gottschalk 1983, Gottschalk recommend precommerciai thinning only in those and Marquis 1982, Hoisley 1982, 1990b. Horsley stands where the most valuable stems are and others 1985, Hough 1937, Husch 1954, Kelty overtopped and in danger of being crowded out and Nyland 1981, 1983, Marquis 1973, 1977b, by noncommercial species or poor-quality stems 1978~1979a. 1979b, 198ld, 1983a, 1983b, (for example, where poor-quality residuals from

Nyland , et a/. 1983, Ostrom 1938, Roach and the previous stand are overtopping the new Gingrich 1968, Wolf 1930). The recommendations stand). Instead, we recommend that the first thinning sizes where they qualifjl for grade 1 sawtimber or should occur at about the time that height growth veneer. begins to slow down. By then, most trees will have developed a clear bole on the first log or This thin-harvest must be done cautiously, two, and the smaller trees in the stand that are to however, and can usually be applied only during be removed will have reached merchantable size, the last one or two thinnings. Consideration must so the thinning will at least pay for itself. be given to maintenance of an adequate seed Normally, this first thinning will occur when source of species desired in the next stand, and sapling basal area drops below 20 square feet, care must be exercised to avoid negative genetic usually when the stand is between 40 and 60 selection, by removal of the fastest growing stems years of age. prior to the period of regeneration establishment. But, since advance regeneration can be The first thinnings should remove the smaller established 15 or more years prior to the final and poorer quality trees in the stand, and have overstory removal, it is usually possible to harvest the objective of concentrating growth on the at least a portion of the mature individuals during biggest and best quality trees. Such thinnings later thinnings without detrimental effect on the raise the average stand diameter and reduce the next rotation. time required for trees to reach sawtimber size. Thinnings can be repeated at 15- to 20-year Application of Thinning Practices intervals, when density has increased enough for crowding to reoccur and the volumes available for To achieve the desired objectives from any cutting will support a commercial sale. Most of thinning, it is necessary to regulate stand density, the products removed from these early thinnings stand structure, stand quality, and species will be small trees suitable only for bulk products. composition. Such products have relatively low value; thus early thinnings from below sacrifice some Evaluating Stand Density immediate yield (by leaving larger trees to grow) in exchange for much larger yields that will be Absolute densities (as measured in basal area obtained later in the rotation as the residuals grow per acre or other quantities) vary widely as a into large diameter, high-quality sawtimber and function of tree size (diameter) and species veneer. composition. Maximum basal areas found in undisturbed hardwood stands of the Alleghenies As the stand grows older, some of the faster are higher in older stands and in stands of growing trees will achieve large diameter and species such as black cherry or yellow-poplar individual maturity before the stand as a whole than they are in stands of smaller trees or stands reaches financial maturity. In some mixed stands, dominated by sugar maple, beech, or oak. Thus, a whole species group may reach mature size absolute measures of density are difficult to use before the stand as a whole does. For example, as guides for thinning, because the appropriate black cherry often reaches maturity in 80 to 90 absolute residual density varies widely from stand years, while sugar maple in the same stand may to stand. require 128 years or more. It is usually desirable to harvest at least some of these mature individuals, while continuing to thin from below in the balance of the stand.

Thus, later thinnings shift from the traditional thinning from below to a combination thinning-harvest cutting. Trees are removed primarily from the smallest and the largest sizes, retaining those that are in the small sawtimber-size dass since these are the ones increasing most rapidly in value as they grow into Tree area - .O1 acres

The SM/AB/OthO group contains sugar maple and striped maple, American beech, and all oaks except northern red oak:

The RM/NRO/Oth group contains red maple, northern red oak, and all species not specifically included in another group.

The BC/WA/Y-P group contains black cherry, white ash, and yellow- Diameter - inches poplar. Figure I. Tree area curves for relative density determination.

Relative measures of density have been evaluate relative density utilizing tables or graphs developed to overcome this problem. Several that show the average area occupied by individual stocking guides are available that show the trees of each species and diameter at the average maximum basal area expected in stands reference level (Fig. 1). These values for all trees of varying diameter in the oak, Allegheny sampled in the stand can be added together to hardwood, and northern hardwood types. This get the relative density for the stand. average maximum density is considered a reference level or 100 percent relative density. Relative density informstion comes from Two stands of markedly different basal area are stocking charts developed for oaks in the central thought to have about the same degree of states and for Allegheny and northern hardwoods crowding if both are at the same relative density in Pennsylvania (Gingrich 1967, Roach 1977, (if both are at 60 percent of their reference levels, Roach and Gingrich 1962, 1968). These data for example). Thus, relative density provides a were combined and expanded to provide a more means of regulating density that can be applied universal procedure for density evaluation uniformly in all stands, regardless of tree size or throughout the Allegheny region (Stout 1987, species composition. Stout and Nyland 1986, Stout et a!. 1987.)

Because stands in the Allegheny region often Stand Densify Manipulation contain a wide mixture of species, and sometimes represent transitions between several forest types, The optimum density to retain after thinning is stocking charts developed for each specific type a compromise. Best individual tree growth occurs or species combination are needed. It is at low densities (perhaps 30 percent), but there confusjng to know which chart to use in a are too few trees to fully utilize the available particular stand,and often, the chart needed is not growing space at that density. As a result, available. A more convenient procedure is to maximum stand growth occurs at higher densities--between about 40 and 60 percent, even Our information on growth and mortality at higher for board foot growth. Tree quality is various stand densities comes from thinning affected by density as well, and epicormic experiments in Allegheny hardwoods, northern branching. forking, and other detrimental effects hardwoods, oaks, and oak-transition stands in become serious at densities below 50 or 50 northwestern Pennsylvania, and from similar percent (Dale and Sonderman 1984, Sonderman studies in oak stands in the central states (Church and Rast 1987,1988). We currently recommend a 1955, Dale 1972, Ernst 1987, Gingrich 1971, Hilt residual relative density of 60 percent as a useful 1983, Hough 1943,1954, Hough and Taylor 1946, compromise, with the exception that stands at or Marquis 1986a). above 95-percent density be reduced to 60 percent over two cuts to avoid excessive Stand Structure Manipulation exposure from a large reduction at one time. In some forest types, trees in even-aged The entire sequence of intermediate stand stands tend to be similar in size, creating a treatments is intended to maintain stands in the distribution of diameters that plots as a normal or optimum management zone for sawtimber bell-shaped curve. In theory, thinnings in such production (Ernst and Knapp 1985), or within the stands are concentrated in the small trees at the range of densities at which acceptable levels of lower end of the distribution. This shifts the stem quality, individual tree and stand growth, distribution toward the larger trees, increasing interfering plant development, and advance stand diameter and reducing the number of years regeneration development occurs. For most required for the stand to reach mature size. timber stands in the Alleghenies, this zone is between 60 and 80 percent relative density. Once However, many hardwood stands, especially a treated stand has regained a density of 80 those containing shade-tolerant species, do not percent or greater, growth slows, mortality follow this theoretical pattern very closely. The increases, and there is usually sufficient volume to tolerants that drop behind in growth as a result of make another commercial thinning. crowding su~ivein suppressed crown positions for many years. These small trees distort the Calculations for residual density are done normal curve and often create an inverse directly in relative density units, rather than in J-shaped curve typically associated with all-aged basal area. Since the areas utilized by each tree stands. If thinning was concentrated in the lower are added to estimate original relative density, it end of the diameter distribution in such stands, is a simple matter to subtract the area of each the cut would contain so many small, tree to be cut until the desired residual density unmerchantable trees as to make the thinning remains. The relative density tables and charts noncommercial, even in older stands. But if left allow easy conversion from basal area to relative uncut in a thinned stand, these tolerant saplings density and back again. This is important, since may survive indefinitely, occupying an inventory procedures and marking controls are increasingly higher proportion of the relative applied using basal area. density than they did before thinning, but without hope of reaching sawtimber size during the In stands that contain an understory of rotation of the main stand. interfering plants, such as ferns, thinning tends to increase that understory and may lead to Where sapling understories account for more regeneration difficulties later in the rotation. than about 20 square feet of basal area, they Attempts to restrict the expansion of ferns by constitute such a large proportion of the stand maintaining somewhat higher residual densities that thinning without cutting in the sapling class (70 percent or so) have not proven effective. amounts to a high-grading that reduces future Thus, the necessity of eventually treating the stand value excessively. We recommend that understory with an herbicide may be a such stands be left at high density for an consideration in deciding whether to thin in such additional period until growth and stands. crowding-induced mortality reduces the sapling component. Or, if thinning to stimulate the diameter growth of the crop trees is considered unpublished results of numerous computer essential, we recommend that this thinning simulator runs in Allegheny hardwood stands of include noncommercial cutting in the sapling varying species composition and age. The class. criterion used in the evaluation of these runs was the maximization of mean annual increment in In stands with less than 20 square feet of dollar value. Guidelines on precommercial basal area in saplings, the saplings can be thinning come from these simulator runs, as well ignored in marking and thinnings limited to the as from interpretation of numerous precommercial cornmerciai-size classes. In such stands, the thinning experiments conducted in Allegheny saplings occupy such a small proportion of the hardwoods in Pennsylvania, Appalachian relative density that their impact on density and hardwoods in West Virginia and North Carolina, future yield is minimal. and northern hardwoods in New England and the Lake States (Allen and Marquis 1970, Church In deciding which trees to remove to obtain 1955, Della-Bianca 1983, Erdmann and Godman the desired residual stand structure, the total cut 1981, Godman and Books 1971, Lamson 1983, is first calculated in relative density units to Marquis 1969, McCauley and Marquis 1972, Smith achieve the desired residual density. Then, the 1977, 1983, Trimbie 1972, 1974). total cut is apportioned among the various size classes so that the diameter distribution is altered Quality Manipulation in the intended manner. Tables of cut percentages for different types of thinning The major benefit of thinning is in (precommercial, combined TSI-commercial, concentrating stand growth on the highest value commercial, and thin-harvest) make the trees in the stand. Thus, poor-quality stems calculations easy (see Part 11). should have highest priority for removal. Observations made on tree quality during the Although we do not know much about the stand examination are utilized to estimate the effect of particular even-aged structures on number, size, and species of the low-quality growth or quality, the tables used in distributing stems, and to ensure that marking instructions the cut mold the stand in the direction of the recognize the need to remove these trees, even if theoretical bell-shaped curve. tn the commercial this means that structure or species goals cannot thinning, for example, three-fourths of the density be achieved. removed (about iwo-thirds of the basal area) comes from below the stand diameter, while the Species Composition Maniputation remaining one-quarter of the density (one-third of the basal area) comes from above the stand Because the fastest growing species and diameter. This tends to narrow the range of individuals are the largest trees in an even-aged diameters and create a belf-shaped curve within stand, thinning from below tends to increase the the merchantable sizes. The average stand proportion of these species. Fortunately, the diameter is increased as a result, though enough faster growing species tend to be the most larger trees are removed to ensure that openings valuable as welt. Therefore, the use of the are created in the main crown canopy and to stand-structure guidelines recommended here will provide enough volume to make a saie operable. usually provide for automatic changes in species Similar procedures are used in the other types of composition of a desirable sort. An exception thinnings, using slightly different cut proportions may be stands containing white oak, which is to achieve the structure goals of those cuts. often the most valuable - but slower growing - species. Our information on stand structure and development of Allegheny hardwood stands comes from long-term studies in northwestern Pennsylvania (Hough 1932, Marquis 1981b, 1981e) Marquis and Ernst 1991. Our guidelines on stand-structure manipulation come from STAND MATURITY-ROTATION LENGTH value. No interest rates or present net worth calculations were involved. Rotation lengths in the several hardwood forest types of the Alleghenies range from 70 or ALL-AGE CULTURE AND REGENERATION 80 years up to 150 years or more. There are no fixed rotation lengths, even within a single forest Appropriate Conditions for Use type, because the species composition, site productivity, and amount and type of All-age silviculture is most appropriate in intermediate thinning can dramatically affect the areas where goals other than timber management number of years required to reach financial impose special restrictions on cutting. All-age maturity. The several species groups within a silviculture maintains a forest canopy on the area single stand may mature at markedly different at all times, avoiding large regeneration openings times as well, making the use of fixed or with the exposed stumps, slash, and soil standard rotation ages of little value. Therefore, disturbance that are common after even-aged we recommend that stand maturity be calculated regeneration cuttings. Because all-aged cuttings for each stand each time that the stand is are less noticeable, they are better suited for examined or treated. - timber harvesting in areas where the maintenance of an undisturbed or natural appearance is Stands reach financial maturity when the desired. Examples are areas in or near heavily increase in total stand value begins to slow used recreation sites, or along scenic highways or down--usually when a high proportion of trees rivers on public forest lands, or forested areas have reached diameters that qualify for grade 3 surrounding camps or vacation homes on private sawtimber or veneer. This point can be ownerships. calculated from the summation of the financial maturities of the individual trees. As a crude rule All-age silviculture may also be a good choice of thumb, stands tend to reach this point when on areas without special visual needs when site the medial diameter (diameter at the midpoint of and stand conditions make even-age silviculture the basal area distribution) of the difficult. Areas that now support stands merchantable-size trees reaches 18 inches. At dominated by tolerant species such as hemlock, this point, a final cut is prescribed to harvest the beech, and sugar maple are amenable to all-age old stand and regenerate a new one. procedures. This is especially true if there are multiple age classes present and if the site Stands that have relatively few trees of conditions make regeneration after clearcutting potential sawtimber quality are also financially difficult. Wet sites with a tendency toward mature, even if not of large diameter. It is more hemlock are an especially good example of areas profitable to start over and regenerate a new that can produce good volumes of timber under stand of higher quality than to devote the site to all-age silviculture, but that are difficult to convert production of low-value material. As a general to even-aged stands of intolerant species. rule, stands with less than 35 percent relative density in acceptable quality growing stock are Although there are variations of all-age financially mature for this reason. This assumes silviculture, such as group selection, that permit that desirable regeneration can be obtained. regeneration of intolerant species, the long-term tendency under all-age silviculture is toward Our guidelines on financial maturity are based domination by shade tolerant species. In the on studies of individual tree financial maturii in forest types of the Alleghenies, the intolerants are New York, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia the higher value, faster growing species, so (Grisez and Mendel 1972, Mendel et a/. 1973), financial returns from timber production will plus unpublished results of computer simulator almost always be less under ail-age than runs in Allegheny hardwood stands of varying even-age silviculture. In addition, the reduction in species composition. Financial maturity of the variety of habitats (lack of larger openings), loss stands in these computer runs was defined as the of mast (especially in the oak type), and loss of culmination of mean annual increment in dollar other sun-loving wildlife plants resulting from all-age silviculture will tend to produce less conditions permit. Thus, for maximization of diversity of wildlife as well. These are the timber yields under all-age silviculture, we trade-offs that must be weighed against the recommend a combination of single-tree and above-mentioned advantages of all-age group selection cutting practices. silviculture. No attempt need be made to map or In some situations, use of all-age silviculture otherwise record these openings. Usually, may be precluded entirely in the Alleghenies. openings will represent less than 10 percent of Oak stands cannot be regenerated or maintained the stand area, meaning that less than half of the in this region through all-age techniques. stand will be included in an opening over a 100- Traditional all-age procedures should not be used year period assuming a 20-year cutting cycle. in oak stands unless the gradual conversion of Single-tree selection is therefore the primary these stands to red maple and more tolerant cutting method, supplemented with small group species is acceptable. openings.

In parts of the Alleghenies where deer Our information on hardwood regeneration browsing is severe, all-age silviculture may fail to under all-age silviculture comes from New provide adequate regeneration, even if desirable Hampshire, New York, West Virginia, and the shade tolerant species such as sugar maple and central states (Leak and Wilson 1958, Mader and hemlock are present in the overstory. Under Nyland 1984, Minckler ef al. 1973, Sander and all-age procedures, regeneration must develop Clark 1971, Trimble 1965, 1970, Trimble and following each cut; these seedlings must grow in McGee 1973). the understory for an extended period before they finally move into the main crown canopy. During All-age Culture this extended period, they are subject to browsing which resuits in elimination of al but the less Each cutting under all-age silviculture should palatable beech, or sometimes in the elimination create and maintain a residual stand that contains of all regeneration. Although the lack of all sizes of trees in each stand at all times. To be regeneration may go unnoticed for a few cutting successful, a residual stand structure goal must cycles, the long-term result is a depletion of be established and each cut must remove only growing stock and loss of production from the trees in each size class that are excess to that stand. For this reason, alt-age silviculture is not goal. in this way, regular sustained yields are recommended in areas of high deer population. assured.

Our information on the appropriate use of As with thinning, each selection cut must all-age silviculture comes from a wide variety of regulate stand density, stand structure, tree studies throughout the eastern hardwood region quality, and species composition. (Hansen and Nyland 1987, Marquis 1977b, 1978a, 1981c, Nyland and Marquis 1979, USDA Forest Residual stand density affects growth in Service 1979, 1983). all-aged stands in the same general way as it does in even-aged stands. Relative densities of All-aged Regeneration about 60 percent provide good individual tree growth and net stand growth without toss of tree Regeneration under all-age silviculture must quality due to excessive exposure. With 60 be obtained in every stand after every cut. Since percent relative density between openings, and considerable overstory is always present, zero density within group openings, overaH regeneration will be dominated by the shade residual stand density will average about 50 tolerant species. To maintain as many of the percent. faster growing, more valuable intolerants in the stand as possible, we recommend that residual Stand structure goals for all-aged stands may densities be kept low and that small openings up be caiculated using various mathematical to about a half acre be created whenever stand distributions. One common technique is to use the ratio (q) between the number of trees in SOIL FACTORS AND SOIL PROTECTION adjacent diameter classes. Although there is theoretical evidence that more complex Soil types can have a major influence on the distributions may be desirable, they have not selection of a silvicultural prescription. been adequately field tested. For now, we Restrictions on the types of logging equipment recommend the use of "q", with ratios of between used, the seasons in which logging is permitted, 1.3 and 1.5 (for 2-inch d.b.h. classes) in most and the pattern of skidding may also be hardwood stands in the Allegheny region. necessary on some soils to protect advance regeneration from damage and maintain site In addition to the ratio or distribution, productivity. maximum tree size must be specified in defining all-aged structure. We recommend maximum Soils and geology vary widely throughout the sizes of between 22 and 30 inches. A maximum Allegheny region and it is not possible to provide of 22 inches works well for timber production, specific forestry interpretations for the entire since it results in an average diameter d 16 to 18 region in this publication. However, Table 1 inches for the sawtimber trees harvested--close to illustrates specific forestry interpretations the estimates of financial maturity for individual developed for related soil types on the Allegheny trees. A maximum of 28 to 30 inches (combined Plateau of northwestern Pennsylvania. We with a low q ratio) will produce stands that encourage the development and use of similar contain many large trees and have an appearance soils interpretations in conjunction with the somewhat like a primeval or virgin forest where prescription procedures used here. County soils that visual goal is desired and timber production maps and interpretations provided by the Soil is less critical. Conservation Service can be combined with local forest soils experience for this purpose. As with thinning, tables showing the relative density by size class are used for the calculation In northwestern Pennsylvania, soil drainage is of residual structure, and these make the the major factor affecting silvicuhural prescriptions development of marking instructions easy. We and practices. Soils with dormant season water recommend that cutting be done in all tables less than 12 inches below the soil surface merchantable size classes (poletimber and larger), may have lower productivity than better-drained but that no cutting be done in the soils, and they are vulnerable to damage during unmerchantable sapling sizes. forest operations. Use of silvicuitural systems that encourage species suited to these sites, and Tree qual'ky is a major factor affecting timber restrictions on equipment operations are value in all-age silviculture, just as it is in even-age appropriate. Specific recommendations depend silviculture. Thus, poor-qualitytrees are removed on the soil type; the footnotes in Table 1 illustrate first, even if this means that structure goals the range of recommendations that are cannot be achieved. appropriate in northwestern Pennsyivania. A general guide to the influence of so4 fact~rson Species composition in all-aged stands will site productivity can be found in Auchmoody gradually shift toward a preponderance of (I 987). shade-tolerant species, and the system used to distribute the cut among size classes will automatically move the stand in that direction.

Our guidelines on all-age silviculture are based on literature from throughout the Northeast, with adaptations based on judgment and experience to fit the Alleghenies (Marquis 1978a). Table 1. Sol1 IlmRatlons to forest practices on selected Allegheny Plateau soils. (Source: Auchmoody. Luther R. 1984. Soil Interpretation for the Allegheny Natlonal Forest. unpubllshed. On flle. Forestry Sciences Laboratory. Warren, PA.)

Soil Name Forest Practlce Brlnkerton Cavode Chenango Cookport Ernest Hazelton Nolo

Even-age management severe1 Moderate Sllght Sllght Moderate Sllght Severe Uneven-age management Moderate Sllght Sllght Slight Sllght Sllght Moderate Natural Regeneratlon severe3 Modcrate Sllght Sllght Sllght Sllght severe3 Artlflclal Regeneratlon Severe Moderate Sllght Sllght Sllght Sllght Severe Equipment Use severe6 severe6 Slight4 Moderate Moderate sllght4 severe6 wlndfirmness7 Uncut Stands Moderate Moderate Sllght Sllght Sllght Sllght Moderate Thinned Stands Severe Severe Sllght Moderate Moderate Sllght Severe Wlldllfe Patches Severe Severe Sllght Moderate Moderate Sllght Severe Resldual Trees Severe Severe Sllght Moderate Moderate Sllght Severe Forest Fertlllzatlon Severe Slight Sllght Sllght Moderate ' Sllght Severe Herblclde Appllcatlon Moderate Moderate Sllght Sllght Sllght Sllght Moderate Log Decks Severe Severe Sllght Moderate Moderate Sllght Severe Road Location Severe Severe Sllght Moderate Moderate Sllght Severe Road Material Source Severe Severe Sllght Severe Severe Sllght lo Severe Recreation Development Severe Severe Sllght Moderate Moderate Sllght Severe Off-Road Vehlcle Trails Severe Severe Sllght Moderate Moderate Sllght Severe Oil Well Locations Severe Severe Sllght Moderate Moderate Sllght Severe Brine Pits Severe Moderate ode rate" Sllght Moderat: Severe " Severe Bulldlnas Severe Severe Sllaht Moderate Severe Sllaht Severe

LlTERATURE CITED

Allen, Rufus H.; Marquis, David A. 1970. Effect Auchmoody, L. R.; Filip, S. M. 1973. Forest of thinning on height and diameter growth fertilization in the Eastern United States: of oak and yellow-poplar seedlings. Res. hardwoods. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-3. In: Pap. NE-174. Broomall, PA: U.S. Department Forest fertilization symposium proceedings, of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern 1972 August 22-25; Warrensburg, NY. Forest Experiment Station. 11 p. Broomail, PA: US. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Auchmoody, L. R. 1979. Nitrogen fertilization Experiment Station: 21 1-225. stimulates germination of dormant pin cherry seed. Canadian Journal of Forest Bjorkbom, John C. 1979. Seed production and Research. 9: 51 4-516. advance regeneration in Allegheny hardwood forests. Res. Pap. NE-435. Auchmoody, L R. 1982. Response of young Broomall, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, black cherry stands to fertilization. Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 12(2): Experiment Station. 10 p. 319-325. Bjorkbom, John C.; Auchmoody, L. R.; Dorn, Auchriioody, L. R. 1983. Using fertilizers to Donald. 1979. Influence cf fertilizer on regenerate Allegheny hardwoods. In: seed production in Allegheny hardwood Finley, J.; Cochran, R. S.; Grace, J. R., eds. stands. Res. Pap. NE-439. Broomall, PA: Regenerating hardwood stands: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Proceedings; 1983 March 15-16; University Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Park, PA. University Park, PA: The Station. 5 p. Pennsylvania State University, School of Forest Resources, Cooperative Extension Bjorkbom, John C.; Walters, Russell S. 1986. Service: 160-170. Allegheny hardwoodregeneration response to even-age harvesting methods. Res. Pap. Auchmoody, LR. 1985. Response of young NE-581. Broomall, PA: U.S. Department of black cherry to thinning and fertilization. Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern In: Dawson, Jeffrey 0.; Majerus, Kimberly A., Forest Experiment Station. 13 p. eds. Proceedings, Fifth Central Hardwood Forest Conference; 1985 April 15-17; Urbana- Brenneman, Ronnie. 1982. Electric fencing to Champaign, IL. Urbana-Champaign, IL: prevent deer browsing on hardwood University of Illinois: 53-61. clearcuts. Journal of Forestry. 80: 660-661.

Auchmoody, L. R. 1987. Soil-site relations for Church, Jr., Thomas W. 1955. Weeding - an northern hardwoods. In: Nyland, Ralph D., effective treatment for stimulating growth ed. Managing northern hardwoods: of northern hardwoods. Journal of Forestry. Proceedings of a silvicultural symposium; 23- 53: 71 7-719. 25 June 1986; Syracuse, NY. Faculty of Forestry Miscellaneous Publication No. 13 Dale, Martin E. 1972. Growth and yield (ESF 87-002). Syracuse, NY: State University predictions for upland oak stands - 10 of New York and Society of American years after initial thinning. Res. Pap. Foresters: 14-24. NE-241. Upper Darby, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 21 p. Dale, Martin E.; Sonderman, David L. 1984. Gingrich, S. F. 1967. Me'asuringand evaluating Effect of thinning on growth and potential stand density in upland hardwood forests quality of young white oak crop trees. Res. in the central states. Forest Science. 13: Pap. NE-539. Broomall, PA: U.S. Department 38-53. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 12 p. Gingrich, Samuel F. 1971. Management of young and intermediate stands of upland Della-Bianca, Lino. 1983. Effect of intensive hardwoods. Res. Pap. NE-195. Upper cleaning on natural pruning of cove Darby, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, hardwoods in the Southern Appalachians. Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Forest Science. 29: 27-32. Experiment Station. 26 p.

Downs, Albert A. 1949. Trees and food from Godman, R. M.; Books, D. J. 1971. Influence of acorns. In: Trees: The Yearbook of stand density on stem quality in pole-size Agriculture. Washington, DC: U.S. northern hardwoods. Res. Pap. NC-54. St. Department of Agriculture: 571 -573. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Forest Erdmann, Gayne G.; Godman, Richard M. 1981. Experiment Station. 7 p. Tending young northern hardwood stands. In: Proc. National Silviculture Workshop, Gottschalk, K. W. 1983. Management strategies Hardwood Management; 1981 June 1-5; for successful regeneration: Oak-hickory. Roanoke, VA. Washington, DC: U.S. In: Finley, J.; Cochran, R. S.; Grace, J. R., Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, eds. Regenerating hardwood stands: Timber Management: 124-150. Proceedings; 1983 March 15-16; University Park, PA. University Park, PA: The Ernst, Richard L 1982. Computerized Pennsylvania State University, School of prescription for Allegheny hardwoods. In: Forest Resources, Cooperative Extension Proc. Microcomputers: A new tool for Service: 190-213. foresters; 1982 May 18-20; West Lafayette, IN. SAF Publ. 82-05. West bfayette, IN: Purdue Gottschalk, K.W. 1987. Effect of deer on oak University and Society of American Foresters: regeneration following thinning and 103-105. clearcutting in central Pennsylvania. In: Deer, forestry, and agriculture: Interactions Ernst, Richard L. 1987. Growth and yield and strategies for management: Proceedings following thinning in mixed-species of a symposium; 15-17 June 1987; Warren, Allegheny hardwood stands. In: Nyland, PA. Erie, PA: Plateau and Northern Ralph D., ed. Managing northern hardwoods: Hardwood Chapters, Allegheny Society of Proceedings of a silvicultural symposium; 23- American Foresters: 2. Abstract. 25 June 1986. Faculty of Forestry Miscellaneous Publication No. 13 (ESF 87- Gottschalk, K. W.; Marquis, D. A. 1982. Survival 002). Syracuse, NY: State University of New and growth of planted red oak and white York and Society of American Foresters: ash as affected by residual overstory 21 1-222. density, stock size, and deer browsing. In: Muller, R. N., ed. 4th Central Hardwood Ernst, Richard t;Walter H. Knapp. 1985. Forest Forest Conference; 1982 November 8-10; stand density and stocking: concepts, Lexington, KY. Lexington, KY: University of terms, and the use of stocking guides. Kentucky: 125-140. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-44. US. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 8 p. Grisez, Ted J. 1959a. The Hickory Run deer Horsley, Stephen 6. 1977~1. Allelopathic exclosure. For. Res. Note No. 87. Upper inhibition of black cheny by fern, grass, Darby, PA: US. Department of Agriculture, goldenrod, and aster. Canadian Journal of Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Forest Research. 7(2): 205-216. Experiment Station. 4 p. Horsley, Stephen B. 1977b Allelopathic Grisez, Ted 4. 1959b. A low-cost deer fence. inhibition of black cherry 11. Inhibition by Journal of Forestry. 57: 42-43. woodland grass, ferns, and ciub moss. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 7(3): Grisez, Ted J. 1960. Slash helps protect 515-519. seedlings from deer browsing. Journal of Forestry. 58: 385387. Horsley, Stephen B. 1978. Chemicals from herbaceous plants maintain forest Grisez, Ted J. 1975. Flowering and seed openings. Pennsylvania Forests. 68: 12-13, production in seven hardwood species. 24. Res. Pap. HE-315. Broomall, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Horsley, Stephen B. 1981. Control of Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 8 herbaceous weeds in Allegheny hardwood P- forests with herbicides. Weed Science. 29: 655-662. Grisez, Ted J.; Mendei, Joseph J. 1972. The rate of value increase for black cherry, red Horsley, Stephen B. 1982. Development of maple, and white ash. Res. Pap. NE-231. reproduction in Allegheny hardwood Broomall, PA: US. Department of stands after herbicide-clearcuts and Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern herbicide-shelterwood cuts. Res. Note Forest Experiment Station. 26 p. NE-308. Broomall, PA: US. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Grisez, Ted J.; Peace, Maurice R. 1973. Forest Experiment Station. 4 p. Requirements for advance reproduction in Allegheny hardw~ods- an interim guide. Horsley, S. B. 1983. Interference with desirable Res. Note NE-180. Broomall, PA: U.S. northern hardwood regeneration by Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, herbaceous and woody plants. In: Finley, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 5 J.; Cochran, R. S.; Grace, J. R., eds. P- Regenerating hardwood stands: Proceedings; 1983 March 15-16; University Park, PA. Hansen, Gerald D.; Nyland, Ralph D. 1987. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State Effects of diameter distribution on the University, School of Forest Resources, growth of sirnulafed uneven-aged sugar Cooperative Extension Service: 81-93. maple stands. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 17: 1-8. Horsley, S. B. 1986. Evaluation of hayscented fern interference with black cherry. Hilt, Donald E. 1983. Individual-tree diameter American Journal of Botany. 73:668-669. growth model for managed, even-aged, upland oak stands. Res. Pap. NE-533. Broomall, PA: US. Department of Agriculture, Horsley, S. B. 1989. Control of understory Forest Service, Northeastern Forest vegetation in Allegheny hardwood stands Experiment Station. 15 p. with Oust. Northern Journal of Applied Forestry. 5: 262-262. Horsley, S.B. 1990a. Control of grass and Hough, A. F. 1954. Growth response in sedge in AJlegheny hardwood stands with Allegheny hardwood forest after diameter- Roundupresidual herbicide tank mixes. limit puipwood cuttings. Stn. Pap. No. 68. Northern Journal of Applied Forestry. Upper Darby, Pk U.S. Department of 7(3) :1 24-1 49. Agriculture, Forest Sewice, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 18 p. Horsley, S.B. 1990b. Tank mixing Roundup with adjuvants and other herbicides for Hough, A. F.; Taylor, R. F. 1946. Response of striped maple control. Northern Journal of Allegheny northern hardwoods to partial Applied Forestry. 7: 19-22. cutting. Journal of Forestry. 44: 30-38.

Hordey, S. B.; Bjorkbom, J. C. 1983. Herbicide Husch, Bertram. 1954. The regeneration of treatment of striped maple and beech in Prunus serotina in northwestern Allegheny hardwood stands. Forest Pennsylvania following cutting. Ecology. Science. 29: 103-112. 35: 11-1 7.

Horsley, S. B.; Marquis, D. A. 1983. Interference Jordan, James S. 1967. Deer browsing in by weeds and deer with Allegheny northern hardwobds after clearcutting. hardwood reproduction. Canadian Journal Res. Pap. NE-57. Broomall, PA: U.S. of Forest Research. 13: 61 -69. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 15 Horsiey, S. 8.; Wills, D.; Johncour, R.; Shaffer, W.; P. Ostergard, 0.; Worrall, J. 1985. Development of spray equipment for weed Kelty, Matthew J.; Nyland, Ralph 8. 1981. control in eastern hardwood forests. In: Regenerating Adirondack northern Proceedings, 39th Northeastern Weed hardwoods by shelterwood cutting and Science Society. 39: 227. control of deer density. Journal of Forestry. 79: 22-26. Hough, A F. 1932. Some diameter distributions in forest stands of Kelty, Matthew J.; Nyland, Ralph D. 1983. northwestern Pennsylvania. Journal of Hardwood browse production following Forestry, 30: 933-943. shelterwood cutting. Journal of Wildlife Management. 47: 1216-1 220. Hough, A. F. 1937. A study of natural tree reproduction in the beech-birch-maple- Kossuth, S. V.; Young, J. F.; Voeller, J. E.; Holt, hemlock type. Journal of Forestry. 35: H. A. 1980. Year-round hardwood control 376-378. using the hypehatchet injector. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 4: 73-76. Hough, A. F. 1943. Methods of harvesting sawtimber from forests inthe high plateaus Lamson, Neil 1. 1983. Precommercial thinning section of Pennsylvania. Journal of insures diameter growth of Appalachian Forestry. 41 : 898-903. hardwood stump sprouts. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 7: 93-97. Hough, A. F. 1945. Frost pocket and other microclimates in forests of the northern teak, William B.; Wilson, Robert W. 1958. Allegheny Plateau. Ecology. 26: 235-250. Regeneration after cutting of old-growth northern hardwoods in New Hampshire. Hough, A. F. 1949. Deer and rabbit browsing Stn. Pap. No. 103. Upper Darby, PA: U.S. and available winter forage in Allegheny Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, hardwood forests. Journal of Wildlife Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 8 Management. 12(1): 135-141. P. Lindmark, Ronald D. 1965. Removing Marquis, David A. 1977a. Devices to protect undesirable trees from hardwood stands - seedlings from deer browsing. Res. Note A literature review. Columbus, OH: U.S. NE-243. Broomall, PA: U.S. Department of Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Central States Forest Experiment Station. 23 Forest Experiment Station. 7 p. P. Marquis, David A. 19776. Silvicutture of eastern McCauley, Onis D.; Marquis, David A. 1972 hardwoods. In: The scientific base for Investment in precommercial thinning of silviculture and management decisions in the northern hardwoods. Res. Pap. NE-145. national forest system; 1976 March 22-23; Broomail, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC. Washington, DC: U.S. Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: Experiment Station. 12 p. 29-38.

Mader, Stephen F.; Nyland, Ralph D. 1984. Six- Marquis, David A. 1978a. Application of year response of northern hardwoods to uneven-aged silviculture and management the selection system. Northern Journal of on public and private lands. In: Applied Forestry. 1: 87-91. Uneven-aged silviculture and management in the United States; Proceedings; 1975 July Marquis, David A. 1969. Thinning in young 15-17; Morgantown, WV; 1976 October 19-21 ; northern hardwoods; 5-year results. Res. Redding, CA. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-24. Pap. NE-130. Broomall, PA: U.S. Department Washington, DC: US. Department of of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Agriculture, Forest Service: 25-61. Forest Experiment Station. 22 p. Marquis, David A. l978b. Tree regeneration Marquis, David A. 1973. The effect of and deer. No. 61. University Park, PA: The environmental factors on advance Pennsylvania State University, Cooperative regeneration of Allegheny hardwoods. New Extension Service. 4 p. Haven, CT: Yale University. 147 p. Ph.D. dissertation. Marquis, David A. 1978~. The effect of environmental factors on the natural Marquis, David A. 1974. The impact of deer regeneration of cherry-ash-mapleforests in browsing on Allegheny hardwood the Allegheny Plateau region of the eastern regeneration. Res. Pap. NE-308. Broomall, United States. In: Establishment and PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest treatment of high-quality hardwood forests in Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment the temperate climatic region; Proceedings of Station. 8 p. a symposium; 1978 September 11-1 5; Nancy, France. Champenoux ~-g4280Seichamps, Marquis, David A. 1975a. The Allegheny France: International Union of Forestry hardwood forests of Pennsylvania. Gen. Research Organizations: 90-99. Tech. Rep. NE-'15. Broomall, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Marquis, David A. 1979a. Ecological aspects of Noaheastern Forest Experiment Station. 32 shelterwood cutting. In: Proceedings, P- National silviculture workshop; 1979 September 17-21 ; Charleston, SC. Marquis, David A. 1975b. Seed germination Washington, DC: US. Department of and storage under northern hardwood Agriculture, Forest Service: 40-56. forests. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 5: 478-484. Marquis, David A. 1979b. Sheltenvood cutting in Allegheny hardwoods. Journal of Forestry. 77: 140-144. Marquis, David A. 1981a. Effect of deer Marquis, David A. 1982. The effect of advance browsing on timber production in seedling size and vigor on survival after Allegheny hardwood forests of clearcutting. Res. Pap. NE-498. Broomall, northwestern Pennsylvania. Res. Pap. PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest NE-475. Broomall, PA: U.S. Department of Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Station. 7 p. Forest Experiment Station. 10 p. Marquis, D.A. 1983a. Management strategies Marquis, David A. 1981b. Even-age for successful regeneration: Northern development and management of mixed hardwoods. In: Finley, J.; Cochran, R.S.; hardwood stands: Allegheny hardwoods. Grace, J.R., eds. Regenerating hardwood In: Proceedings, National Silviculture stands: Proceedings; 1983 March 15-16; Workshop, Hardwood Management; 1981 University Park, PA. University Park: The June 1-5; Roanoke, VA. Washington, DC: Pennsylvania State University, School of U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Forest Resources, Cooperative Extension Service, Timber Management: 21 3-226. Service: 21 4-238.

Marquis, David A. 1981c. Hardwood silviculture Marquis, David A. 1983b. Regeneration of and management systems: Modification black cherry in the Alleghenies. In: for special objectives. In: Proceedings, Proceedings, 11 th annual hardwood nationai silvicuiture workshop, Hardwood symposium of the Hardwood Research Management; 1981 June 1-5; Roanoke, VA. Council; 1983 May 10-13; Cashiers, NC. New Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Orleans, LA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture, Forest Service, Timber Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Management: 77-87. Station: 106-119.

Marquis, David A. 1981d. Management of Marquis, David A. 1986a. Thinning Allegheny Allegheny hardwoods for timber and pole and small sawtimber stands. In: wildlife. In: Proceedings, XVll IUFRO World Smith, H. Clay; Eye, Maxine C., eds. Congress; 1981 September 7-12; Kyoto, Guidelines for managing immature Japan. Ibaraki, Japan: Japanese IUFRO Appalachian hardwoods: Proceedings of a Congress Committee: 369-380. symposium; 18-20 May 1986; Morgantown WV. Morgantown, WV. West Virginia Marquis, David A. 1981e. Removal or retention University: 68-84. of unmerchantable saplings in Allegheny hardwoods: Effect on regeneration after Marquis, David A. 3986b. SILVAH: a stand clearcutting. Journal of Forestry. 79(5): analysis, prescription, and management 280-283. simulator program for hardwood stands in the Alleghenies. In: Wiant, Harry V. Jr.; Marquis, David A. 1981f. Survival, growth, and Yandle, David 0.; Kidd, William E., eds. quality of residual trees following Forestry Microcomputer Software clearcutting in Allegheny hardwood forests. Symposium: Proceedings of a symposium; 29 Res. Pap. NE-477. Broomall, PA: US. July - 2 June 1986; Morgantown, VW. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Morgantown, WV. West Virginia University: Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 9 p. 224-240. Marquis, David A. 1987. Assessing the Marquis, David A; Grisez, Ted J. 1978. The adequacy of regeneration and effect of deer exclosures on the recovery of understanding early development patterns. vegetation in failed clearcuts on the In: Nyland, Ralph D., ed. Managing northern AHegheny Plateau. Res. Note NE-270. hardwoods: Proceedings of a silvicultural Broomafl, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, symposium; 23-25 June 1986. Faculty of Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Forestry Miscellaneous Publication No. 13 Experiment Station. 5 p. (ESF 87-0026. Syracuse, NY: State University of New York and Society =of American Marquis, David A.; SomerviHe, James; Johnson, Foresters: 143-f 59. Eli. 1980. Northern hardwoods. In: National forest landscape management, volume 2, Marquis, David A. 1987. Silvicultural chapter 5, Timber. Agric. Handb. 559. techniques forcircumventing deer damage. Washington, DC: US. Department of In: Deer, forestry, and agriculture: Agriculture, Forest Service: 117-1 45. Interactions and strategies for management: Proceedings of a symposium; 1987 June Marquis, David A.; Ernst, Richard L 1991. The 15-17; Warren, PA. Erie, PA: Plateau and effects of stand structure after thinning on Northern Hardwood Chapters, Allegheny the growth of an Allegheny hardwood Society of American Foresters: 125-136. stand. Forest Science. 37(4):1182-1200.

Marquis, David A.;Bjorkbom, John C. 1982. Mendel, Joseph J.; Grisez, Ted J.; Trimble, Jr., Guidelines for evatuating regeneration G.R. 1973. The rate of value increase for before and after clearcutting Allegheny sugar maple. Res. Pap. NE-250. Broomall, hardwoods. Res. Note NE-307. Broomall, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 19 p. Station. 4 p. Minckler, Leon S.; Woerheide, John D.; Marquis, David A*; Brenneman, Ronnie. 1981. Schlesinger, Richard C, 1973. Light, soil The impact of deer on forest vegetation in moisture, and tree reproduction in Pennsylvania. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-65. hardwood forest openings. Res. Pap. Broomall, PA: US. Department of NE-89. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station. 7 p. Forest Experiment Station. 6 p.

Marquis, David A.; Eckert, Philip L; Roach, Nelson, Brad; Auchmoody, L.R. 1987. Benjamin A. 1976. Acorn weevils,, rodents, Fertilization of young clearcuts. In: Deer, and deer all contribute to oak regeneration forestry, and agriculture: Interactions and difficulties in Pennsylvania. Res. Pap. strategies for management: 15-17 June 1987. NE-356. Broomall, PA: U.S. Department of Warren, PA. Erie, PA: Plateau and Northern Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Hardwood Chapters, Allegheny Society of Forest Experiment Station. 5 p. American Foresters: 108-117.

Marquis, David A.; Grisez, Ted J.; Bjorkbom, John C.; Roach, Benjamin A. 1975. Interim guide to regeneration of Allegheny hardwoods. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-19. Broomalt, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 14 p. Nyland, Ralph D.; Abrahamson, Lawrence; Roach, Benjamin A.; Gingrich, Samuel F. 1968. Adams, Kenneth. 1983. Use of prescribed Even-aged silviculture for upland central fire for regenerating red and white oak in hardwoods. Agric. Handb.355. Washington, New York. In: America's hardwood DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest forests--opportunities unlimited: 1982 Service. 39 p. Convention of SAF; 19-22 September 1982; Cincinnati, OH. SAF Publ. 83-04. Sander, lvan L; Clark, F. Bryan. 1971. Washington, DC: Society of American Reproduction of upland hardwood forests Foresters: 163-167. in the Central States. Agric. Handb. 405. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Nyiand, Ralph D.; Marquis; David A. 1979. Agriculture, Forest Service. 25 p. Appropriate silvicultural systems for northern hardwoods. In: North America's Sander, lvan b.; Johnson, Paul S.; Watt, Richard forests: Gateway to opportunity: 1978 joint F. 1976. A guide for evaluating the convention of Society of American Foresters adequacy of oak advance reproduction. and Canadian Institute of Forestry. St-Louis, Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-23. St. Paul, MN: U.S. MO. Washington, DC: Society of American Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Foresters: 334-338. North Central Forest Experiment Station. 7 p.

Ostrom, C. E. 1938. Clearcutting of young Shafer, Jr., E. L; Grisez, T. J.; Sowa, Ed. 1961. northern hardwood stands. Journal of Results of deer exclosure studies in Forestry. 36: 44-49. northeastern Pennsylvania. For. Res. Note No. 121. Upper Darby, PA: U.S. Department Redding, Jim. 1987. Impact of deer on forest of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern vegetation and timber production in Forest Experiment Station. 7 p. northern Pennsylvania. In: Deer, forestry, and agriculture: Interactions and strategies Shipman, R. D.; Farrand, E. P. [n-d.] Forest for management: Proceedings of a resources and herbicides - a guide to symposium; 15-17 June 1987; Warren, PA. control sf undesirable woody plants. Spec. Erie, PA: Plateau and Northern Hardwood Circ. 206. University Park, PA: The Chapters, Allegheny Society of American Pennsylvania State University, College of Foresters: 2332. Agriculture, Extension Service; Natural Resources Series. 13 p. Roach, Benjamin A. 1977. A stocking guide for Allegheny hardwoods and its use in Smith, H. Clay. 1977. Results of psecommercial controlling intermediate cuttings. Res. Pap. thinning in very young Appalachian NE-373. Broomall, PA: U.S. Department of hardwood stands. Northern Logger and Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Timber Processor. 26(6): 24-25. Forest Experiment Station. 30 p. Smith, H. Clay. 1983. Growth of Appalachian Roach, B. A.; Gingrich, S. F. 1962. Timber hardwoods kept free to grow from 2 to 12 management guide for upland central years after clearcutting. Res. Pap. NE-528. hardwoods. Columbus, OH: U.S. Broomail, PA; U.S. Department of Agriculture, Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Central States Forest Experiment Station and Experiment Station. 6 p. North Central Region. 33 p. Sonderman, David L.; Rast, Everette D. 1987. Tilghman, Nancy G. 1984. Deer densities and Changes in hardwood growing-stock tree forest regeneration. In: Harris, Margaret M.; grades. Res. Pap. NE-608. Broomall, PA: Spearing, Ann M. eds. Research in forest U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest productivity, use, and pest control; Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Proceedings of a symposium; 1983 Station. 8 p. September 16-17; Burlington, VT. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-90. Broomall, PA: U.S. Department Sonderman, David L; Rast, Everette D. 1988. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Effed of thinning on mixed-oak stem Forest Experiment Station: 45-50. quality. Res. Pap. NE-618, Broomall, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Tilghman, Nancy G. 1987. Maximum deer Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment populations compatible with forest Staticm, 6 p. regeneration, an estimate from deer enclosure studies in Pennsylvania. In: Stout, Susan L. 1983. Computer program helps Deer, Forestry, and Agriculture: Interactions foresters write prescriptions for Allegheny and strategies for management: Proceedings hardwoods. Allegheny Society of American off a symposium, 15-17 June 1987; Warren, Foresters; Allegheny News, Spring 1983: 14-15 PA. Erie, PA: Plateau and Northern Hardwood Chapters, Allegheny Society of American Stout, Susan L 1987. Planning the right Foresters: 71. Abstract. residual: Relative density, stand structure, and species composition. In: Nyland, Ralph Tilghman, Nancy G. 1989. Impacts of white- D., ed. Managing northern hardwoods: tailed deer on forest regeneration in Proceedings of a silvicultural symposium; northwestern Pennsylvania. Journal of 23-25 June 1986. Faculty of Forestry W,Idlife Management. 53(3):524-532. Miscellaneous Publication No. 13 (ESF 87-002). Syracuse, NY: State University of Trimble, George R. 1965. Species composition New York and Society of American Foresters: changes under individual tree selection 176-190. cutting in cove hardwoods. Res. Note NE-30. Upper Darby. PA: USDepartment of Stout, Susan L; Marquis, David A.; Ernst, Richard Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern L 1987. A relative density measure for Forest Experiment Station. 6 p. mixed species stands. Journal of Forestry. 85(6) : 45-47. Trimble, George R. 1970. Twenty years of intensive uneven-aged management. Res. Stout, Susan L; Nyland, Ralph D. 1986. Role of Pap. NE-154. Upper Darby, PA: U.S. species composition in relative density Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, measurement in Allegheny hardwoods. NortheasternForest Experiment Station. 12 p. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 16574579. Trimble, Jr., G.R. 1972, Response to croptree release by 7-year-old stems of yellow-poplar and black cherry. Res. Pap. NE-253. Broomali, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 10 p. Trimble, Jr. G. R. 1974. Response to crop tree US. Department of Agriculture, Forest Setvice. release by 7-year-old stems of red maple 1983. Silvicultural systems for the major stump sprouts and northern red oak forest types of the United States. Agric. advance reproduction. Res. Pap. NE-303. Handb. 445. Washington, DC: US. Broomall, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 191 Forest Service, Northeastern Forest P. Experiment Station. 6 p. Wendel, G. W. 1977. Longevity of black cherry, Trimble, George R.; McGee, C. E. 1973. Natural wild grape, and sassafras seed in the regeneration of central Appalachian forest floor. Res. Pap. NE 375. Broomall, hardwoods in West Virginia. In: PA: US. Department of Agriculture, Forest Proceedings, 1st annual hardwood Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment symposium of the Hardwood Research Station. 6 p. Council; 1973 May 2-5; Cashiers, NC. New Orleans, LA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Wendel, G. W.; Kochenderfer, J. N. 1982. Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Glyphosate controls hardwoods in West Station: 45-57. Virginia. Res. Pap. NE-497. Broomall, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Tuley, Graham. 1985. The growth of young oak Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment trees in shelters. Forestry. 58: 181-1 95. Station. 7 p.

US. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. Wingard, R. G.; George, J. L; Palmer, W. L. 1981. 1969. Suggested guide for weed control - Alleviating deer damage to Pennsylvania 1969. Agric. Handb. 332. Washington, DC: agriculture. Final Report. University Park, US. Department of Agriculture, Forest PA: Report to Pennsylvania Department of Service. 70 p. Agriculture, School of Forest Research; Pennsylvania State University. 48 p. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 1979. Uneven-aged silviculture and Wolf, Wilber E. Jr. 1980. One approach to management in the United States. hardwood forest regeneration. Washington. DC: U.S. Department of Pennsylvania Forests. 70:8-9, 20. Agriculture, Forest Service, Timber Management Research. 234 p. PART 11--SILVICULTURAL GUIDELINES

This section provides guidelines, decision inefficient, but stands as smalt as 3 to 5 acres charts, and step-by-step instructions for may be practical on small properties. There are determining silvicultural prescriptions in hardwood seldom areas of uniform stand condition covering stands in the Allegheny Plateau and Allegheny more than 50 to 100 acres, and stands larger than Mountain sections of Pennsylvania, New York, this may be undesirable under even-age Maryland, and West Virginia. The process management since very large reproduction cuts involves three distinct steps: are undesirable for visual reasons.

1. stand examination-lo determine present In areas of heavy deer browsing, very small condition of the overstory and understory and stands should generally be avoided, as should possible site limitations; long, narrow ones, for these tend to be browsed very heavily. 2. stand analysis--to assess the stand's density, structure, stage of maturity, and potential for Select Sampling Scheme future growth or regeneration; and After determining the stand boundaries, select 3. stand prescription--to select the silvicultural a sampling scheme. The sampling scheme should techniques to be used to meet the ensure that the plots are well distributed management objectives, and to provide throughout the stand and that plot locations are detailed instructions on the application of set without bias. A systematic sample using those treatments to the particular stand. predetermined cruise lines, with sample plots at fixed intervals along the lines, is usually easiest. STAND €XAMINATION Cruise lines should generally cross Sample Cruise topographic features, rather than be parallel to them. A single cruise line through a stand seldom Determine Stand Boundaries provides adequate coverage; two or more lines are usually required to ensure a representative The first step in examining a stand is to sample. Cruise lines should be kept a't least 75 determine the stand boundaries. They should be feet from open boundaries such as roads and set primarily to keep the stand as uniform as power lines, and overstory plots should be at possible in composition, age, structure, least 100 feet apart to avoid overiap. regeneration potential, and site quality. Consideration should also be given to ease of The number of cruise lines, the spacing future management. If the boundaries coincide between them, and the spacing between plots on with easily recognized features of the terrain, field a line must be set so as to obtain enough work will be more efficient and the stand more samples to provide accurate estimates for the readily reidentified in the future. Stand units are stand. The number of plots required to keep the usually identified first from aerial photographs and standard error within desired limits can be later are checked and adjusted on the ground as calculated if data on variances are available. needed. However, we have found that the critical overstory parameters (total basal area, species composition, Stand area is dictated largely by the stand stand diameter, relative density) can usually be conditions-the amount of uniform condition estimated within 10 percent standard error, 95 available in one block. It is desirable to have times out of 100, with beween 10 and 25 plots, each stand large enough to provide a reasonably depending upon variability in the stand. Adequate eflicient field operation by itself. On large assessments of regeneration (numbers of ownerships, stands less than 10 acres may prove desirable advance seedlings, amount of undesirable understory) are more variable, requiring about twice as many understory plots as the data. Do not move it into areas of good overstory plots. timber either, for the same reason.

As a rule of thumb, we suggest a minimum of Overstory Data Collection 10 overstory plots in stands that have relatively uniform conditions (such as young, previously Overstory data collection involves the uncut and fully stocked stands), and a minimum sampling of overstory basal area by species, size, of 15 overstory plots in stands that have less and quality. For most purposes, we recommend uniform conditions (such as previously cut, older, a variable-radius (prism) cruise. Two tally forms or understocked stands). For stands greater than that provide spaces for these and all other data to 20 acres, take an additional overstory plot for be collected in the stand inventory are shown in every additional 8 to 10 acres. Figures 2a and 2b. Figure 2a is used when the data summary is to be done by computer. Figure The easiest way to obtain the desired number 2b is used when the data summary is to be done of understory plots is to locate the cruise lines manually. If in doubt, use the computer tally and overstory plot centers first. Each overstory form, since data on it can be transferred to the plot center will also be an understory plot center. manual tally form, but the reverse is not true. In addition, take an extra understory plot half-way between each of the combined Basal Area Tally overstory-understory plot locations. This will provide twice as many understory plots as At each overstory plot, a wedge prism overstory plots, and ensure an adequate sample. (10-factor prism is recommended) is used to obtain a basal area tally of all trees 1.0 inch d.b.h. An extra hour or so spent in the office laying or larger. Trees intercepted by the prism are out cruise lines on a map or aerial photograph of recorded by species, diameter, and quality. If the the property will often save many miles and hours data are to be processed by computer and of unproductive walking. Attempt to select a accurate sawlog volume estimates are desired, stand or group of stands that make a logical merchantable sawlog height, grade, and defect day's work, then lay out the cruise lines so that should also be recorded for all sawtimber-size the end point of one stand corresponds to the trees. beginning point of the next stand. Often, it is also possible to fay out the entire day's work in a Com~uterOverstow Tallv Form - On the circular route so that you finish the day near the computer tally form, each tree intercepted by the starting point and your vehicle. prism is recorded on a separate line. For ease in computer data entry, species is coded. Species In laying out cruise lines, look for checkpoints codes are shown in Table 2. such as road intersections, well openings, utility right-of-ways, streams, and other features that can be used to verify your location. Try to begin each cruise line from such a checkpoint that is easily identifiable both on the ground and on the photo or map. Avoid extremely long cruise lines that cannot be tied into checkpoints of some type every 15 to 20 chains (1,000 to 1,500 feet). It is surprising how far off course you may wander if you do not plan and check yourself carefully.

Once the cruise lines and plots have been drawn on a map or photo of the stand, the field work can begin. A hand compass and pacing are adequate surveying tools to locate the actual on-the-ground plot locations. Be sure to take the plot wherever it falls-do not move plot locations to avoid thick patches of beech brush, slash piles, or other unpleasant conditions, as this would bias Figure 2a. SILVAH - Computer Overstory Tally Form - USDA, Forest Service. NEFES. Warren. PA 1/91

Overstorv Data Stand ID Sheet of Figure 2b. - SILVAH - Manual Overstory Tally Form -

Stand ID

AGS White YeIIob Red Size class 1 ~~~~~~ ash 1 popla maple Saplings 1 Dot

Total Basal area Poles & larger

UGS Black Whiie Yellow Size class I cherry/ ash poplar iaplings 1.0 -. 5.5"

'oles

-- ---

'stal Basal area 'oles & larger iGS + UGS A Poles & laraer Table 2, Species Codes.

Species Forest survey Mnemon ic User-defined Species Forest survey Hnemonie User-defined

Other Softwoods OSU Mountain Magnolia MM Other Hardwoods OHU Tupelo T Balsam Fir BF Water Tupelo' WT E. Red Cedar ERC Black Gum BG Larch L American Sycamore A$ Tamarack TAM Aspen ASP Spruce s Balsam Poplar BP Norway Spruce NS E. Cottonwood EC Uhi te Spruce US Bigtooth Aspen BTA Black Spruce BS Quaking Aspen PA Red Spruce R S Black Cherry BC Pine P Oak 0 Jack Pine JP Uhite Oak UO Red Pine RP Swamp Uhi te Oak SUO Pitch Pine PP Scarlet Oak SO White Pine WP N. Pin Oak NPO Virginia Pine VP S. Red Oak SRO Southern Pine SP Cherrybark Oak CBO N. Uhite Cedar NUC Overcup Oak 00 Eastern Hemlock EH Burr Oak BRO Maple M Blackjack Oak BJO Red Maple * RM Swamp Chestnut Oak SCO Silver Maple SVM Chinkapin Oak C KO Sugar Maple SM Pin Oak PNO Buckeye BUC Chestnut Oak CO Birch B N. Red Oak NRO Yellow Birch YB Shunard Oak SHO Sweet Birch SB Post Oak PO Paper Birch PB Black Oak BO Hickories H Black Locust B L Bi tternut Hickory BH Ui llow U Pignut Hickory PH American Basswood BAS Pecan PCN Elm E Shellbark Hickory SLH American Elm AE Shagbark Hickory SGH Slippery Elm SE Mockernut Hickory MH Rock Elm RE Hackberry HAC Boxelder Maple BEM Ye1 lowwood YU Striped Maple STM Persimnon PER Devils walkng. Stick DWS American Beech A8 Serviceberry SVB Ash A Blue Beech BB Whi te Ash W A Dogwood DOG Black Ash BA Hawthorn HAW Green Ash GA Ironwood OST Honey Locust H L Pin Cherry PC Butternut BUT Choke Cherry CC Black Walnut BW Sassafras SAS Sweetgum SG Mountain Ash MTA Yellow-Poplar YP Ai lanthus ONC Cucumbert ree CUC Other Non-Comn AIL Diameter breast height may be measured or sawlog heights encountered in stands in estimated. If measured, either 1- or Pinch d.b.h. northwestern Pennsylvania (Fig. 3). Estimates of classes may be used. If estimated, we merchantable height should be to a point where recommend the use of 2-inch d.b.h. classes. diameter drops below minimum merchantability Accurate estimation of diameters requires standards in your area, or the height at which the practice--often inexperienced workers find it bole breaks up. Merchantable sawlog height is necessary to measure diameters for a day or two written in the column after quality class. until their eye becomes calibrated. Thereafter, occasional checks should suffice, except for Merchantable heights can also be used to get larger trees, which are hard to estimate and a crude estimate of site productivity, by represent substantial value. On the computer tally comparing measured heights to the average form, d.b.h. is written in the column after the heights previously mentioned. However, the site species code. class obtained in this way may be inaccurate if the best trees have already been removed, or if Three quality classes are recognized for use the present vegetation does not reflect the site with computer data summary. Definitions and potential. computer codes for these quality classes are given in Table 3a. Acceptable growing stock For accurate volume determination, there are trees are those that have the potential to qualify several options for recording more complete for sawtimber either now or h the future. Sapling- quality information in the grade and defect and pole-size trees should be classed acceptable columns of the computer tally form. Grade and if they are expected to grow into acceptable trees defect are recorded in columns 5 and 6, in the future. Do not discriminate because of respectively. Codes for tree grades are shown in size--assume that every tree will be allowed to Table 3b. Defect is estimated to the nearest lo%, grow to medium sawtimber size and judge quality and the tens digit recorded (50% defect is on that basis. Sapling-size trees are difficult to recorded as 5). Column 7 is used to record judge effectively; if in doubt, consider them crown condition, specifically with regard to acceptable unless they are of extremely poor defoliation and dieback. It is used in conjunction form. with special silviculturai prescriptions for stands affected by gypsy moth (Lymantrja dispar). Trees Unacceptable growing-stock trees are trees with special value to wildlife may be recorded in that either do not have the potential to contain a column 8--see Table 3c. Further information sawlog or that have some damage, disease, or about computer codes useful on the computer other condition that makes them a poor risk to tally form is found in the SlLVAH User's Guide.? survive for future management. A1 l ncsncommercial species are considered If merchantable sawiog heights are not unacceptable growing stock. Recording dead collected, column 4 can be used to record a trees is optional. This information may be count of trees with the same species, diameter recorded if volume determination of dead trees is class,,and quality. If coiumn 4 is used for counts, desired, as for a salvage sale. On the computer be certain that the overstory cruise type code in tally form, quality class is written in the column the identification block reflects this. following d.b.h.

If accurate sawlog volumes are to be calculated from the inventory data, merchantable sawlog heights (in numbers of 8-foot bolts) should also be recorded for each tree that now contains 2. Marquis, David A.; Ernst, Richard L. User's a sawlog. These merchantable heights will then Guide to SILVAH: A stand analysis, prescription, be used in sawlog-volume calculations. If no and management simulator program for heights are recorded for sawlog trees, heights will hardwood stands of the Alleghenies. In be estimated from equations based on average preparation. Gable 3. Codes for quality, tree grade, and wildlife

Table 3-A. Growing stock quality classes. Table 3-8. Grade specifications* Table 3-C. Wildlife Tree Codes

Code Description Code Description Code Description

1 Factory-lumber log grade 1 1 Acceptable Growing Stock (AGS) - These 1 Potential den tree - live tree with large dead trees are suitable for retention in the stand 2 Factory-lumber log grade 2 branch or broken top that represents a for at least the next 15-year period. They potential den cavity, but tree does not now are trees of commercial species and of such 3 Factory-lumber log grade 3 contain a cavity. form and quality as to be salable for sawtimber products at some future date. 4 Locally-defined log product (such as pallet log, local 2 Existing den trees - live trees with natural or use log, etc.)Construction log grade artificially created hole for den (do not In making this determination, judge each include shallow food excavations made by tree on its own meriis; assume that every 5 Locally-defined bulk product (such as boltwood) pileated woodpeckers. tree will be allowed to grow to sawtimber size even though it is now a small tree in an 6 Pulpwood (contains a minimum of two contiguous 3 Snag with potential cavities - dead or nearly older stand. Saplings are especially difficult 4-foot bolts with minimum top ID of 4.0' and at least dead tree at least 4 inches dbh and at least to judge; most knots, bumps, and stoppers 50% sound) 10 feet tall, but with no visible cavities. will be confined to a small core if the sapling actually grows to larger size, so consider 7 Fuelwood (same as pulpwood, but minimum top ID of 4 Snag trees with existing den - dead or most saplings acceptable. 1 .v) nearly dead trees of same minimum size as 3 above, but containing an existing den If in doubt about the correct quality class for 8 Cull. Tree less than 50% sound, or does not qualify cavity. any tree, consider it acceptable. Many for any of the grades or products listed acceptable trees will be removed if a partial cutting is prescribedfor the stand, so do not 9 Veneer log consider the quality determination a cut-leave tally. * Factory log grades are defined in :

2 Unacceptable Growing Stock (UGS) -These Hanks, Leland F., Glenn L. Gammon, Robert L. Brisbin, trees do not have the potential to make and Everett Rast. 1980. Hardwood log grades and salable sawtimber products in the future. lumber grade yields for factory lumber logs. USDA They may be high risk trees--trees with For. Serv. Res. Pap. NE-468, 92p. disease, damage, or dieback that threatens their sutvlval-or trees of such poor form that Rast, Everett D., David L, Sonderman, and Glenn they just have to be removed regardless of Gammon. 1973. A guide to hardwood log grading. the effect that removal will have on stand USDA For. Sew. Gen, Tech. Rep. NE-1, 32p. structure and species composition.

3 Dead - Standing dead trees. Sawlog Heights

Hemlock White Ash S ruce, Pine pack Cherry Red Maple Red Oak Sugar Maple American Beech

2 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 DBH 1 I Figure 3. Sawlog heights. Top diameter inside bark for hardwoods is 10SH,for softwoods, 8.5".

On the computer tally form, a zero entered in species group are shown on the tally form in the species column of the tally form separates Figure 2b. one plot from the next. A negative 1 (-1) in the species column indicates the end of the last plot Five size classes are recognized on the in the stand. Record this code after the zero. By manual tally form. When using this form, we maintaining each plot separately in this way, it is recommend use of size class breaking points that possible to calculate variances and estimate correspond to 1-inch diameter classes. Thus, sampling error. saplings are trees 1.0 inch d.b.h. to 5.50 inches d.b.h. (1- through 5-inch classes). Poles are Manual Overstorv Tallv Form - On the tally trees 5.51 to 11.50 inches d.b.h. (6- through sheet for manual data summary (Fig. 2b), trees 11 -inch classes). Small sawtimber trees are 11.51 intercepted by the prism are dot-tallied by species to 17.50 inches d.b.h. (12- through 17-inch or group, size class, and quality class. classes). Medium sawtimber trees are 17.51 inches d.b.h. to 23.50 inches d.b.h. (18- through Although it is not necessary to record each 23-inch classes). Large sawtimber trees are 23.51 species individually on the manual tally form, they inches d.b.h. and larger (24-inch class and larger). must be separated into groups that permit calculation .of relative stand density, sprouting Two quality classes are recognized on the potential, seed source index, and shade tolerant manual tally sheet. Acceptable growing-stock composition. The required species. within each (AGS) trees are those defined as code 1 from Table 3a. Unacceptable growing-stock trees deflection is altered and a cumulative error is (UGS) are those defined as code 2 from Table 3a. introduced.

There is no convenient way to record o Overfamiliarity. Experienced foresters merchantable heights on the manual tally form. sometimes go through the motions of making If accurate merchantable heights are needed, we a prism count without actually looking through recommend that the data be tallied on the the prism. Avoid subconsciously deciding computer tally form, and that the basal area data whether the tree is in or out until you have later be transferred to the other form for manual checked it with the prism. summary. o Borderline trees. Improper ctassification of No provision is made for separating plots on borderfine trees (trees that you cannot the manual tally form; data from all plots are positivefy identify as in or out through the combined in the dot tally. But the number of prism) seems to be a major source of error. plots sampled must be recorded. Make a check The most accurate procedure is to measure mark (or record total number of trees intercepted the distance to the tree centetiine and its by the prism) in the boxes provided for this d.b.h. With a 10-factor prism, if the distance purpose. If numbers of trees per plot are in feet is more than 2.75 times the diameter in recorded rather than a check mark, sampling inches, the tree is out; otherwise it is in. A error for total basal area can be calculated. 75-foot automatic return tape that can be clipped to the belt will facilitate such checks. Overstory Procedural Errors If pressures to get the job done preclude checking the borderfine trees, we recommend Even though most foresters are experienced counting each such tree as a half-tree. in wedge prism tallies, procedural errors often lead to inaccurate overstory data. Although the Half-trees may be recorded on the computer procedures are simple, they are also exacting. tally form by adding 5 to the quality class. Most wedge prism errors tend to be cumulative, Thus, an acceptable growing-stock bordetiine rather than compensating. Some common errors tree is tallied as 6 in the quality column. The to avoid are: computer summarization program will interpret this as a half-tree. On the manual o lnaccrrrate prism. Many nominal 10-factor tally form, record half-trees with an X rather prisms, especially less expensive ones, are than a dot. not actually 10 factor. Some are off by more than a whole factor, so check yours for o Small trees. In tallying the basal area, one accuracy and do not use one that is not precaution is especially important: Do not correctly calibrated. You can check a overtook the small trees. The guide to relative 10-factor prism quickly by sighting on a target stand density is based on all trees that are 1.0 that is exactly 12 inches wide. The target inch in d.b.h. or larger, and decisions on should look like a borderline tree at exactly 33 appropriate thinning procedures require feet. knowledge of the proportion of the stand in this size class. If the small trees are o Sloppy procedure. The prism and not the overlooked or deliberately ignored, the guides observer must be kept over the center point will give you a wrong answer. Including these of the plot. It usually helps to rest the prism small trees does not add appreciabty to the on a range pole (the plot center pole) and time required for the overstory tally, since rotate around it. The prism must also be held relatively few such trees are picked tap in the level and vertical (except where tilted 10-factor prism cruise, especially in stands purposely to compensate for slope or leaning more than 40 years old. trees). If the prism is tilted side to side or front to back on level ground, horizontal Understory Data Collection There are two ways in which understory data can be collected: a condensed, or checkmark, Understory data are collected at the same tally and an expanded, or estimated count, tally. time and using the same plot centers as for the overstory. Additional plots located between Expanded regeneration tally overstory plots will also be needed to obtain an adequate sample. At locations where both The expanded regeneration tally, which overstory and understory data are collected, tally includes estimates of seedling numbers, the understory data first to avoid errors in (Regeneration Cruise Type Code 2 on the estimation resulting from trampling of vegetation. Identification Block) is the recommended Understory data are recorded on the ID & Regen understory data collection procedure. With this Tally Form (Fig. 31, regardless of which form is procedure, data are collected in the form of used for overstory data collection. estimated weighted counts, by species groups. These data can be interpreted at different levels of Most of the understory data will be collected deer density, so that the entire range of on a 6-foot radius plot. This size was selected prescriptions described here, including because it approximates the ground area prescriptions for fencing to reduce deer pressure occupied by a single tree when the tree first on regeneration, can be evaluated. reaches merchantable (pulpwood) size. Guides to the numbers of seedlings required per 6-foot plot at various times in the regeneration process The variables to be recorded are described have been developed to assure that there is at below. The shaded rows on the regeneration tally least one stem per 6-foot plot when the stand first form (rows 4, 6,8, 14) are not used during the reaches merchantable size--thus assuring full tally, but are completed as pafi of the data stocking. summary process as described beginning on p 47. Although it may seem necessary at first to make a time-consuming count to determine the Small Advance Reaeneration -- Small number of appropriate-size seedlings on each advance regeneration will be recorded as the plot, this is seldom necessary. With a little weighted number of established seedlings in each experience, the numbers can be estimated on of several species groups. These groups include: most plots without actual counting. Many plots black cherry, small oak (oak seedlings less than will be either abundantly stocked or extremely 4.5' tall), other desirable species, and large oak sparse, and seedlings that are large enough to (oak seedlings over 4.5' tall). Other desirable count will be readily visible from a standing species usually include sugar maple, red maple, position. Those that you must kneel down to find white ash, yellow-poplar, cucumbertree, and are generally too small to count anyway. basswood. In some localities, beech, birch, hickory, hemlock, white pine, and other species Because fern and grass coverage is often may be added to the list of desirable species. spotty, and evidence of site limiting factors is not Likewise, red maple, chestnut, scarlet, and black always obvious, it is best to use a larger plot size oaks may be considered desirable in some for evaluations of these items. A plot size of localities. While the list of species that are one-twentieth of an acre (26.4-foot radius) is considered desirable may vary slightly among convenient. geographic areas and ownerships, it is important that such a list be developed and applied consistently so that results are comparable from stand to stand. Figure 4. SlLVAH - ID & Regen Tally Form .I USDA. Forest Service. NEFES. Worren. PA l/9 1 Identification Data

Sheet of

Notes

Regeneration Data Advance seedlings of the first three species Residuals -- If there is a sugar maple, beech, groups are weighted by height and vigor. or hemlock tree 3 to 10 inches d.b.h of Seedlings that are less than 2 inches tall, have acceptable quality to retain as a timber residual, fewer than two norma!-size leaves, or that still record the species code of that tree in the bear cotyledons should not be counted. Larger residuals box. Acceptable quality trees for timber and more vigorous seedlings between 2 inches residuals have at least moderately good crowns and 1 foot tall are counted as one seedling, and in the intermediate or higher crown class, and seedlings over 1 foot tall are counted as two clear straight boles free of branches, epicormics, seedlings. Thus, 10 black cherry seedlings, 2" to or other defects for at least the first 17 feet. 1' tall, plus 5 seedlings over 1' tall would be Particular attention should be paid to epicormic recorded as 20 seedlings (10 plus 5 x 2). branches; trees with more than one or two Weighting is not used for the large oak category. epicormics on the butt log should not be considered acceptable quality for timber residuals. Exact counts are not required. When there Less tolerant species 8 to 12 inches d.b.h that are relatively few seedlings of a particular species meet the standards above may also be recorded group present on a plot (perhaps 10 or less), a here by species code if they are desired as timber quick count is possible. But with larger numbers, residuals. counting is time-consuming and unnecessary. Furthermore, the accuracy required is less when Do not record trees that might be left for there are large numbers of seedlings. For wildlife or other purposes here, unless they qualify example, the difference between 10 and 20 for timber residuals as described above. seedlings is quite important, but the difference Residuals for these other purposes will be between 100 and 110 seedlings is evaluated from the overstory data. inconsequential. We suggest that you strive to estimate and record to the following numbers: 5, Sa~linaReaeneration -- If there are at least 2 10,15,20,25,30,40,50,60,75,100,200, 200+. stems of commercial species 0.5 to 2 inches To record an estimate of 15, there should be at d.b.h, or at least one stem 2 to 6 inches d.b.h on least 15 seediings, but fewer than 20 seedlings. the 6-foot-radius plot, record the species code of the dominant stem in the sapling regeneration We have found that it requires a day or two of box. Saplings to be counted here are stems of a counting seedlings to gain enough experience to distinctly different age than those in the overstory estimate weighted numbers accurately. -- usually ones that originated after a heavy Thereafter, an experienced person can record all cutting within the past 25 years or so. understory information in a few minutes on most plots. Do not count 0.5- to 2-inch stems of species that would be considered woody interference. Understory conditions are highly variable in Small beech root suckers are a prime example. many stands. Often, the numbers of advance Trees that qualify as both residuals and as sapling seedlings will span the range from totally absent regeneration may be counted in both places. to abundant in a single stand that has a reasonably uniform overstory. Because of this, it When there is more than one stem that is far more important to use a large number of qualifies as sapling regeneration, record the understory plots welldistributed over the stand species code of the one that is most likely to area than it is to achieve great accuracy in the become the dominant tree if the overstory is counts on each individual plot. The proportion of removed. This will usua%iybe the tree that is stand area with critical levels of understo~y currently the largest. vegetation is the important factor. So estimates of numbers taken quickly will provide aaequate Woodv Interference - Woody interference is data if the number and distribution of plots is recorded as the weighted number of stems of all adequate. species of woody interfering plants. These include: beech, striped maple, sourwood, dogwood, sassafras, blackgum, elm, Soil sampfes are neither feasible nor hophornbeam, and btue beech. necessary for this determination. Site limitations should be evaluated on the basis of surface Weighting is done in a manner similar to that conditions. used for small advance regeneration. Count all stems less than d foot tall as 1 stem; count all Poorly drained soils are those where a water stems over 1 foot tall as 2 stems. Count clumps table persists very close to the soif surface during of beech root suckers that originate from the all or most of the dormant season. Such soils same node as one stem. usually have prominent mottling at depths ranging from 1 to 8 inches beneath the surface. But since Laurel and Rhododendron -- Record the soil examination is usualfy not feasible during the presence of laurel and rhododendron on the 6- stand inventory, drainage must be estimated from foot-radius ptot in one of four categories. 1 = landscape position, relief, and indicator plants. herre1 or Rhododendron present, but less than 1 Some indicators of poorly drained soils are: foot high and covering less than half of the plot area; 2 = present on less than half the plot area, o Landscape position and relief. On the but more than 1 foot tatl; 3 = present on more Plateau, look for poor soil drainage in than half of the plot area but less than 1 foot ta11;4 concave positions of broad flat plateau tops, = present on more than half the plot area and in upland bottoms, and at the base of slopes. more than 1 foot tall. Low topography is more likely to be poorly drained than high topography. Convex -Fern -- Record an ocular estimate of the topographic configuration generally indicates percentage of the 1/20 acre ptot surface area well- or moderately welldrained soils. In covered by fern foliage, when viewed from directly valley bottoms, soil drainage becomes poorer above the plot. Count all ferns that grow as from the stream channel towards the base of individual fronds from the ground level. Ferns slopes. Concave and low-lying areas in that grow in solitary clumps may be ignored, or if bottoms are especially likely to be poorly abundant, may be recorded at hatf their actual drained, as are toes of slopes with many value. Thus, spinulose wood fern clumps seeps. covering 30 percent of the plot surface could be recorded as 15, while hayscented or New York o Standing water in depressions and wet fern fronds, which arise as individual fronds from surface soils during the dormant season, and an underground rhizome, would be recorded at during periods of normal rainfall in the the observed value. summer and early fall.

Grass -- Record an ocular estimate of the o Presence of wet-site plants such as sedges, percentage of the 1/20 acre plot surface covered rushes, sphagnum moss, sensitive fern, by foliage of any grass or sedge. interrupted fern, cinnamon fern, skunk cabbage, false hellebore, and marsh marigold. Gra~evines - Record the number of grapevines in the crowns of any tree on the o Very deep spongy humus layers at the soif 1/20-acre plot. surface.

Site Limitations -- Record a code value in the Stony areas can be recognized after a little Site Limits row for each 1/20-acre plot on which experience. Look for the stone layer beneath the there is any evidence of either poor soil drainage forest floor in road cuts. Large sandstone or high stone content in the surface soil. Use a outcrops will generally be present somewhere up code of 1 for poor drainage, 2 for rocky surface. slope as well. The hard and uneven feel of the A blank or 0 indicates that there are no site soil surface when walked upon is a sure indicator limitations on that plot. of many surface stones. Checkmark Regeneration Tally for identifying acceptable residual trees are listed in the procedures for the expanded regeneration Some users may prefer to make some tally. understory data summary judgments in the Anv reaen or Res - Make a checkmark in this woods, thus reducing inventory time. The row (row 8) for each plot that contains a checkmark regeneration tally procedure (coded checkmark in row 6 or row 7. as Regen Cruise Type 1 in the Identification Data block) is designed for these users. Because Saolina Reaeneration - Make a checkmark in judgments about the adequacy of stocking at the sapling regeneration row (row 9) for each plot each plot are made in the woods for the ambient that contains at least 2 stems of commercial deer pressure, users who choose this option species between 0.5 and 2.0 inches d.b.h. or at forego fencing prescriptions. Prescriptions least one stem 2.0 through 6.0 inches. The including fencing are based on a reevaluation of criteria for identifying trees to be counted as the expanded regeneration tally data for a Deer sapling regeneration are listed in the procedures lmpact lndex of 1. for the expanded regeneration tally.

At each understory plot, make a judgment Interference - The determinations for these about the adequacy of advance regeneration and checkmarks are based on a 1/20-acre plot. Table the severity of interference problems. This 5 (p. 46) gives the critical values for each judgment is made using the criteria in Tables 4 (p. category of interference (Rows 10 - 13 and 15 of 45) and 5 (p. 46), for the appropriate level of deer the Regeneration Data form). Make a checkmark pressure. These are the criteria used for in the fern row, for example, if 30 percent of the summarizing data collected using the expanded surface area of the larger plot is covered by fern regeneration tally procedure. If the stocking of the foliage. For laurei and rhododendron (row 11) plot exceeds the criiical value in these tables, make a checkmark if the plot qualifies for a code make a checkmark. 4 or an X if the plot qualifies for a code 2 or 3 (see codes on p 39). This alternate mark (X) Small Advance Reaeneration - The expanded represents "half-stocking" with this form of regeneration tally procedures explain how to interference. arrive at an estimated weighted count of advance regeneration for each category on the ID & Regen Anv interference - Make a checkmark in the Tally Sheet. Table 4 (p. 45) gives the critical Any interference row (row 14) for any plot that values for each advance regeneration species has a checkmark in rows 10 - 33. If the only group (Rows 1 - 5 of the Regeneration Data form) checkmark in these rows is a half-stocking mark for each level of deer pressure. All desirables for laurel and rhododendron, make a half-stocking include the black cherry, small oak, and other mark in the Any interference row. desirables group. if the Deer lmpact lndex is 4, for example, make a checkmark in the black Site limitations - Make a checkmark in this row cherry row for any plot with a weighted count of (row 16) for each 1/20-acre plot on which there is 25 or more black cherry seedlings. If the Deer any evidence of either poor soil drainage or high lmpact lndex is 3, make a checkmark in the other stone content in the soil. See the expanded desirable row for any plot with a weighted count regeneration tally for a complete discussion of the of 50 other desirable seedlings. conditions to be tallied in this row.

Anv small reaen - For each plot that receives identification Data a checkmark in row 1, 2, 4, or 5, make a checkmark in the Any small regen row (row 6). The identification data block contains information needed to identify the stand, Residuals - Make a checkmark in the information on the cruise procedures used, and Residuals row (row 7) for each plot that contains basic data on stand and site factors and at least one acceptable residual tree. The criteria management goals. Some of these items come from other sources, such as management plans, sol-site maps, aerial photographs, and wildlife Tally Month and Year -- Enter month and year of agency reports. The identification block is the inventory. same for both Tally Forms. Many of the items in the Stand ldentification block of the Tally Forms Overstorv cruise Twe -- Enter code value for are optional. These are recorded for the use of overstory cruise type: the landowner or land manager only. In the text 1 - Prism cruise, individual trees, height that follows, these items are described in smaller recorded in column 4, plots recorded type- separately. Either record grades for all trees or record grades for none of the Stand Identification trees. See also code 7. 2 - Prism cruise, individual trees, counts Owner/Aaency --List the owner or administering recorded in column 4, ptots recorded agency. For example: USDA Forest Service; separately. Pennsylvania Bureau of Forestry; Hammerrnill 3 - Prism cruise, dot tally, all plots tallied Paper Company; John Doe. together. Useful for computer processing of data recorded on Overstory Tally - Forest/Pro~ertv-- List the name or identification of Manual Summary form. the property. For example: Allegheny 4 - Fixed area cruise, individual trees, height National Forest; Elk State Forest; McKean-15; recorded in column 4, plots recorded South Woodlot. separately. Either record grades for all trees or record grades for none of the Countv/District -- List county or district in which trees. See also code 8. property is located, if desired, or other 5 - Fixed area cruise, individual trees, count information needed to identify it. recorded in column 4, plots recorded separately. Com~artmentlUnit-- List compartment or other 6 - Fixed area cruise, dot tally, all pfots tailied subdivision unit number or name, if there is together (stand table). one. 7 - Prism cruise, individual trees, height recorded in column 4, plots recorded Stand Number -- List stand number, if there is one. separately. Record only major products, that is, cull (grade 8) and sawtimber with Remarks -- Add further identification or description only pulp volume (grade 6). Similar to of the stand, up to 70 characters. code 1, but used where you want accurate volumes and values without Cruise information grading all trees. 8 - Fixed area cruise, individual trees, height S~eciescodes -- Enter code for type of species recorded in column 4, plots recorded codes used (see Tab16 2, p. 31): separately. Record only major products, 1 - mnemonic codes that is, cull and sawtimber with only pulp 2 - userdefined codes volume. Simirar to code 4, blat used 3 - Forest Survey codes where you want accurate volumes and values without grading all trees. d.6. h classes -- Enter code for d. b. h. classes used: 0 - No overstory data 1 - 1 inch classes 2 - 2 inch classes # dots - Enter number of overstory plots tallied in 3 - 5 major size classes (saplings, poles,small this stand. sawtimber, medium sawtimber, large sawtimber) BAFl~totsize -- Enter basal area factor of prism used for prism cruises, or pfot size (in acres) for fixed area cruises. For prism cruises, a 10-factor prism is the default. Reaen cruise Tv~e-- Enter code for type of regen (growth simulated) in the computer, and only for oak cruise: species. 1 - checkrnark regen input Ht. AdL - If merchantable heights arem recorded, and the 2 - expanded regen input (default) merchantable heights calculated by SILVAH do not 0 - no regen data appear to be representative for this site (see Figure 4), the user may insert a value between 0.5 and 1.5 to # dots -- Enter number of regeneration plots adjust the merchantable heights and thereby adjust volumes. tallied. Elev. - Record elevation of stand, in feet above sea level.

Plot size - Enter code for regeneration plot size. Aspect - Record direction toward which the slope faces as an azimuth (degrees from true north) to the nearest degree 1 - 6' radius plot (default) (if aspect is due north, use 360'). 2 - rnilacre plot Slope % - Enter slope percent to nearest 1 percent. Acreaae in Stand -- List total number of acres in the stand. TOPO.position - Record topographic position as one of the following codes: 1 - ridge Stand Aae -- List stand age in years. If stand age 2 - upper slope is unknown, enter 0. If stand is uneven-aged, 3 - mid-slope enter 999. 4 - lower slope 5 - bench 6 - upper flat (Plateau) Stand, Sire, and Management information 7 - bonom

Cover type - List code for cover type, if desired (may be left Operabiiity - Record a subjective estimate of operability of blank]. the stand for timber hawest and other mechanized 1 - forest (default) activities. 2 forest (seedling stand in process of regeneration) - 1 - no limitations 3 - opening 2 - slope, rockiness, or poor drainage limit use of 4 - pasture mechanical equipment 5 - cropland 6 - wetland Access - Record a subjective estimate of the accessibility of 7 - water the stand as it may affect timber and wildlife 8 - urban management. 9 - unproductive 1 - road within or at edge of stand suitable for travel by two-wheel drive vehicles and log trucks Habitat me List code for habitat or ecological land type. - 2 - road within or at edge of stand passable only by (resewed for use in future wildlife enhancement any - 4-wheel drive vehicles value entered here will simply be printed on the output) 3 - no existing roads within or at edge of stand, but there are roads within 7 mile of stand Soil Wpe Record a code for soil type. (resewed for use in - 4 - no roads within 1 mile of stand future soils enhancement - any value entered here will simply be printed on the output) Water code - Record the presence of water courses that may be of value to wildlife within the stand, as follows. There Site class record a subjective estimate of site quality here, - is space to record two codes if more than one type of if desired. The coded values are: water course is present. If more than two are found, 0 - none (default) record the two most important. 1 - high site 1 - spring seep 2 average site - 2 creek/stream < 15' across 3 low site - - 3 - creek/stream > 15' across 4 - marsh (little or no open water) Site species record species code for species used in site - 5 - swamp (standing live trees) index determination. Use the same species codes as 6 pond (< 1 acre) used for overstory data. - 7 - lake (> 1 acre) Site Index record site index value for this stand, based upon - W/I 1 mile Record the acreage or presence of the following age and height measurements of at least 10 dominant - habitat types within 1 mile oi the stand perimeter: and dominant trees of the site species listed above. Site index is required only if the stand is to be projected CC- acreage in clearcut areas (stands cut within past 10 moth damage. wflefe expenses for sprayiw may years and stilt in the process of regenerating to be justified in stands of high value. Gypsy moth trees) -pikms are not currently implemented in the cultivation - acres in cultivated farm crops SlLVAH program. open - acres in pastures, failed clearcuts, and similar O - not observed openings t - high value water - code for type of open water (ponds, lakes, 2 - medium value streams > 15' wide - see codes above) 3 - low value

Manaaement Goafs -- It is assumed that timber Deer lmoact fndex - An estimate of the amount production is an important goal of of browsing pressure that deer are likely management for any stands being prescribed to exert on regeneration is essential for under the SILVAH system. Visual goals are proper prescription. This deer pressure is also considered. Enter one of the following an index that may be read from Figure 5 codes to indicate restrictions that visual goals which shows deer impact as a function of may impose on timber cutting activities. deer population and amount of available 1 - no restrictions on cutting methods for food in the one square mile area visual reasons (default) surrounding the stand in question. 2 - either even- or uneven-age silvicultural systems may be used, but clearcutting is Data to use this chart can be obtained in not acceptable as a final harvest cutting a number of ways. Deer populations are method for visual reasons best obtained from a pellet count census 3 - uneven-age silvicultural systems are in the vicinity of the stand. Such desired to maintain mature forest canopy censuses are time consuming, and can at all times, but maximum timber only be done in the spring, making it production feasible under this system is impractical to do on an individual stand desired. basis. However, a few sample censuses 4 - uneven-age silviclalture is desired to done once every 3 or 4 years will provide maintain a mature forest cover at all a useful guide to deer populations within times. Timber production is less the working area of a forest district or important than above, and visual goals county. If pellet-count data are not cafl for the maintenance of very large available, estimates of the deer trees on the area at alt times, and the population within a deer management avoidance of canopy openings. zone can usually be obtained from the state game agency. Selection of goals 1 or 2 above will usually lead to an even-age silvicuitural system, and wifl tend to Estimates of deer food availability must maximize timber production by maintaining a high be made on a subjective basis at present. proportion of shade intolerant species. Although Evidence of low deer food availability wildlife goals are not specifically stated, these include: a distinct browse line; goals will tend to favor wildlife species that substantial numbers of browsed stems; depend on early successional vegetation, and will large areas dominated by browse- generally maximize wildlife diversity. resistant or less-preferred browse species (beech, striped maple, fern, asters, etc.); Selection of goals 3 or 4 will lead to an uneven- extensive areas of unbroken forest with age silvicultural system, and will tend to produce little or no cultivated cropland within one moderate timber yields by favoring a high mile of the stand; a preponderance of proportion of shade tolerant species. These goals pole-sized and unthinned sawtimber wilt atso tend to favor wildlife species that depend stands and a limited area in regenerating on late successionaf vegetation. cfearcuts within a mile of the stand; limited diversity of plant species in the Mana~ementValue - Relative value of this stand for the understory or in regenerating harvest management goal listed. Thii menagement value cuts; limited presence of woodland is usad only in prescriptions that involve gypsy Effect on Deer Impact

Failure Very High (5) Monoculture High (4) Species Shift Moderate (3) Success Low (2) Excess Very Low Competition (1)

6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 Deer Population -- no./sq. mile igure 5. Deer impact index. flowering plants; historical knowledge of deer lush understories and vigorous regeneration of a problems in the area; evidence of poor antler wide variety of species, including preferred development, low deer weight, an average of 1.2 browse species; abundant woodland flowers; a fawns per doe or less, and significant winter preponderance of recent harvest cuts and thinned starvation. If deer food availability is low, but a sawtimber stands within a 1 mile radius (with large amount of harvesting will be scheduled areas in these two types of harvesting that meet within 1 mile of the stand in question, use the or exceed the area combinations given above); medium deer food availability level in determining cultivated cropland nearby; and a healthy deer deer impact. Combinations of final removal cuts herd with high deer weights, trophy antler and thinnings that qualify as a large amount of development, and a preponderance of twins and harvesting include the following percentages of triplets during fawning. the total area: a) 5% final removal cuts plus 45% thinning; b) 10% final removal cuts plus 30% Code deer impact index as foltows: thinning; c) 15% final removal cuts plus 15% 1 - very low (as in a well-maintained thinning; d) 20% final removal cuts. deer exclosure) 2 - low Evidence of high deer food availability are 3 - moderate the opposite of those described above: 4 - high (default) 5 - very high Now, compare the critical levels shown in Gypsv Moth -An estimate of the imminence of gypsy moth Table 4 below for this deer impact index to the defoliation is necessary if -ptions are to observed value for each of the small advance incorporate integrated pest management recommendationsfwgypsyd. Gypsyd regen criteria. Count the total number of plots that presaiptions are not currently implen- in the meet or exceed the critical value, and record it on SlLVAH program. The categories are: the tally form in the # column. Q - unknown or unimportant (default) 1 - defoliation not expected for 3 to 5 years or more Table 4. Number of seedlings required for regen 2 - defoliation expected within 3 to 5 years plots to be stocked for different levels of deer 3 - defoliation has already occurred within past 1 pressure. to 3 years

-Stress - An estimate of the kind and degree of Deer stress that this stand may have experienced during Impact the past 5 to 10 years. I &ex 1 - none (default) 2 - thinning, or minor drought-ice-storm damage, or minor insectdisease outbreak that reduced stand density to no less than 50 percent 3 - thinning, drought-ice-storm damage, or insect-disease outbreaks that reduced stand density below 50 percent

STAND ANALYSIS

Once the stand examination is finished, the data can be summarized to get a complete picture of present stand condition and provide the basis for writing a prescription. Computer programs are available to do the entire data For example, in an area with deer impact summary and prescription writing chore. index of 4,25 black cherry seedlings are required However, a computer is not necessary--the data for a 6-foot-radius plot to be considered can be readily summarized on a hand caiculator. adequately stocked. Scan the fieid tally sheet and Both manual and computer data summary count the plots that have 25 or more black cherry procedures are described in the following seedlings. You may find it convenient to circle sections, beginning with the manual summary. the numbers of seedlings on any plot that have the required stocking; then count the numbers of plots with circles. Record this number in the black cherry advance seedling row, under the # Manual Data Summary column. Do the same for small oak, other desirables, and Large oak. Understory Data Summary Also, count the number of plots that have The understory data from both the entries in the residuals or sapling regen rows, and checkmark regeneration tally and the expanded record the totals in the # coiumn. regeneration tally can be summarized directly on the ID & Regen Tally Form (Fig. 4) in the Now compare the critical fevds of summary cofumns provided. interference shown in Table 5 to the obsewed values for each of the interference categories. Exoanded reaeneration taflv data summary - Count the number of plots that meet or exceed Note the total number of understory plots and the the critical values, and record the totals in the # deer impact index appropriate for this stand. column. If any of the plots were coded 2 or 3 in the Laurel and Rhoddendron row (row 131, you should count those plots as half-stocked. Again, number of plots that meet the All desirables you may wish to circle the values that exceed the criterion in the # column. critical level to make counting easier. The other three shaded rows on the tally Table 5. Amount of interference required to form are categories that are combinations of consider a plot stocked. observed values. These are Any small regen (row 6), Any regen plus residuals (row 8) and Any Type I Counting Criteria interference (row 14). Woody Interference All plots with 12 The tally sheet shows which rows make up I stems or more each combination. The Any small regen row is a combination of rows 1, 2, 4 and 5 - the Black Fern All plots with at cherry, Small oak, All desirables and Large oak least 30% rows. Any plot that is stocked with any one of coverage these four criteria, is stocked with Any small Grass All plots with at regen. If you circled the stocked plots earlier, least 30% simply count the number of plots that have a coverage circle in of the included rows. Enter this number in the # column. Laurel and Count plots Rhododendron coded 4 as 1; The Any regen plus residuals row (row 8) is count plots a combination of Any small regen (row 6) and coded 2 or 3 as Residuals (row 7). Any plot that is stocked with either of these categories is stocked with Any regen plus residuals. Record the number of Grapevine All plots with at stocked plots in the # column. least 1 vine The Any interference row (row 14) is a combination of Woody lnterference (row lo), fern Next, record the number of plots that have (row 1I), grass (row 12), and laurel and either a 1 or 2 in the site limitations row, and rhododendron (row 13). Any plot that is stocked record the total in the # column. with any of these categories of interference is stocked with Any interference. If the only There are four shaded rows on the tally form. interference on a plot is half-stocking with laurel These are calculated in the office, as described or rhododendron (codes 2 or 3). then the plot is below. considered half-stocked with Any interference. Record the number of plots stocked with Any The All desirables category (row 4) is the interference in the # column. total of the numbers in the black cherry, small oak, and other desirables categories. Some plots NOW, calculate the percentaae of plots may not have sufficient numbers in any one meeting the minimum criterion for each factor. category to be considered stocked in that Simply divide the number of plots observed as category, but the total weighted number of black meeting the criterion (in the # column) by the cherry, small oak, and other desirable seedlings total number of plots, and multiply by 100. may be large enough to consider that plot Record the result in the % column. stocked with all desirable seedlings. To make this determination, simply sum the values in rows 1,2, There is one final determination needed for and 3 in each column, and write the sum in the some prescriptions. This is the small regen All desirables row (row 4). Then compare this stocking that would be achieved if deer were not value with the.critical value in Table 4 for the a problem; that is, if a fence were erected to appropriate deer impact index. Record the total exclude deer. Fewer advance seedlings are required inside a fence, since none are lost to deer browsing there. To determine the Any small Record the AGS subtotal below the AGS block regen stocking at very low deer impact, go back and the UGS total below the UGS block, and through rows I, 2, 3, 4, and 5 to determine how accumulate these into the AGS+UGS total row many plots are stocked using the criteria for a near the bottom of the form. deer impact index of I. Record ihis number, and calculate the percentage as before. Do the same The next set of overstory summary for any regen or residuals using the lower deer procedures are completed using the Manual impact index. Record these percentages on the Overstory Summary form (Fig. 6). The first step Prescription Summary Worksheet (Fig. 7). in these calculations is to transfer total basal areas for each size/quality/species group cell Checkmark reaeneration tallv summary -- from the Manual Overstory Tally Form to the When the understory tally has been conducted Manual Overstory Summary form. These values using the checkmark tally procedures, most of the represent totals across the individual species that summary has been completed at each plot. For have the same relative density factor. For all the unshaded rows on the tally sheet, simply example, in the AGS/Saplings/BC-WA-YP cell, count the number of checkmarks and record this record the total basal area of any acceptable number in the # column. saplings of black cherry, white ash, and yellow poplar. Now, calculate the percentaae of plots meeting the minimum criterion for each factor. To calculate the average relative density in Simply divide the number of plots observed as each species/size class, multiply the basal area meeting the criterion (in the # column) by the per acre in that class by the relative density factor total number of plots, and multiply by iOO. (RD f) for that class. The factor is shown in the Record the result in the % column. RD column on the worksheet, below the space in which the relative density value is to be recorded. Overstory Data Summary Repeat for each species-size class, entering the result in the corresponding relative density per If field data were recorded on the Computer acre (RD/a) cell. Tally Form (Fig. 2a), the first step is to transfer the basal area information to the Manual Overstory To estimate board-foot votume per acre Tally Form (Fig. 2b) using a dot tally to (International 1/4" Rule), multiply each BA/a times accumulate the prism counts into species or the board-foot conversion factor (BF 0. The groups, size classes, and quality classes. Check BF f is shown in the appropriate place on the the transfer carefully, as we have found that many worksheet. Be sure to multiply by basal area errors are made during this process. rather than the adjacent estimate of relative density. Note that the factors for the black On the Manual Overstory Tally Form, convert cherry, white ash, and yellow-poplar group are the dot tally totals to basal area per acre. First, larger than those for the other two groups. Also calculate a basal area conversion factor. For note that the factors for UGS are half those prism plots, divide the prism factor (10 for a shown for AGS. The factors for UGS are 10-factor prism) by the number of overstory approximations to take into account that some sample points. For fixed area plots, divide the UGS will have sawtimber products and others will number of plots by plot size. Write this value in not. the space provided (3 significant digits are Now, summarize rows and columns to get required for accuracy). Then, multiply the dot the appropriate subtotals and totals of basal area, tally in each species-size class by this conversion relative density, and board foot volume. Sum factor to get basal area per acre in that class. these values over all size classes for each Record these basal area values beneath the dot species/quality group. Then, within each quality tally in each cell. class, sum the BA, RD, and BF volume acaods all species. Finaliy, sum the BA, RD, and BF volume On this form, calculate the total basal area, poles-and larger, for each species or group. down bath qualities to derive the all species, AGS using the basal area in seed-producing trees + UGS totals. (poletimber and larger if done manually, 8 inch and larger if summary is done by Finally, estimate total cordwood volumes by computer). multiplying BA/a times the cordwood conversion factor (CW 9 and enter in the column labeled To calculate the seed source index, transfer CW/a. The CW f is shown in the total block on the basal area in poletimber and larger trees the worksheet. The cordwood values for the from the Manual Overstory Tally Form (Fig. sawtimber sizes indude the volume in sawlogs. 2b) for each of the following species groups: To estimate total cordwood volume in the stand black cherry, white ash, red maple, sugar excluding the sawlogs, divide the total board-foot maple, and al oaks. Write these values in volume by 600 and subtract from the total the portion of the Prescription Summary cordwood volume. Worksheet (Fig. 7) provided for this calculation. These stand summary calculations are easier to do than they are to explain. Basically, the data Note that you must make a subjective summary involves co-nversion of a dot count to decision on sugar maple seed proaiuction. In basal area per acre, then multiplication of the many stands in the Allegheny region, sugar basal area values by conversion factors to get maple occurs as the overtopped species in relative density and volume. Then, these values highly stratified stands in which black cherty are summed by rows and columns. The math is is the dominant species. In these stands, simple, but repetitive. sugar maple seed production is very limited. Maple decline has aggravated the seed Other Stand Parameters production problem with sugar maple in many areas. This situation is most There are a variety of other stand parameters commonly found in northern Pennsylvania, that can be calculated from the overstory and and occasionally elsewhere. In such areas, understory data. Some of these are needed to record the sugar maple basal area in the row determine the appropriate prescription for the marked Sugar maple poor. stand. In areas where sugar maple is abundant in To facilitate these additional calculations and the dominant and codominant classes, and later prescription determinations, a Prescription where maple decline has not affected seed Summary Worksheet is used (Fig. 7). The right production, use the row marked Sugar Maple column on this worksheet lists 17 Prescription good. Variables. The left column contains worksheets that will be used to calculate some of the When all basal area values have been prescription variables. The stand parameters entered, multiply the basal area times the recorded as Prescription Variables on that factor (9 in the preceding column, and worksheet are as fotlows: record the results in the last column. Sum the last column to get an estimate of the Mana~ernentGoal -- Enter code for management number of advance seedlings per acre that goal from 1D & Regen Tally Form (Fig. 4). might be expected to result over the next 5 years under favorable (shelterwood) Deer lmoact Index -- Enter deer pressure index conditions. from ID & Regen Tally Form (Fig. 4). Finally, look up the seed source index in the Seed Source Index - A helpful parameter that lower portion of this work area using the can be estimated from the overstory data is expected number of seedlings per acre just a seed source index, to indicate whether or calculated. Record this index in the not seed sources are likely to limit natural Frescription Variables Column. regeneration. The determination is made An index value of 1 indicates excellent seed Anv small Reaen. no deer -- Enter the percentage production potential, while a value of 4 of plots that meet the stocking requirements indicates very low seed production potential. for a stand with a very low deer impact index. Make the appropriate adjustment for Site Limitations -- Enter the percentage of plots Oak Stump Sprouting. with site limits from the ID & Regen Tally Form (Fig. 4). Anv reaen or Residuals, no deer -- Enter percentage of plots that meet the stocking Anv small Reaen -- The percentage of plots requirements for a stand with a very low deer stocked with any small advance regeneration impact index. Make the appropriate has been calculated on the ID & Regen Tally adjustment for Oak Stump Sprouts. form (Fig. 4). If there are no oaks present, enter this value in the Any small Regen space Sa~IinaReaen - Enter the percentage of plots on the Prescription Summary Sheet. If there stocked with sapling regeneration from the ID are oaks present, you can supplement the & Regen Tally form (Fig. 4). advance seedling regeneration with potential stump sprouts. Estimate the number of Anv Interference -- Enter the percentage of plots sprouts expected using the overstory data for stocked with any interfering plants from the oaks and the Oak Stump Sprouting portion ID & Regen Tally form (Fig. 4). of the Prescription Surnmary Worksheet (Fig. 7). Transfer the BA by size class of northern Sa~linaBasal Area -- Total basal area in sapling red oak and other oaks from the Manual size trees (AGS + UGS, all species) has Overstory Tally form (Fig. 2b). Multiply the already been calculated; transfer the value basal area in each size class by the factor from the Manual Overstory Surnmary form printed on the sheet, repeating this process (Fig 6). for northern red oak and for all other oaks. Total these values to estimate the number of Shade Tolerant Basal Area -- Sum the basal area stumps per acre that will likely contribute in eastern hemlock, American beech, and sprouts to the new stand. sugar maple. Include AGS and UGS, a1 size classes. The values to be summed are on Then, estimate a new value for Any small the Manual Overstory Summary form (Fig. 6), Regen using the table in the Oak Stump and a worksheet is provided in the Shade Sprouting portion of the Prescription Tolerant Composition portion of the Summary Worksheet. Choose the row that Prescription Surnmary Worksheet (Fig. 7). reflects the appropriate level of deer pressure, then find the value closest to the Relative Stand Density -- Relative density for all number of sprouting stumps you just trees in the stand has already been calculated. The number from the Adv. Regen calculated; transfer the value from the Adjustment row of that column is added to Manual Overstory Summary form (Fig. 6). the Any small Regen percent calculated on the ID & Regen Tally Form (Fig. 4). Enter the Relative densitv AGS -- Relative density of the new value in the Any small Regen space in acceptable growing stock trees only has the Prescription Variables column, already been calculated; transfer the value from the Manual Overstory Summary form Anv reaen or Residuals - Enter percentage of (Fig. 6). plots stocked with any advance regeneration or residuals from the ID & Regen Tally Form (Fig. 4). If you made any adjustments to Any regen for oak stump sprouts, be certain to include the adjustment here as well. Figure 6.

- SILVAH - Manual Overstory Summary - Stand ID USDA. Forest Service, NEFES. Warren. FA 1/9 1 AGS

Medium Saws . l-----lLarge Saws All Sizes AGS I Figure 7. r SILVAH - Prescription Summary Worksheet - Stand ID USDA. Forest Service. NEFES. Warren. PA 5/90 Years to Maturity I Prescription Variables Site & Environmental Factors Management Goal

Deer impact index

Seed source index

Site limitations

Understory Factors Yrs. to Mat. = (18 - reg e growth factorm Any small regen 1 Any regen or residuals

Any small regen - no deer 1 Seed Source Index I Any regen or residuals - no deer Sapling regen Any interference I

Overstory Factors Sapling basal area M Seedlings (4) / a -32 1 33-83163-1341 m+ Seed Source lndexl 4 I 3 / 2 I 1 Shade tolerant basal area Relative stand density Shade Tolerant Composition I Species Total basal area Relative density AGS I (MD) American beech 1 Stand diameter Eastern hemlock 1 1 Merch. stand diameter (MDM) I Total I I Years to maturity

Prescription: described for stand diameter, except that the Stand Diameter fMDZ - The average diameter sapling size class is omitted from used throughout this manual is an average of summations in both the numerator and the diameter or size-class midpoints, denominator. Record both diameters on the weighted by the proportion of basal area in Prescription Summary Sheet. This diameter that class. We have found it to be far more may also be calculated on the worksheet on useful for stand management than more Fig. 6. traditional average diameters, such as the arithmetic mean diameter or the quadratic Years to Maturity -- It is helpful to know how mean diameter, as it better reflects the size close a stand is to maturity, .and whether all of the crop trees and is less influenced by species will mature at approximately the small understory trees. This diameter is same time. Using data from about 200 plots, approximately the same as the median we have developed some simple procedures diameter (the diameter at the midpoint of the for estimating these parameters. A basal area distribution). worksheet for calculating years to maturity is provided in the left column of the Average diameter is calculated by multiplying Prescription Summary Sheet (Fig. 7). the midpoint of each size class times the basaf area in that class, summing those values for all size classes, and dividing by the total basal area:

BA, !=I where:

YRS is the number of years to maturity for the There is a worksheet for this purpose on the species group or stand; Manual Overstory Summary form (Fig. 6). Multiply basal area in each class by the MDM is the average diameter of the factor shown underneath, sum, and divide by merchantable-sizetrees in the species group total basaf area. or stand; and

This average diameter can be calculated for GF is a growth factor. Use 0.20 for species in the the entire stand or for selected components black cherry, white ash, yellow-poplar, and such as selected species or size classes. red maple, red oak groups. Use 0.15 for When data have been summarized from species in the sugar maple, beech, and other the manual forms, use the following oaks group. When calculating Years to size-class midpoints to calculate stand Maturity for an entire stand containing both diameter: groups, use an averageGF weighted by the proportion of the basal area in each species Saplings - 3 in. group. That is, transfer the basat area in Poles - 8.5 in. trees of pole size and larger to the worksheet Small Saw - 14.5 in. by species. Sum the basat area over all Medium Saw - 20.5 in. species within each group into the Total Large Saw - 26.5 in. column on the worksheet. Then, multiply each group's total by its factor (0, and sum Merchantable Stand Diameter (MDM) - Enter the these values. Divide the sum by the total average stand diameter of the merchantable basal area in the stand. Use this as the size trees only. This value is calculated as stand growth factor in the above equation. Record years to maturity in the Prescription difficulty, interfering plants, and site Variables column. limitations. There is also a summary of information on site quality, management You now have completed the manual stand goals, and wildlife attributes. analysis, and all of the information you will need to prepare a prescription has been recorded on o Various summaries of the overstory data, the Prescription Summary Sheet. including a table by individual species and diameter classes showing basal area per Computer Data Summary acre. Similar tables of numbers of trees, relative density, cubic-footvolume, board-foot A computer program is available to do the volume, and dollar value can be obtained as entire data summary; it provides a great deal optional additional outputs, as can more information than is feasible to calculate summaries by various species groups, size manually. Raw data from the Computer Overstory or product classes, and quality classes. Tally Form (Fig. 2a) and the ID & Regen Tally Form (Fig. 4) are entered into the program; o A narrative description of the stand, including output includes a complete data summary and a prescription and recommendations on its recomm'ended prescription. implementation. If partial cutting is recommended, a marking guide is provided Data Entry indicating the amount to be cut from each size and quality class. Data are entered directly from the field tally sheet into a computer file using the interactive o A summary of the major overstory program SILVED simply by responding to the parameters for the original, cut, and residual prompts made by the computer. In a similar stands if a partial cut was prescribed. manner, information on the many program options can be saved into a file using the Summary Interpretation interactive SILVAH program. Data summaries, stand analysis, stand prescription, stand By using the summary data just calculated projection, and other functions are also performed (either manually or by computer), you can by S1LVAH. objectively evaluate stand condition. Even a person who has not visited the stand can get a Data Output detailed picture of it by careful study of the data summary. For example, the summary shows: Standard printouts include the following information: o Stand type and species composition.

o Descriptive information on the stand; o Stand size class (based on stand diameter). information on the type of cruise and estimates of the sampling error in overstory o Stand structure (distribution of trees by size basal area, and an indication of the number class). of addkional plots needed to reduce sampling error to within 10 and 15 percent of o Stage of maturity of the stand and each the mean. Warning messages are printed if major species or species group. the number of either overstory or understory plots is too small for accurate estimation. o Relative density and the need for thinning.

o A summary of understory data showing the o Basal areas and volumes per acre. percentage of plots stocked with each category of advance regeneration, plus o Stand quality. information on factors affecting regeneration o Status of advance regeneration. o Possible plant or site factors that could and birch, and should resutt in very little loss due interfere with regeneration after harvest to the overmaturity of the cherry. cutting. Wih 20 years to maturity, there is time to The Appendix contains both manual and schedule a thinning now and an additional computer data summaries of a sample stand that thin-harvest in about 10 years; a illustrate the kind of interpretations one can make harvest-regeneration cut should then be from the stand summary analysis. considered in about 10 additional years.

These data suggest that this sample is an The overstory includes a lower layer of Allegheny hardwood stand; that is, at least 65 saplings representing about 11 square feet of percent of the basat area is contained in northern basal area--primarily sugar maple and beech. hardwood species and at least 25 percent is in There are not enough saplings to worry about in black cherry, white ash, and yellow-poplar. any partial cuttings that might be made, but their Actually, black cherty and white ash represent 45 abundance further illustrates the stratification that percent of total basal area. Furthermore, we can exists among the species. see' that black cherry, red maple, and sugar maple are the predominant species, comprising The diameter distribution for black cherry 86 percent of the basal area. The balance is plots as a bell-shaped curve, -whilethat for sugar beech, ash, and birch. maple and beech plots as an inverse J (as does that for the stand as a whole). There are a few The largest amount of basal area is contained large sawtimber trees of tolerant species, but in the small sawtimber size class. Medium most of the tolerants are considerably smaller sawtirnber and poletimber are next in importance, (large poletimber). Together, the species with about equal amounts of basal area. The composition and diameter distributions suggest stand diameter of 13.1 inches confirms that this is that this is an essentially even-aged stand that a small sawtimber stand. Estimates show that the contains a few residual toierants of an older age entire stand is about 20 years from maturity class. (merchantable-size trees will average 18 inches d.b.h. in about 20 years). The largest trees in the Because the stand has an inverseJ structure stand are 24 inches d.b.h. and are black cherry. now, and has considerable amounts of basal area in sawtimber-size trees up to 24 inches d.b.h. However, it is clear that the stand is stratified (including some in the more tolerant maple and into crown and size classes by species, and the beech species), it would be fairly easy to convert various species groups will not mature at the the stand to an all-age structure over 2 or 3 cuts, same time. The cherry average 16.4 inches d.b. h. if this should be desired to meet some particular and are only about 8 years from maturity. The objective. However, the small proportion of stand merchantable sugar maple, beech, and birch are stocking in tolerant species will require a long only 11.2 inches d.b.h. and are still 46 years from adjustment period and may limit ingrowth during maturity. The merchantable red maple are the earfy part of the conversion period. intermediate, averaging 13.5 inches d.b.h. and 23 years from maturity. The total basal area of 158 square feet per acre represents about 97 percent of the average When stand maturity is reached in 20 years, maximum density expected in undisturbed stands the Mack cherry will be 12 years overmature and of similar size and species composition. This red maple 3 years immature, while the sugar relative density is well above the optimum for best mapie and beech will still be 26 years under timber production. Growth rates of individual maturity. Thus, the estimated maturity age for the trees are probably less than maximum, and stand is a compromise. Harvesting the stand at mortality due to crowding is fairiy high. A that time will sacrifice only a small percentage of thinning would improve growth of the stems that the stand value in red maple, sugar maple, beech, remain. Total net cordwood volume of the stand is 40 in this stand is especially desirable, since it cords per acre, and sawtimber volumes are contains many high-value species, and thinning 10,909 board feet per acre. These volumes should permit a considerable improvement in should be more than adequate to support a overall stand quality, concentrating future growth commercial thinning and still leave a well-stocked on the better stems. residual stand. The present stand value is high-about $3,700 per acre. The value estimated Although the stand is not yet mature, there is here may vary appreciably from the actual a modest amount of desirable Allegheny stumpage value in a particular location at a hardwood advance regeneration present. A specific time, but it is a useful parameter for thinning might very well increase both the number comparison with other stands. Those who use and size of advance seedlings, making it possible the computer program to process inventory data to clearcut the stand when it reaches maturity. may set stumpage prices appropriate to their However, 11 percent of the area also contains area. fern. Although this percentage of fern is not large enough to interfere with seedling development Trees of acceptable growing-stock quality now, the thinning could produce an increase in occupy about 62 percent of the available relative fern that might cause problems later, especially if density (70 percent of present basal area), while deer browsing on seedlings is heavy. Thus, trees of unacceptable quality occupy 35 percent. thinning could make it necessary to use an Although trees of acceptable quality provide herbicide to control the fern prior to harvest enough stocking to warrant stand management, cutting. There are no other site or interfering thinning to remove the poorer quality trees is plant problems that should limit regeneration. clearly needed. Most, if not all, trees to be removed in the first thinning should be from the All of the above information is either printed unacceptable quality classes; one thinning may in the computer narrative, or can be deduced be sufficient to remove most such trees. Thinning from a study of the manual data summary sheets. STAND PRESCRIPTION The prescription ovals may be plain, lightly shaded, or heavily shaded. The legend explaining Stand prescription involves two distinct these degrees of shading is found on Chart 0, but phases: apply to all charts.

1. Deciding which silvicultural treatment, if any, Unshaded prescriptionsgenerally produce the should be applied in a particular stand to desired result, require no investment, and are achieve the management objectives. highly recommended.

2. Preparing detailed instructions on how that Lightly-shaded prescriptions generally treatment is to be carried out on the ground. produce the desired results, but require an If cutting is involved, this requires instructions investment. When evaluated on the basis of to the markers on how many of what species maximizing annual income from the forest and sizes of trees are to be cut to achieve the enterprise, these are good investments. However, desired residual stand, estimates of the these investments may not meet your volume of various products to be harvested, organization's economic criteria if evaluated on and so on. It also requires details on how the basis of net present worth or internal rate of and when any other treatments are to be return using high interest rates. The alternative to applied. making the investment in these stands is to do nothing, since regeneration usually cannot be Determining Appropriate Treatment obtained. The no-cutting alternative may also fail to meet your organization's economic objectives. The appropriate silvicultural treatment to apply We generally recommend that these lightly- in a particular stand can be determined by using shaded prescriptions be adopted if forest the series of decision charts presented as Figures management is to be continued in the stand. 8A-E. Heavily-shaded prescriptions also require an These decision charts are grouped into three investment (often a large one), but results are less major types of prescriptions. Chart B is for likely to be satisfactory than those above. Stands stands or properties where management goals or in the condition represented by these site limitations dictate all-age silvicuiture. Chart C prescriptions are very difficult to regenerate. We is for intermediate cuttings of stands that are not recommend no treatment in these stands, but the yet mature and are being managed under an prescription is included to indicate the best even-age silvicultural system. Charts D and E are treatments to try if you consider some action also for stands being managed under even-age essential. silviculture, but are ready to be harvested and regenerated. The first step in arriving at any prescription is to determine which ofthe three major cafegories In all of the prescription charts, decision.. of prescription (which of the several charts) is points are represented by a horizontal fine with appropriate. Use Chart A to aid in this process, arrows to two or more rectangles below. The tracing a path ,through the management goats and decision criteria are printed above the horizontal stand characteristics decision points to the line and the values that determine the path are bottom of the chart, where the appropriate major printed in the rectangles below the line. Using category of prescription is specified. If data summarized on the Prescription Summary management goals have been coded 3 or 4, Worksheet (Fig, 7), trace a path through the uneven-age silviculturat systems are required, and charts until you arrive at a prescription. All a final prescription will be found on Chart B. If prescriptions are shown in circles or ovab. other management goals have been chosen, and the stand is immature, the final prescriptionwill be found on Chart C. If the stand is mature, Chart D (and it's continuation chart E) is appropriate. Figure 8A. Chart A

~ana~ementGoals J 1 t t I Management Goals 1 or 2 I I Management Goals 3 or 4 1 .Timber production for dmm ykld, with a high Timber prcduction for moderate yields including a j j~~~jwttionof shade-intoferant species. I high proportion of shade tolerant specks.

f Do site factors limit regen?

Is deer impact high? I

Are there enoughIC tolerants for uneven-aqe manaqement? Figure 88. Chart B. All-age Management 7Chart A f Is relative density high enough to permit a partial cut?

I Densityyes >80% I iiDensity

Does management goal ;equire very iarge trees?

Mgmt Goal 75

Selection *and Group Cutting Selection 0

Prescription Type Legend

These prescriptions generally produce the desired results, and Prescription 0 require no investment. We strongly recomrnend these treatments.

These prescriptions generally produce the desired results, but require an Investment. if such investments meet your organizntion's economic criteria, we recommend them. M not, we recommend no cutting. In the case of regeneration prescriptions, stands generalfy will not reproduce without the recommended treatment.

These prescriptions are not recommended. An investment ia required, and stands of this type are very dlfRcutt to regenerate. We recommend no treatment, but If some action la considered necessary, we suggest you consMer the treatment shown. Figure 8C. Chart C. Even-age Thinning 7Chart A Is Relative Density high enough to permit partial cutting ?

Are Saplings a major stand component ? t t t Yes No Defer sap B.4 >20 sqfr. Sap BA ~20sq.h

Is the Volume available adequate ? Is the Volume available adequate ?

f Are Crop frees severely suppressed? Is the stand close to Maturity ?

TSl and Commercial Commercial 0Cutting Thinning Chart D. Even-age Regeneration Figure 8D.

adequate for release? I 1 t Lz22lJ t Is advance regeneration adequate?

Are interfeh extremelv cPer?$?tS

Is advance regen adequate ift area is fenced against deer ? No Yes SmaMRegen> 70%

f Do visual goals or site factors limit regen? Do visual goals or site factors limit regen?

t Is deer impact high?

Deer Index 7-3 Deer index45 w'7I

Are Residuals Are Residuals Are Residuals Are Residuals Neededas~red7 Needed/Des~red? NeededIDes~red? NeededfDestred 7 i-----l i----7 Figure 8E. Chart E. Even-age Regeneration continued

Is seed supply limiting even'if area is fenced against I

Is seed supply limiting at existing deer levels? I I

t Is sunlight limiting to regen? Is sunlight limiting to regen? I 1 m Yea Dens > 75% Densq> 75%

'Ft . ere interferi lants &e interfedfig plants .Me interfek lpiants limdlng under sg%rwd ? limitma under s l eyd? ood 7 lirn~tm under $8 erwd7

.t I t No Yes Any lilt <30% .41y lw >30%

...... (:~~bi~kle...... )...') . . . .wC(it:::: Continue to chart 0, C, or D as suggested in Stands to be managed in this manner that Chart A to determine a prescription. Trace a currently have relative stand density of less than path through the decision points, taking the path 80 percent should generally not be cut at this that corresponds to the values on the Prescription time. There is no need to reduce density to Summary Sheet. That path will lead you to the improve growth or reduce mortality; furthermore, recommended prescription. there is not likely to be enough volume available to make a commercial cut without reducing Once the prescription has been determined, relative density below the minimum recommended refer to the specific instructions for that level. prescription in the Prescriptions description section that follows. Stands that are currently at or above 80 percent relative density should generally receive Prescriptions a cut at this time. A selection cut is made by establishing a residual stand structure goal that All-Age won't work, Reexamine Goals defines the amount of growing stock to be retained in each size class. All trees in excess of This prescription may be encountered when that goal are cut. If there are deficits in any size management goals or site conditions suggest class, extra growing stock is retained in other all-age management but other conflicting sizes to compensate. No saplings need be cut. conditions make this impractical. Such conditions In calculating the cut and residual stands, use a include excessive deer browsing pressure, or lack stand structure goal that includes a maximum tree of shade-tolerant seed sources for regeneration. diameter of 22 inches, a "q" factor of 1.5, and an Re-examine the management goals, or devise overall residual density of 60 percent (but do not some way to ameliorate the limiting conditions. remove more than 35 percent of the existing growing stock). Single-Tree and Group Selection Cutting The cutting should be a combination of This prescription is appropriate in those single-tree and group selection cutting. Efforts stands (or properties) where management goals should be made to mark groups of trees that can dictate that a continuous forest cover be logically be removed together, to create openings maintained at all times; even-aged regeneration up to one-half acre in size for encouragement of practices (even using an extended regeneration intolerant regeneration. No effort is needed to period) are not considered acceptable. Timber map or record these openings, nor to achieve any production is generally more important than in the particular area in openings. Single-tree selection single-tree selection with maximum large trees cutting is practiced between openings, with prescription, but it is still secondary to the visual residual density held at about 60 percent (the goal. An old-growth or virgin forest appearance zero density in the openings combined with 60 is not as important as the avoidance of percent between openings produces an overall regeneration openings over several acres in size. density of about 50 percent). Refer to the This prescription may also be appropriate for Distribution of Cut section for development of stands on wet sites that contain a moderate to specific marking instructions. high proportion of shade-tolerant species, especially hemlock. if at least 3Q percent of the understory plots are stocked with at least one grape vine, This goal is not likely to be achieved for any grapevine control should be considered at this extended period of time where valuable, time. Refer to the Control Grapevine Prescription shade-tolerant species are lacking, nor in areas of for complete description of practices to be used. excessive deer populations where browsing interferes with the establishment of a new age class after each cut. Single-Tree Seiection Cufting with Maximum the Control Grapevine Prescription for complete Number oi Large Trees for Visual Goals description of practices to be used.

This prescription is appropriate in those Commercial Thinning stands (or properties) where the primary goal of management is to create a particular visual effect: This prescription is appropriate in those a continuous high forest cover at ail times with stands being managed under even-age silviculture the maximum number of very large trees--a sort that have relative stand density of 80 percent or of old-growth or virgin forest appearance. Cutting .more, that do not contain a substantial share of is used to hasten the creation of this appearance. their basal area in saplings, and that are more Timber production may also be important, but it than 15 years from maturity. is secondary to the visual goal. Stands that currently have relative stand This goal is not likely to be achieved for any density of less than 8Q percent should generally extended period of time where long-lived shade not be cut at this time. There is no need to tolerant species are lacking, nor in areas of reduce density to improve growth or reduce excessive deer populations where browsing mortality; furthermore, there is not likely to be interferes with the establishment of a new age enough volume available to make a commercial class after each cut. cut without reducing relative density below the minimum recommended level. Stands to be managed in this manner that currently have relative stand density of less than Stands at or above 8Q percent relative density 80 percent should generally not be cut at this should generally receive a commercial thinning at time. There is no need to reduce density to this time. In calculating the cut and residual improve growth or reduce mortality; furthermore, stands, attempt to reduce relative stand density to there is not likely to be enough volume available 60 percent, but do not remove more than 35 to make a commercial cut without reducing percent of the stocking in any one cut. The relative density below the minimum recommended cutting should be concentrated in the smaller, level. merchantable-size trees. Some larger trees should also be cut to open the canopy, improve Stands that are currently at or above 80 spacing, and remove unacceptable growing percent relative density should generally receive stock. No unmerchantable saplings need to be a cut at this time. A selection cut is made by cut. This type of thinning should tend to narrow establishing a residual stand structure goal that the range of diameters and mold the stand defines the amount of growing stock to be structure (of the merchantable-size trees) into a retained in each size class. All trees in excess of more pronounced bell-shaped distribution. that goal are cut. If there are deficits in any size class, extra growing stock is retained in other If sawlog volumes are adequate, the sale can sizes to compensate. No saplings need be cut. ificlude both sawtimber and pulpwood. If sawlog In calculating the cut and residual stands, use a volumes are small, it may be necessary to make stand structure goal that includes maximum tree a pulpwood only sale. In this case, good quality diameter of 28 inches, a "q" factor of 1.3, and (AGS) sawtimber should generally not be cut, and residual density of 68 percent, (but do not remove the volume that would otherwise be allocated in more than 35 percent of the existing growing those size classes should be taken from the stock). The cutting should be a single-tree poletimber size class. Although minimum selection cut in all merchantable sizes. Refer to voiumes for an operable sale vary widely, we the Distribution of Cut section for development of generally consider 1,500 board feet and 5 cords specific marking instructions. per acre to be the minimum volume for an integrated products sale, or 7 cords per acre total If at least 30 percent of the understory plots for pulpwood-only commercial sales. Users of the are stocked with at least one grapevine, grapevine SlLVAH computer program can set these contrd.should be considered at this time. Refer to minimum voiumes in the program. Commercial thinnings should increase stand the Control Grapevine Prescription for complete diameter and reduce the time required for the description of practices to be used. larger and better quality trees to reach maturity. They should also increase the proportion of the Combined Commercial Th~nning- Timber Stand most valuable species, and improve the average Improvement stand quality by removing the poorer stems. Refer to the Distribution of CL~section for This prescription is appropriate under development of specific marking instructions. conditions similar to those for the Precommercial Thinning prescription, except that the stand If at least 30 percent of the understory plots contains enough cordwood volume that some are stocked with at least one grapevine, grapevine commercial products may also be removed to control should be considered at this time. Refer to offset the cost of the noncommercial work. the Control Grapevine Prescription for complete description of practices to be used. The procedures used here are simifar to those described for commercial thinning, except that Thin-Harvest cutting is extended into the sapling size class. This is essential in these stands, for attempts to This prescription is appropriate under take a cut from only the merchantable-size trees conditions identical to those for the Commercial would result in a high-grading of the fast-growing Thinning prescription, except that the stand is and high-value species, and loss of so much of within 15 years of being mature. the future sawtimber growing stock that long-term yields will be significantly reduced. Follow instructions under the Commercial Thinning prescription, but use a slightiy different Sometimes, the traditionally noncommercial- distribution of cut among size classes. In size trees can be harvested for firewood, making comparison with a commercial thinning, the this prescription feasible where it would not smaller merchantable-size trees will be cut even otherwise be. Or, if the noncommercial trees are more severely (these are pole-size trees that will not to be utilized, they may be killed by herbicide not reach sawtimber size by the time the stand is injection rather than cut. If less than 5-7 cords harvested), and the large sawtimber trees (24 per acre of pulpwood are produced by such inches and larger) will also be cut more heavily. sales, the sales are not usually operable, and a Conversely, the intensity of cut among the small precommercial thinning should be considered as and medium sawtimber sizes is reduced to a an alternative. Refer to the Distribution of Cut minimum, since these size classes are increasing section for development of specific marking in value more rapidly than any other. Thus, this instructions. cutting is a combination harvest of large trees and thinning of smaller trees. This yariation at the If at least 30 percent of the understory plots time of the final commerciai thinning tends to are stocked with at least one grapevine, grapevine maximize value by allowing more of the small control should be considered at this time. Refer to sawtimber to achieve a size where they qualify for the Control Grapevine Prescription for complete high-grade sawtimber or veneer, while mature description of practices to be used. trees are harvested. Precommercial Thinning Care must be taken not to remove large trees that are needed as seed sources for advance This prescription is appropriate in those regeneration establishment. Refer to the stands being managed under even-age silviculture Distribution of Cut section for development of that have a relative stand density of 80 percent or specific marking instructions. more, and that contain a substantial share of their basal area in saplings. Most such stands are If at least 30 percent of the understory plots young, and do not contain a sufficient number of are stocked with at least one grapevine, grapevine large trees to sustain a commercial cut. contrd should be considered at this time. Refer to We do not know the exact conditions under Defer Cutting which such precommercial thinnings provide sufficient increases in yield to justiqr the expense. This prescription is appropriate in many Need for precommercial thinnings is greatest in stands. Immature or all-aged stands that are very dense young stands where trees of low-value within or below the optimum range of stand species or poor form (such as sprout clumps or density do not need any sort of partial cutting. In poor-quality residuals of an older stand) are likely such a stand, the best prescription is to leave the to dominate better stems if not weeded out. stand alone for 10 or 15 years, and then Except in such stands, we suggest that thinning re-examine it to see what treatment is appropriate be delayed until the stand is older and the trees at that time. removed will at least pay the cost of the thinning. Final Removal Cut If a precommercial thinning is maderthe goal should be to remove poorly formed trees and This prescription is appropriate in those low-value individuals that threaten the potential stands to be managed under even-age silviculture crop trees. Select between 50 and 100 crop trees that have reached maturity, that have adequate per acre, and remove all non-crop trees whose small advance regeneration or adequate sapling crown is touching the crown of the crop tree. regeneration to ensure success after overstory Crop trees should be selected on the basis of removal, that do not have severe interfering plant species, size, quality, and spacing to favor the problems, and where visual or site conditions do best and most valuable stems in the stand. not preclude complete overstory removal. This final removal cut may be a clearcutting or a In some older stands (40 to 50 years), the shelterwood removal cutting in either a two-cut or precommercial thinning may be made to remove three-cut shelterwood sequence. a large proportion of the saplings and make later commercial thinning easier to apply. Such a All trees 2-inches d.b.h. and larger (other than procedure drastically changes the appearance of any selected residuals), including cults and a stand (making it appear much older and more nonmerchantable trees, should be removed or attractive) and may stimulate substantial amounts killed so that they do not interfere with the of browse production for deer or cover for other developing reproduction. If there is more than 10 wildlife. In this case, it may be desirable to use square feet of saplings and poles in an area-wide thinning rather than a crop tree unmerchantable species (such as dogwood, thinning. Refer to the Distribution of Cut section sassafras, striped maple, and so on), they should for Precommercial Thinning for development of be treated by stem injection 3 to 12 months prior specific marking guides. to cutting to reduce the incidence of sprouting of the undesirable species. However, selected Since the trees being removed are not to be high-quality residuals may be retained, as utilized for commerciai products, it is ofien Jess described below. expensive to remove them with an herbicide (usually stem injection, but perhaps basal spray in 18 at least 30 percent of the understory plots very young stands) rather than cutting. are stocked with at least one grapevine, grapevine Occasionally, the small trees removed in such control should be considered at this time. Refer to cuts can be utilized for firewood. Refer to the the Contrd Grapevine Prescription for complete Distribution of Cut section for development of description of practices to be used. specific marking instructions. In stands that contain large saplings and small ff at least 30 percent of the understory plots poles of the tolerant species, it may be desirable are stocked with at least one grapevine, grapevine to retain 30 to 80 good quality stems per acre (a control should be considered at this time. Refer to maximum of 10 square feet of basal area per the Control Grapevine Prescription for complete acre) of sugar maple, American beech, or eastern description of practices to be used. hemlock to ensure their representation in the main crown canopy of the next stand. Trees retained should be 3 to 10 inches d. b. h., have moderately However, slash helps to protect seedlings from good crowns and clean, straight boles free of deer browsing and should not be removed from branches and epicormic branches for at least the the site. first 17 feet. The trees to be retained should be conspicuously marked before cutting so that they Detrimental effects sometimes attributed to are visible at a distance from any angle. f his wiH clearcutting can also be avoided if certain help to prevent them from being inadvertently cut established procedures are followed. Erosion and or damaged during logging. sedimentation of streams is avoided if temporary roads are carefully laid out and then water-barred If residuals of other species are also selected or seeded with grasses after logging is complete. for retention as timber trees, they should be 6 to Avoidance of skidding during wet periods is also 12 inches d.b.h. with the same crown and stem important. Further protection against characteristics described above. If residual trees sedimentationand increased stream temperatures of other characteristics are retained for wildlife or can be achieved by leaving strips of vegetation 50 similar purposes, they should be just as carefully to 100 feet wide on each side of ail permanent selected to meet the criterion established for that watercourses. use. In no case should more than 10 square feet of basal area be retained in all types of residual Final Removal Cut with Residuals trees. This -prescription is appropriate under If the regeneration being released is sapling conditions identical to those for the Final Removal size, special care is required in togging to Cut prescription previously described, except that minimize damage. This situation may have been advance seedlings are adequate only if potential created intentionaliy by the first removal cut of a residuals are included in the advance three-cut shelterwood sequence, or it may be the regeneration counts. result of past high-grading. In the latter situation, the overstory is often of poor quality and/or low In stands of this description, the overstory value species. In such stands the chances of should be clearcut as described for the First establishing new seedlings are slim, and one must Removal Cut above, but retention of tolerant choose between management of either of the two residuals is required (not optional). Retain 30 to existing age classes. In the case of a three-cut 80 good quality trees per acre (a maximum of 10 shelterwood, the sapling-size regeneration was square feet of basal area per acre) of sugar intentionally encouraged to offset site limitations maple, American beech, or eastern hemlock to or ameliorate unsightly visual conditions. ensure their representation in the main crown canopy of the next stand. Trees retained should In stands with sapling regeneration, simply be 3 to I0 inches d.b.h., have moderately good remove the overstory, retaining ail of the saplings crowns, and clean, straight bdes free of branches and poles of all commercial species that promise and epicormic branches for at least the butt to make acceptable growing stock in the future. 16-foot log. The trees to be retained should be Take special care to restrict skidding and conspicuously marked before cutting so that they encourage directional felling to minimize breakage are visible at a distance from any angle. This will of the large regenemtion. help to prevent them from being inadvertently cut or damaged during logging. Visual appearances of new harvest-cut areas can be improved if certain established procedures if residuals of other species are also selected are fdlowed such as: limitation of opening size to for retention as timber trees, they should be 6 to a maximum of about 50 acres; avoidance of new 12 inches d.b.h. with the same crown and stem openings immediately adjacent to ones of the characteristics described above. If residual trees previous cutting cycle; avoidance of geometric of other characteristics are retained for wildlife or shapes in the outline of the openings; care in the similar purposes, they should be just as carefully location of roads; and use of measures to reduce selected to meet the criterion established for that the height of slash piles and other logging debris. use. In no case shoutd more than f 0 square feet of basal area be retained in all types of residual but we strongly advise against cutting unless the trees. fence is erected. Regeneration is very likely to fail in this case. If at least 30 percent of the understory plots are stocked with at least one grapevine, grapevine If at least 30 percent of the understory plots control should be considered at this time. Refer are stocked with at least one grapevine, grapevine to the Control Grapevine Prescription for control should be considered at this time. Refer complete description of practices to be used. to the Control Grapevine Prescription for complete description of practices to be used. See the Final Removal Cut prescription for additional details on application of this See the Final Removal Cut Prescription, the prescription. Final Removal Cut with Residuals prescription, and the Fencing Prescription for complete Final Removal Cut, Fence description of practices to be used.

This prescription is appropriate under First Removal Cut conditions identical to those for the Final Removal Cut prescription previously described, except that This prescription is appropriate in those advance seedlings are adequate only under stands to be managed under even-age silviculture conditions of very low deer pressure. in this that have reached matur'Q, that have adequate situation, there is an option to proceed with the small advance regeneration to ensure success final removal cut and to erect a deer exclosure after overstory removal, that do not have severe fence at the same time. Since this requires an interfering plant problems, but where visual or site investment, some organizations may choose to conditions require that the advance regeneration avoid cutting in this stand at the present time. be at least 10 to 65 feet in height before final Either prescription is appropriate, but we strongly overstory removal. This first removal cut is part of advise against cutting unless the fence is erected. a three-cut shelterwood sequence. Regeneration is very likely to fail in this case. In these stands, spreading the overstory If at least 30 percent of the understory plots removal over two cuts will retain some overstory are stocked with at least one grapevine, grapevine shelter while providing enough additional sunlight control should be considered at this time. Refer to allow the already-established seedlings to grow to the Control Grapevine Prescription for to sapling size. This can accomplish several complete description of practices to be used. objectives. The larger advance regeneration will be much better established, with larger root See both the Final Removal Cut Prescription systems deeper in the soil than the usual small and the Fencing Prescription for complete advance regeneration. The regenerationwill have description of practices to be used. established a transpiration pump that can minimize high water tables during the early Final Removal Cut with Residuals, Fence growing season, and that can withstand the late season dry conditions that occur on many of This prescription is appropriate under these poorlydrained soils. And the larger conditions identical to those for the Final Removal seedlings will withstand desiccation on rocky Cut with Residuals prescription previously surface soils, since their soots are more likely to described, except that advance seedlings are be located in mineral soil rather than being adequate only under conditions of very low deer confined to the superficial organic layer covering pressure. In this situation, there is an option to the rocks. proceed with the final removal cut and to erect a deer exclosure fence at the same time. Since this Larger advance regeneration may also serve requires an investment, some organizations may visual goals by providing a new young stand on choose to avoid cutting in this stand at the the site before overstory removal is completed. present. time. Either prescription is appropriate, This can reduce adverse visual effects of slash, stumps, and soil disturbance often associated their shade is high and will not interfere with with clearcutting. Three-cut shelterwoods may be seedling development. This option has the especially useful on small ownerships, or in advantage of avoiding logging damage to the visually sensitive areas along heavily used scenic saplings when the time comes for the fina! corridors. In such areas, even-aged regeneration overstory removal. openings may be acceptable if they already contain sapling-size regeneration before the If there is more than 5 square feet of basal overstory is completely removed. In fact, the area of saplings and poles in unmerchantable greater visual variety of such openings may be species (such as dogwood, sassafras, striped sought. maples, and so on), they should be treated by stem injection of herbicide to eliminate them from Excessively high deer populations can prevent the stand and minimize sprouting of these the development of sapling-size advance undesirable species. This is best done at the time regeneration where the partial shade extends the of the seed cut, but if not done then, it should be time that seedlings are subject to deer browsing. done now during the first rernoval cut. This prescription should not be used in high deer areas without fencing or other forms of protection. If at least 30 percent of the understory plots are stocked with at least one grapevine, grapevine The three-cut shelterwood usually consists of control should be considered at this time. Refer a seed cut that reduces relative stand density to to the Control Grapevine Prescription for between 50 and 60 percent (regardless of pre- complete description of practices to be used. cutting density) to provide for the establishment of advance seedlings. Once small seedlings are In stands that contain large saplings and abundant (usually 3 to 10 years after the seed poles of the shade-tolerant species, it may be cut), the first removal cut is made, as described desirable to retain 30 to 80 good quality stems here. After an additional period of 10 to 15 years per acre to ensure their representation in the next (during which the small seedlings grow to sapling stand. In any shelterwood sequence, the trees to size), the rest of the overstory is removed. In be retained after final harvest should be selected some situations, small advance regeneration may at the time of the seed cut and clearly marked so be adequate without making the first (seed) cut, that they are not inadvertently cut or damaged and the sequence can begin with the first during the several cuttings of the sequence. If overstory removal. not done at that time, residuals may be selected now at the time of the first removal cut, although The first removal cut should reduce stand the selection may be limited. density to between 30 and 35 percent to provide the high-sunlight conditions needed for rapid If residuals of other species are also selected seedling growth. Low shade from saplings of for retention as timber trees, they should be 6 to undesirable species and poles of all species 12 inches d.b.h. with the same crown and stem should be first priority for rernoval. The remainder characteristics described above. If residual trees of the cut will depend upon the volume and of other characteristics are retained for wildlife or quality of the overstory. similar purposes, they should be just as carefully selected to meet the criterion established for that If the overstoty contains sufficient volume in use. In no case should more than 10 square feet good-quality merchantable trees to support two of basal area be retained in all types of residual commercial operations, the cut can be distributed trees. in much the same manner as a commercial thinning. If there is only enough vdume to First Removal Cut with Residuals support a single commercial cut, it may prove desirable to remove most of the better trees now, This prescription is appropriate under leaving low value stems for a non-commercial conditions identical to those for the First Removal final removal using stem-injected herbicides. The Cui prescription previously described, except that trees kft must be at least large pole-size so that advance seedlings are adequate only if potential residuals are included in the advance investment, some organizations may choose to regeneration counts. avoid cutting in this stand at the present time. Either prescription is appropriate, but we strongly In stands of this description, the first removal advise against cutting unless the fence is erected. cut should be made as described for the First Regeneration is very likely to fail in this case. Removal Cut above, but retention of tolerant residuals is required (not optional). Retain 30 to If at least 30 percent of the understory plots 80 good quality trees per acre (a maximum of 10 are stocked with at least one grapevine, grapevine square feet of basal area per acre) of sugar control should be considered at this time. Refer maple, American beech, or eastern hemlock to to the Control Grapevine Prescription for ensure their representation in the main canopy of complete description of practices to be used. the next stand. Trees retained should be 3 to 10 inches d.b.h., have moderately good crowns in See both the First Removal Cut Prescription the intermediate or higher crown class, and have and the Fencing Prescription for complete clean, straight boles free of branches and description of practices to be used. epicormic branches.for at least the butt 16-foot log. The trees to be retained should be First Removal Cut with Residuais, Fence conspicuousty marked before cutting begins so that they are visible at a distance from any angle. This prescription is appropriate under This will help to prevent them from being conditions identical to those for the First Removal inadvertently cut or damaged during logging. Cut with Residuals prescription previously described, except that advance seedlings are Ilf residuals of other species are also selected adequate only under conditions of very low deer for retention as timber trees, they should be 6 to pressure. In this situation, there is an option to 12 inches d.b.h. with the same crown and stem proceed with the first removal cut and to erect a characteristics described above. If residual trees deer exclosure fence at the same time. Since this of other characteristics are retained for wildlife or requires an investment, some organizations may similar purposes, they should be just as carefully choose to avoid cutting in this stand at the selected to meet the criterion established for that present time. Either prescription is appropriate, use. In no case should more than 10 square feet but we strongly advise against cutting unless the of basal area be retained in all types of residual fence is erected. Regeneration is very likely to fail trees. in this case.

If at least 30 percent of the understory plots If at least 30 percent of the understory plots are stocked with at least one grapevine, grapevine are stocked with at least one grapevine, grapevine control should be considered at this time. Refer control should be considered at this time. Refer to the Control Grapevine Prescription for to the Control Grapevine Prescription for complete description of practices to be used. complete description of practices to be used.

See the descriptisn of First Removal Cut for a See the First Removal Cut Prescription, the complete description of this prescription. First Removal Cut with Residuals prescription, and the Fencing Prescription for complete description First Removal Cut, Fence of practices to be used.

This prescription is appropriate under Seed Cut conditions identical to those for the First Removal Cut prescription previously described, except that This prescription is appropriate in those advance seedlings are adequate only under stands to be managed under even-age silviculture conditions of very low deer pressure. in this that have reached maturity, where timber situation, there is an option to proceed with the production is a major goal of management, where first removal cut and to erect a deer exclosure seed supply and deer pressure will permit fence- at the same time. Since this requires an seedling establishment, where overstory density is currently high, and where neither advance to shelterwood cutting. Overstory density is seedlings nor interfering understory plants are already low enough for advance seedlings to have currently abundant. developed if some other factor were not limiting. Likewise, a combination of very high deer In these stands, a shelterwood sequence will population and inadequate seed sources can usually provide the best way to harvest the make prompt and successful regeneration overstory and regenerate a new stand. The first doubtful. In such situations, it is recommended (seed) cut should reduce relative stand density to that cutting be deferred until the limiting factor 60 percent to provide for the establishment of a can be identified and corrected, or that measures large number of additional advance seedlings, such as artificial regeneration and protectionfrom without allowing them to grow rapidly enough to deer be used in conjunction with shelterwood become attractive to deer. In areas of low deer cutting. pressure, it may be desirable to reduce relative stand density a little lower (to 50 percent) to In stands that contain large saplings and small encourage slightly larger advance seedlings. poles of the tolerant species, it may be desirable to retain 30 to 80 god quality stems per acre to When advance reproduction is adequate (it ensure their representation in the main crown usually requires between 3 and 10 years), the canopy of the next stand. in a shelterwood overstory removal cuts may be made. Overstory sequence, the trees to be retained after final removal will usually occur in just one additional harvest should be selected at the time d the seed cut, creating a two-cut shelterwood sequence. cut and clearly marked so that they are not However, in stands where site iimitations require inadvertently cut or damaged during the several large advance regeneration, or in areas where cuttings of the sequence. visual goals require that regeneration be large enough to ameliorate the visual impact of the Herbicide, Seed Cut removal cutting, a three-cut shelterwood sequence may be desirable. The seed cut is This prescription is appropriate under done in the same way whether the sequence w-it1 conditions identical to those for the Seed Cut of involve two or three cuts. any shelterwood sequence, except that interfering understory plants such as beech root suckers, If there is more than 5 square feet of basal striped maple, dogwood, sassafras, laurel, fern, or area of saplings and poles in unmerchantable grass are at least moderately abundant. species (such as dogwood, sassafras, striped maple, and so on), they should be treated by Follow instructions under the Seed Cut stem injection of herbicide at the time of seed cut prescription, but treat the understory with an to eliminate them from the stand and minimize herbicide prior to the first cut (seed cut). See sprouting of these undesirable species. The Herbicide Understory instructions in the section growing stock in these trees must be considered on Herbicide Understory prescriptiotis. in relative density calculations, so that residual relative density is at the appropriate level. Refer Herbicide, Wait to the Distribution of Cut section for development of specific marking instructions. This prescription is appropriate under conditions identical to those for the Herbicide, If at least 30 percent of the understory plots Seed Cut prescription, except overstory relative are stocked with at least one grapevine, grapevine density is already below 75 percent. Under these control should be considered at this time. Refer conditions, there should be enough sunlight to the Control Grapevine Prescription for available for the establishment of advance complete deqcription of practices to be used. seedlings, and the volumes available for shelterwood cutting are likely to be marginal. Stands that lack adequate advance Regeneration is not currently adequate, probably regenerationand in which the overstory density is because of the moderate to high density of already below 75 percent are not likely to respond interfering plants. If seed supply and deer pressure are within limits that will permit See the Seed Cut Prescription, the Herbicide establishment of new seedlings, the on{y prescription, and the Fencing Prescription for treatment required is to remove the interfering complete description of practices to be used. understory plants with an herbicide. Fence, Wait Follow the instructions under %heHerbicide Understory prescription. This prescription is appropriate when neither advance regeneration nor interfering plants are Seed Cut, Fence abundant, when overstory density is already low enough to permit seedling establishment, but a This prescription is appropriate under combination of high deer pressure and poor seed conditions identical to those for the Seed Cut supply limit the number of seedlings that can prescription previously described, except that a become established. combination of high deer pressure and poor seed supply limit the number of seedlings likely to In this situation, a deer exdosure fence may become established under a shelterwood canopy. be all th& is req~iredto obtain adequate advance In this situation, there is an option to proceed with seedlings. Since this requires a substantial the' seed cut and to erect a deer exclosure fence investment, some organizations may choose to at the same time. Since this requires an avoid any activity in this stand at the present time. investment, some organizations may choose to Either prescription is appropriate. avoid cutting in this stand at the present time. Either prescription is appropriate, but we strongly See the Fencing Prescription for complete advise against cutting unless the fence is erected. description of practices to be used. Regeneration is very likely to fail in this case. Herbicide, Fence, Wait

See both the Seed Cut Prescription and the This prescription is appropriate when advance Fencing Prescription for complete description of regeneration is limited, and overstory density is practices to be used. already low enough to permit seedling establishment, but a combination of interfering Herbicide, Seed Cut, Fence plants, high deer pressure and poor seed supply limit the number of seedlings that can become This prescription is appropriate under established. conditions identical to those for the Seed Cut prescription previously described, except that a In this situation, a combination of herbicide combination of high deer pressure and poor seed application and deer exclosure fence may be supply limit the number of seedlings likely to required to obtain adequate advance seedlings. become established under a shelterwood canopy, Since this requires a substantial investment, some and interfering understory plants such as beech organizations may choose to avoid any activity in root suckers, striped maple, dogwood, sassafras, this stand at the present time. Either prescription laurel, fern, or grass are at least moderately is appropriate. abundant. See the Fencing prescription and the In this situation, there is an option to proceed Herbicide Understory prescription for complete with the seed cut if investments are made both in description of practices to be used. fencing and herbicide application. Since this requires a substantial investment, some organizations may choose to avoid cutting in this stand at the present time. Either prescription is appropriate, but we strongly advise against cutting unless the fence is erected. Regeneration is very likely to fail in this case. Grapevine Control Oust is effective in controlling ferns and some grasses, but has no activity against striped maple Grapevines that grow into the crowns of trees or beech. It should be applied at the rate of 2 oz. can cause extensive damage by interfering with of Oust per acre, between early July and leaf growth and seed production, and by breaking out yellowing in mid-september. the tops of the trees. Damage can be especially severe in young, even-aged stands. Both herbicides can be applied from low pressure sprayers, backpack mist blowers, air In stands with more than 30 percent of the blast sprayers or hydraulic sprayers. In large understory plots stocked with grapevines, it is forest applications, tracked or rubber-tired usually advisable to treat the vines. This can be vehicles are used to move the sprayer through done by cutting the vines close to the ground. the stand. Canopy shade will usually prevent the sprouts from surviving. Where canopy density is low, or Oust and Roundup are useful either alone, or where harvest cutting wilt occur within a few in rnFAure with each other. years, cut the vines and treat the cut stumps with an herbicide. Roundup is required where woody interference is to be removed since Oust is Herbicide Understory ineffective on these plants. Roundup will also remove fern and grass, but it will not completely In stands containing dense coverage of ferns, kill ferns where rhizomes are broken off by treads grasses and sedges or woody interfering plants, on the vehicles used to carry the sprayer. This such as beech root suckers, striped maple, often results in reinvasion by fern from the dogwood, sassafras, sourwood, black gum, unkilled rhizomes in the track area. Roundup has rhododendron or mountain laurel, shelterwood no effect on seed buried in the forest floor, so it cutting often stimulates these plants to the point will not prevent grass and sedge reinvasion on where they interfere with desired reproduction. areas that have a large buried seed supply. Soil Such stands can be treated successfuHy if the disturbance from skidding can result in reinvasion undesirable understory plants are removed with of grasses and sedges after herbicide treatments an herbicide in conjunction with other measures that are followed by cutting. to reestablish regeneration. Oust has characteristics that complement Roundup. It is taken up both by foliage and Two herbicides have proven usefui in treating roots, and has short term residual activity. So it interfering understories in Allegheny hardwood is effective on ferns even in areas where the fern stands: Roundup Herbicide, manufactured by rhizomes have been broken by the spray vehicle. Monsanto Agricultural' Products Co., and Oust And it will reduce grass reinvasion for two years Weed Killer, manufactured by E. 1. Du Pont de after spraying. Since it is relatively ineffective on Nemours and CO.~ woody plants, Oust may not kill desirable advance seedlings intermixed with interfering ferns and Roundup is effective in controlling ferns, grasses. grasses and sedges, striped maple, and beech when applied to actively growing foliage at the rate of I quart per acre (I Ib/acre active ingredient) in 20 to 25 gallons of water per acre. Ferns and grass should be treated from early July "he use of trade firm, or corporation names through leaf yellowing in mid-september; striped in this publication is for the information and maple and beech should be treated from eariy convenience of the reader. Such use does not August through mid8eptember. Herbicides with constitute an official endorsement or approval by proven effectiveness for laurel and rhododendron the US. Department of Agriculture or the Forest are not avaifabte. Service of any product to the exclusion of others that may be suitable. Where the target vegetation is wody cheaper than woven-wire fencing, but it requires interference alone, and where buried grass seed regular maintenance to change batteries, test for is not likely to be a problem, we recommend the electrical continuity, etc. Either vertical or slant use of Roundup alone. Where the target designs are effective. We have found a 6-wire vegetation is fern alone, we recommend the use vertical design to be the easiest to install and of Oust alone, to kill the ferns while preserving maintain in a reliable way. The wires should be some of the advance regeneration. Where the installed so that alternate wires serve as a ground, target species include both groups of interfering and so that lower wires can be disconnected plants, we recommend applying a tank mix of when snow builds up around them in the winter. both Roundup and Oust. Appropriately-sized solar panels with high-quality, deep discharge batteries, in combination with a Much ofthe cost of herbicide application is in charger can considerably reduce battery the labor and equipment required to make the maintenance. We recommend this type of fencing application. The additional cost of a second for operational protection against deer damage. herbicide in tank mix, while important, is considerably less than the cost of two separate Fencing has traditionally been installed after applications. The additional cost of the second the final overstory removal, and its use in that herbicide can usually be justified if the proportion manner is recommended here. Hohever, the of plots stocked with interfering species not killed benefits of fencing are even greater if applied by the first herbicide exceeds 15 percent. earlier in the regeneration process. Fences erected at the time of the sheltelwood seed cut Fencing Against Deer will not only help ensure adequate numbers of advance seedlings, but will greatly increase the Area-wide fencing has been used extensively diversity of species that become established. The in the Allegheny Plateau of Pennsylvania to ability to favor highly preferred species and to protect regeneration against deer browsing. increase species diversity, coupled with direct Although it requires a substantial investment, it is protection from browsing faiiure, make fencing an often the only way to ensure adequate especially effective treatment in areas of excessive regeneration in the presence of excessive deer deer. populations. It is recommended alone or in combination with other cultural practices in Fertilization of Regeneration several prescriptions. Aerial fertilization is a way to circumvent deer There are two major types of fencing that may browsing in some circumstances. It is generally be used. Standard woven-wire fences must applied during the second or third year after final generally be 8 feet tall and carefuily sealed at the overstory removal. Fertlizer prescriptions will be ground line, but they can be very effective at encountered as a part of regeneration follow-up excluding deer and require relatively infrequent procedures. If surveys of regeneration 2 years maintenance. The cost of woven-wire fencing is after final overstory removal cutting reveal that very high. If used, it is best to install the bottom there are adequate numbers of seedlings present, 4-foot section so that about 6 inches of it rests flat but that deer browsing is delaying their on the ground, bent towards the outside of the development, or threatening their survival, fence. Rocks and logs piled on this ground fertilization with 200 pounds of nitrogen (as 600 section make an effective seal, although ravines pounds of Ammonium Nitrate) and 43 pounds of and depressions require special attention. This phosphorous (as 217 pounds of triple super fence should be stretched tight to minimize phosphate) will often stimulate the seedlings to damage from falling trees and limbs. grow rapidly out of the reach of deer. These elements may be mixed together and applied by Electric fencing can also be effective if helicopter. installed properly, but it can be totally ineffective if not installed carefully or if inadequately Fertilization has the added advantage of maintained. Electric fencing is considerably getting the stand off to a quick start, reducing rotations somewhat in the process. Fertilization buried, or at least pressed into, the soil. Oaks circumvents browsing damage not only by have been seeded successfully if the acorns are stimulating rapid growth, but by producing an adequately protected against rodents. abundance of other deer food that takes the pressure off the developing seedling regeneration. Hardwoods can be planted on cutover sites or in shelterwood situations successfully if protected Consider Artificial Regeneration and Fencing against animal damage, and if large, vigorous, stock in good condition is used. Control of any There are several possible treatments that will interfering plants is essential, and fertilizer applied be encountered in stands that are exceptionally at the time of planting is usually a good difficult to regenerate. Our recommendation is supplementary investment. that activity in these stands be deferred for the present. The substantial investments required in Regeneration Follow-up combination with considerable risk that adequate regeneration will not develop make these When a final regeneration treatment is questionable investments. Instead, we suggest prescribed, it is important that periodic checks be that attention and investment be concentrated in made to ensure that the regeneration actually other stands that are more likely to succeed. develops after the treatment is applied. As However these treatments are offered as an before, a survey of the regeneration using alternative if some action is considered necessary 6-foot-radius sample plots is recommended (Fig. in these stands. All of these treatments are 9). In even-age silviculture, the first inventory heavily shaded in Prescription Chart E to call should be made about 2 years after cutting, and attention to the fact that they are treatments to be additional surveys should be made as indicated considered, not recommended prescriptions. by the results of the first one.

Most of these questionable treatments arise in At this stage of development, plots are judged stands that have very poor seed supplies, or as stocked if they have: (a) 25 stems per plot moderately poor seed supplies in combination total, (bj 5 stems over 3 feet tall, or (c) 2 stems with high deer pressure. This situation is over 5 feet tall. Only when at least 70 percent of common in stands that lack good seed producing the plots have 2 stems over 5 feet tall can the species. In oak stands that have limited oak seed new regeneration be considered successful. At sources, and where regeneration dominated by that point, most of the regeneration will be above species other than oaks is unacceptable, these the reach of deer and the stand is safely treatments may also be appropriate to consider. established. Before that time, the average proportion of the other two stocking measures In oak stands in particular, the use of provide an indication of the probable outcome. individual tree shelters, rather than area fencing, is worthy of consideration. Tree shelters have If tie probable outcome is not satisfactory, been shown to increase oak seedling growth in fertilization or fencing should be considered. If addition to protecting against browsing. Since failure is apparent, planting (probably with slow initial growth of oak seedlings relative to herbicide control of herbaceous plants) might be other species is an important factor in oak required. Planting should almost always be regeneration failure, use of these shelters in areas accompanied by protection and fertilization. of high deer pressure may help to get the oaks out above both the deer and their competition. Obviously, the costs of reclaiming failed Like the other treatments in this group, however, regeneration cuts can be very high, and should this treatment is presented as one to be be avoided. The guidelines described for considered rather than as a prescription. advance reproduction, interfering plants, site limitations, and choice of cutting methods should Artificial regeneration may be done either by minimize such failures and provide reasonable seeding or planting. Seeding is usmlly best done assurance of success in most situations. as spot seeding on prepared seedbeds, with seed Figure 9. Chart F. Regeneration Follow-up

Is regen of desired species well-established ? t

<70% stocked with 2 DES ~5' t Is regen of any species well-established ?

<70% stocked with >70% stocked with i2 COM >5' 2 COM > 5' I

Is the potential for regen success high ?

-~ - -- No Yes 50% stocked with DES Or and ~70%stocked with COM >70% stocked with COM 1 5 stems >3' + 25 total

Regen stand fully established successful Distribution Of Cut diversity of diameter classes present, altering the distribution of diameters toward a belt-shaped In any partial cutting, trees should be selected curve without assuming any particular curve as for cutting or retention to achieve the desired ideal. A table showing the proportion of the cut density, structure, and quality in the residual that should come from each major size class is stand. The desired structure, in particular, varies used to distribute the cut Fable 6). The values in with the type of partial cutting prescribed. To this table were calculated using the assumption decide which trees should be cut, use the that two-thirds of the cut basal area (three-fourths following guidelines. of the cut relative density) should come from below the stand diameter, and the rest from First priority is to maintain the desired residual above the stand diameter. stand density. Second priority is to remove all unacceptable growing stock trees before better Stand structure goals are achieved in quality trees are cut. And third priority is to cut selection cuttings by setting up a residual so as to achieve the desired stand structure structure goal based on the rnaximum tree size, (size-class distribution). Species composition--a q factor, and residual density prescribed. A table factor in both stand quality and structure--may of appropriate goals are used for this purpose also be altered by cutting. All else being equal, Fable 6). Then, any trees that are in excess of stand markers should generally favor the most those goals (within each major size class) are cut. valuable species, or with all-aged cuttings, the However, no saplings are cut--the structure goals most valuable shade-tolerant species. However, are set up so as to exclude saplings and achieve no special consideration is given to species the desired structure within the merchantable size composition in distributing the cut, since the classes only. procedure used automatically favors the larger trees, which are usually the more valuable species Quality goals are achieved as an adjustment in the stand. to the structural goal. After the initial structurat goal for a thinning, shelterwood cut, or selection In selection cuts and thinnings, residuai stand cutting has been established, the goal is density should be 60 percent, except where this compared, by size class, with the inventory data would mean removal of more than 35 percent of on tree quality. If acceptable quality trees are the relative density in one cut. In these cuts, being cut in one size class while unacceptable residual stand density shoufd be 65 percent of the quality trees are being left in another, an existing density. Residual densities in even-aged adjustment that does not alter the residual density regeneration cuts are not subject to the above is made. limitation, Seed cuts should be made to leave the prescribed 50 or 60 percent relative density in commerciat thinnings, a minor deviation regardless of how much must be removed to from the procedure above is made in those achieve it. The first harvest cut of a three-cut stands that contain substantial amounts of large shelterwood should likewise reduce relative sawtimber (trees 24 inches and larger). Since density to 30-35 percent at at one time to achieve such trees are generally mature, up to 50 percent desired results. of them may be removed, allowing more of the smaller sawtimber sizes that are increasing more Stand structure gods in thinnings and rapidly in value to remain. shelterwood cuts are achieved indirectly. We do not know exactly what stand structure we should The distribution of cut for commercial try to create in these mixed hardwood stands, thinnings assumes that there is adequate volume many of which do not exhibit the textbook type of of both sawtimber and puipwsod, to make a sale even-aged bell-shaped curve. So, we attempt to involving both products feasible, In cases where move the structure toward the theoretical ideal by sawtirnber volumes are limited and the sale is to cutting more heavily from the smaller trees than include only pulpwood, a redistribution of cut the larger ones. This increases stand diameter, should be made. The density of good quality reduces time to maturity, and reduces the (AGS) sawtimber that would have been removed should be taken instead from the poletimber-size Cut Worksheet (Figure 18). Calculations for class. intermediate cuttings under even-aged silvicultural systems and those for selection system cuts are The stand diameter to be used in the made using the same worksheet. The steps distribution of cut depends upon the prescription. described below are easiest to follow if Figure 10 In combined ISI-Commercial Thinnings, and Appendices A through F are consulted as sapling-size trees are to be cut, so the diameter of examples. the entire stand (MD) is the appropriate one to distribute the cut around. In commercial The distribution of cut occurs in four major thinnings, and shelteiwood cuts, no saplings are phases. The first is selection of stand density and cut, so the diameter of only the merchantable-size structure parameters based on the prescription trees (MDM) is used. selected. Next, structure parameters are adjusted to fit the actual size distribution in the The cut in Precommercial Thinnings and particular stand. This step is slightly different for Thin-Harvests is not distributed as above, but is even-age and all-age prescriptions. The third special. Since no commercial sale is involved in phase adjusts the structure once again to remove a Precommercial Thinning, cutting occurs strictly the maximum proportion of UGS possible within from the unacceptable growing stock, the the relative density constraints already noncommercial species, and the smallest trees in established. The final phase translates the result the stand. No merchantable trees of good quality into marking guides (ratios), and into basal area are cut, since this might reduce total stand yield for cut and residual stands. We recommend over the long term. carrying these calculations to one decimal place.

In Thin-Harvests, the cutting is very heavy in In Phases 1, If and 111 there are several the large sawtimber and poletimber size classes. alternate paths, depending on the prescription Such stands are within 15 years of maturity; the and conditions in the particular stand. In the poles will not grow into valuable sawtimber size explanations below, these alternate paths are before final harvest so there is little reason to save written in smaller type; be certain to select the them. The large sawtimber trees are already appropriate path from the several alternatives mature and might as well be harvested. This listed. The several choices are identified by preserves for the final harvest the maximum statements that begin: 'tf this is a . . .' or 'tf tfie number of small and medium sawtimber trees that tala/ of Wumn 6 is. . .'. are increasing in value most rapidly. Phase I. Prepare worksheet and determine In all partial cuttings, unacceptable growing density and structure parameters. stock trees are removed first, even if this means that the structure goals cannot be met. Wihin this 1. Transfer the original relative density from the limit, the cutting is done so as to come as close Manual Overstory Summary form (totals block in to the desired structure as possible. Mechanics the lower right corner) to Coiumn 1, Distribution of distributing the cut follow. of Cut Form, for each size class and for the total. Include saplings, even if none are to be cut.

Bnstructions for Distribution of Cut 2. Transfer UGS relative density from the Manual Overstory Summary form (summary block of the The overstory data and guidelines on partial UGS section, near the center right) to Column 7, cutting can be used to calculate how much of Distribution of Cut Form. each size and quaJity class should be cut to achieve the prescribed effect. This distribution of If there will be no cutting in the sapling class, ...... record no saplings. cut provides the information that timber markers need to achieve the desired structure in the If this is the seed cut of a shelterwood sequence, and residual stand. The calculations can be done by the stand contains 5 or more square feet of basal area computer or by hand, using the Distribution of per acre in noncommercial saplings and poles, ...... include these noncommercial sapling UGS in Column 7.

tf there will b mngin the sapling class, ...... record sapling UGS. If this is an everraaed treatment. . 1. Multiply the proportions in Column 2 by the Cut Density 3. Total the UGS recorded. in the Total Row of Column 6. Record these values in Column 3. 4. Transfer the original basal area per acre from Manual Overstory Summary form (total block in 2. Total Column 3 to be certain that the total cut goal is the the lower right hand corner) to Column 12, same as the Total of Column 6. Distribution of Cut Form, for each size class and 3. For each size class, subtract the values in Column 3 for the total. (density to be cut) from the values in Column 1 (original density). Record onlv neaative answers in Column 4. 5. Determine the residual density for this treatment. Iftherearenonegatives...... copy the numbers from Column 3 to Column 6 and proceed to Phase Itl. tf this is a thinning or selection cut ...... multiply the original relative density votal, Column lftherearemgative, ... 1) by 0.65. If this number is 60 percent or more, record . . an adjustment is required. Negatives occur in it in the total row of Column 5. If it is less than 60 . Column 4 when the original stand has less density in a percent, record 60 percent. particular size class than the planned cut. Increase the cut in other cfasses by writing positive numbers in those If thii is a slwbwcd seed cut in an area with mockatetohighdeerpressure, rows where the cut is to be increased. Make these ... increases in the smaller size classes to the extent record 60 percent. . . . possible. Do not increase the cut in any size class to more than is available (the value in Column 1). If this is a sbbwood seed cut in an area with low deer pressure, ...... record 50 percent. Check to be sure that the adjustments balance; that is that the sum of the IfthisistResemndcut(first remaval cut) ofathfeecut positive and negative numbers in Column sequence, . . . 4 is zero. . . . record 35 percent. Cakuiate the adjusted cut for each size dsss by Record the desired residual density in the Total summingCdumn 3 and Cdumn 4. RBcotd the answers row, Column 5. in Column 6. Check to be certain that the total of the values in Cdumn 6 equals ?he total already mitten there. to 6. Determine the density to be removed in this Roceed Phase Ill. treatment. Subtract the desired residual density (Total, Column 5) from the original relative density (Total, Column 1). Record this value in the Total Since no saplings will be cut in these treatments, row, Cdumn 6. transfer the original relative density of the sapling class from Column t to Column 3. 7. Determine the size class distribution for this Determine the residual density of the merchantable size treatment. Copy the goal percents for each size classes by subtracting the sapling density from the total class from Table 6 (Cut relative density to come Residual Density (Total, Column 5). Record the answer from and relative density to be retained in various in the space- Column 3. size cfasses, in percent, page 80) to Column 2, Distribution of Cut Form, by size classes. Use the Determine the distribution of this merchantable residual among the size classes. Multiply the proportions line on Table 6 for the appropriate prescription already written in Column 2 by the merchantable and stand diameter. Record the percents as residual above Column 3. Record each answer in the proportions; that is, divide each by 100 and appropriate size class in Column 3. record. Total Column 3 and be certain that the total residual goal is the same as the total of Column 5. 5. For each size class, compare the planned residual . . . an adjustment to increase the UGS removed is structure with the existing structure by subtracting the required. The nature of the adjustment depends on the values in Column 3 from the values in Column I. -totals of Column 6 and Column 7. Record negatives only in Column 4. 3. Make the adjustment, if required. Hthereararwmpfies, ...... the cut can be implementedas planned. Copy the values for each size class in Colurnn 3 to Column 5, bsidual Goal. Calculate the Cut Goal by subtracting Column 5 from Column 1 for each size class. Record the answers in Column 6. Proceed to base Ill. 1. Erase or strike out the positive numbers in Column 8. H~aasnegatives.... an adjustment is required. Negatives in Column 4 . . . 2. Change the negative numbers to positives. %cause reflect deficiencies in the current stand compared to the the relative density of the planned cut exceeds the desired residual. lncrease the residual in other classes relative density of UGS in Colurnn 7, all the UGS in to ensure that the correct residual density is left. Do Column 7 can be removed in this treatment. The not increase the residual in any class above the density numbers just made positive represent increased cuts in in the original stand, or the value in Column 1. Record those classes where UGS were to be left. increases as positive numbers in Column 4. In general, 3. Bcrease the cut in the remaining classes to balance increase the residual in smaller classes. The best trees the increases recorded in Step 2. %cord the decreases in these classes will grow faster and smooth out the as negative numbers in Column 8. Be sure not to deficiencies prior to the next cut. decrease the cut so far as to leave UGS in these classes- -that is, be certain that Column 6 minus your adjustment Be certain that the adjustments balance; that is, that in Column 8 is greater than or equal to the value in the sum of the positive and negative numbers in Column Column 7. 4 is D. 4. Be certain that the adjustment is balanced; that is, Determinethe actual residual goal by summingthe initial that the sum of the positive and negative numbers in goal in Column 3 and the adjustments in Column 4 for Column 8 is- each size class. Record the answers in Column 5. Be certain that the sum of the values in Column 5 is equal 5. Determine the adjusted cut by summing the values to the total already written there. in Column 6 and the values in Column 8 for each size class. Record the answers in Column 9. Be certain that Determine the cut goal for each size class by the sum of Column 9 equals the Total, Column 6. subtracting Column 5 from Column 1 and recording the Proceed to Pkie W. answers in Column 6. Proceed to Phase Ill. If the total of Column 6 is less than the total of Column 7 (that is, the UGS exceed the planned cut) . . .

I. Determine the qualify effects oP the planned 1. Erase or strike out the negative numbers in Column 8. cut, Subtract the original relative density of UGS (Column 7) from the planned cut (Column 6). 2. Change the positive numbers to negatives. Because Record the answers in Colurnn 8. Positive values the relative density of the UGS exceeds the planned cut, in Co{umn 8 represent AGS being cut, and the entire cut should be UGS. The numbers just made negative represent decreased cuts in those classes negative values represent UGS being left in the where AGS were to be cut. stand. 3. Increase the cut in the remaining classes to balance 2. Determine whether an adjustment is required the decreases recorded in Step 2 Record the increases 2nd possible. as positive numbers in Column 8. Be sure not to increase the cut in any size class so far as to cut AGS in that class; that is, be certain that the sum of Column 6 if all the answers have the same sign @ositive or plus these adjustments in Column 8 is less than or -mi-)*. - equal to the value in Column 7 for each size class. . . . adjustment is either not required or not possible. Copy all values from Column 6 to Cohmn 9 and proceed to Phase N. Table 6. - Cut relative density to come from and relative density to be retained in various size classes. in percent.

SAPS POLES SSAU MSAU LSAU' MN-AGE SILVICULNRE CUT RELATIVE DENSITY TO COME FROM VARIOUS SIZE CLASSES

Comercia1 Thinning and Shel terwood ~utting2

-- 51 27 15 7

Combined TSI - Comercia1 Thinning

Precomnercial Thinning 100 0 0 0 0

Thin-Harvest

ALL-AGE SILVICULTURE RELATIVE DENSITY TO BE RETAINED IH VARIOUS SIZE CLASSES

Standard Selection Cutting (Mgmt Coat 3)

Single-tree Selection Cutting with Maxim Large Trees (Mgmt Goal 4) - - 4 22 30 27 21

1For commercial thinning only, take up to 50 percent of original density In large saws and adjust other sizes proportionally. "ote that shetterwood cuts being made in stands that contain 5 or more square feet of basal area per acre in noncommercial (UGS)saplings and poles should Include removal of alf noncommercial stems (usually by lnjectfon with an herbicide) even though no other cutting will occur in the sapling class. For thln-hawest only. take up to 75 percent of orlginal density in large saws and adjust other sbes proportfonally. In all-age cuts, dl exlstlng saplfng density is retained. Figure

TI c c - .-'El6a jl s i I i I IBPdI ufia 4. Be certain that the adjustment is balanced; instructions. This will ensure that all the research that is, that the sum of the positive and results incorporated in the guidelines are applied negative numbers in Column 8 iszero. on the ground, and that the residual stand after treatment will have the density, structure, species 5. Determine the adjusted cut by summing composition, and quality that have been so the values in Coiumn 6 and the values in carefully ptanned. if this task is not performed Columri 8. Record the answers in Column 9. properly, all of the time and effort expended in the Be certain that the sum of Column 9 equals previous steps will have been wasted. the total of Column 6. Proceed to Phase IV. Most markers are accustomed to marking Phase N- Translate the P,anned cut to a marking stands to a specific residual basal area and to guide and fo &ad area. selecting trees for removal so as to improve tree spacing, total stand quality, and to regulate I. Calculate the percent cut in each size class: species composition. The SILVAH system Divide Column 9 by Column 1 and multiply by incorporates control of stand structure as well. 100. Record the answers in Column 10. Now markers must make an effort to remove the desired density in specific tree sizes. 2. Determine the cut ratio by translating the percents in Column 10 to proportions and During the calculations for the SlLVAH reducing these to simple fractions. For example, system, figures were carried to tenths of square if 52 percent of the poles are to be cut, this is the feet of basal area. Then those precise same as 52/180, which can be reduced to calculations were reduced to broad ratios, like 1:5 approximately 1/2 of the poles. Avoid fractions large sawtimber or 2:3 poles for marking. If finer than 5th~.Record the ratios in Column 1I. calculations are rounded off too soon, the ratios arrived at will be very different, due to the 3. Determine the cut basal area for each size accumulation of errors. But with precise class by multiplying the percents in Column 10 calculations rounded at the end, the ratios times the basal areas in Column 12 and dividing developed are adequatefy precise for marking, by 100. Record these values in Column 13. The based on sound figures, and easy to apply with a sum of these values is the total basal area cut. little practice. These values can be converted to crude volumes using the basal area factors from the Overstory To use these ratios in the forest, stop at Tally - Manual Summary form. regular intewals through the stand and consider the circle of trees around you. Decide which 4. Determine the residual basal areas for each trees are best to leave for the final crop and size class by subtracting the cut values in Column decide which of the trees in the circle must be 13 from the original stand values in Column 12. removed to achieve the residual density goal and Record the answers in Column 14. improve the growing conditions for these trees. The ratios are intended to help you achieve this. The distribution of cut ratios described above If the medium sawtimber ratio developed in the are all calculated automatically by the computer caiculations is 15 and there are five medium program, and they are printed in the narrative sawtimber trees, choose the best four and mark section of the computer printout as marking the remaining one. If the pole ratio is 2:3, and instructions. Data on the residual and cut stands there are six pole-site trees in the circle, choose are also included. the best two trees that do not interfere with the sawtimber. Leave these and mark the other four. Timber Marking Procedures Do the same in the other size dasses, using the appropriate ratios. If you let your marking be The final step in the SILVAH system is to guided by the ratios, you wilt achieve both the apply the prescription just prepared by marking desired structure and the desired density. the forest stand in accordance with the marking The ratios automatically help you adjust your Marking is a phase of the SILVAH system that marking as conditions within the stand vary. calls for professional experience and judgment. Whatever your ratios, you will automatically mark The ratios developed by the computer or the more heavily in areas where the stand is dense, manual calculations provide guidelines that enable and more lightly in areas that are sparse. Do not the marker to meet the landowner objectives by allow the ratio to override other basic principals or setting stand structure, density, quality, and common sense, and do not try to compensate species composition. But these guidelines will from one spot to the next. best achieve those objectives if implemented with full professional concern for tree quality, spacing, risk factors, and the variability encountered on the ground. Appendix A Sample Manual Overstory Tally Form. 1 SILVAH - Manual Overstory Tally Form 7 Appendix B. Sample Manual JD & Regen Tally Form. SlLVAH - ID 8( Regen Tally Form USDA. Forest Service. NEFES. Warren. PA 1/91 - Identification Data Sheet of 3

Notes

Regeneration Data

rs Grasses ...... I ...... a. -..tir'fr-...... -,% rr n: ;:;??:::A?Y...... i...... , 1s Giabevines ~llfll!l~lr~llll~~~l~I la Site limitations IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII~I/I Appendix C. Sample Manual Overstory Summary farm. - SlLVAH - Manual Overstory Summary - Stand ID USDA. Forest Service. NEFES. Warren. PA 1/9 1

Size class ] 1 BA RD ~d~t1 SA RD ed~t] BA RD ~d~tI BA R D ~d~i -.. 1 ...... value ...... Saplings . - ...... f ,* 4 4 y:<<<<<<;<<<...... -...... -...... value ,q ,,.,.:::: ...... Poles 3 / ;.--.: ::<<:;:-:-:+ 5 . ' 0 60 <+.:;.:...-...-... .:.:;

value Large Saws ___ 01: 74 . . 1 f ' 0.27 148 0.44 120 o.gl j 0.5 0.1 ' 79

UGS 1 8C-WA-YP [ RM-NRO-EH-0th I SM-AS-S~M-00 I All Species UGS 1 I I I Size class / SA RD : ~d~ilBA RD ; B~F*I SA ; RD : sd~tI BA : RD B~FI 1 I I I k:.:,...... value ...... - . Saplings -- f ...... value Poles

Small Saws ~6.8&.7;L9&L8'3.?;218,~~!~.413y,~g' /&.y 638 / f 0.39'-42 ' - 0.57' 32 - 0.04 32 Medium Saws 170 47' 1.5 :30/3,L I /.b 7.9 : 3.1 47/ f 0.31 ' 64 0.49. 53 0.92. 53 value .- Large Saws : f 0.27 74 0.44 60 0.91 60 I Appendbr D. Sample Prescription Summary Worksheet. - SILVAH - Prescription Summary Worksheet - Stand ID USA. Forest Service. NEFES. Warren. PA 5/90 Years to Maturity 1 Prescription Variables Species f BAtf Sums Site & Environmental Factors ...... Black --- cherry- .su.5-.. White ash 6.4 ...... Management Goal / -_Ye!!ow~_o~Lar- I I ~.,R.ed-_m_p~!k 07,8 -20 23.5 Deer impact index 4 -. No. red oak ..... Eastern.,.. hemlock Seed source index Alf others F 5.3 Sugar maple 30.0 ...... -...... - I Site timitations American beech .. 10.1 , -- 40. 5 6.0 -.Striped . -- Maple. Other oaks, hick...... iota1 j::::::::::::: !57.9 r1.1~- 29.5 Understory Factors Yrs. to Mat. = (18 - MD~)/~rowfhfacfor~ Any small regen 50 3.5 18- 4.= = /8 Any regen or residuals 53 1 Any small regen - no deer 1 76 Seed Source Index I Any regen or residuals - no deer 76 I Sapling regen 0 I Any inferference 1 13

Oaks Il.01 1 Overstorv Factors Total 357.7 -- ...... r~aplingbasal area Shade tolerant basal area 4d Relative stand densify 97 Shade Tolerant Composition I Relative density AGS Soecies I Toial basal area 6.3 Suqar maple 1 30.0 I Stand diameter (MD) American beech 1 10.0 f 13,7 Easiern hemlock Merch. stand diameter (MDM) k? TO~OI 40./ Years to maturity 18 Prescription: ~%P&ZI;F Other oaks SSaw MSaw Appendix E. Sample Distribution of Cut - Commercial Thinning. Appendix F. Sample Distribution of Cut - Standard Selection Cut. Appendix G. Sample Stand Analysis Tally Form.

SlLVAH - Computer Overstory Tally Form r USOA. Forest Service, NEFES. Worren. PA 17/91 ( Overstory Data sbnd ID CDyP / 7,: Snd~23 sheet h -3 1 Appendix H. Sample printout from SILVAH stand inventory, analysis, and prescription program SILVAH -- SILVICULTURE OF ALLEGHENY HARDWOODS - V4.50 STAND SUMMARY, PRESCRIPTION, AND MANAGEMENT SIMULATOR PROGRAM DEVELOPED BY THE NORTHEASTERN FOREST EXPERIMENT STATION, WARREN, PA. OWNER/AGENCY -- USFS DATE TALLIED: APR/1982 FOREST/PROPERTY -- KANE EXP. FOREST DATE PRINTED: 8/NOV/199 1 COUNTY/DISTRICT -- ELK FILE: c:\silvah\sample.SIL COMPT - STAND -- 171 23 DEFAULT: SILVAH.DEF ACRES -- 100.00 TYPE: ALLEGHENY HARDWOOD STAND AGE -- UNKNOWN SIZE: SMALL SAW SITE -- 70 FOR BC DENSITY: GT 95 % COMPUTER SAMPLE AS PROVIDED IN TRAINING SESSION HANDBOOK

OVERSTORY...... CRUISE INFORMATION Overstory data is from an individual tree tally prism cruise, using a 10 factor prism, and with trees tallied by 2 inch dbh classes, heights, and pulp & cull grades only. Overstory data based on 19. plots; 0. additional plots needed to reach 15 % of the mean; 0. additional plots needed to reach 10 % of the mean.

Mean basal area is 158. plus or minus 15. square feet per acre at 90 % confidence ( 9. % of mean) .

UNDERSTORY...... CRUISE INFORMATION Data on advance regeneration, site limitations, and understory is from a standard regeneration cruise using 6-ft radius plots.

Understory data is based on 38. plots. SILVAH -- SILVICULTURE OF ALLEGHENY HARDWOODS - V4.50 STAND SUMMARY, PRESCRIPTION, AND MANAGEMENT SIMULATOR PROGRAM DEVELOPED BY THE NORTHEASTERN FOREST EXPERIMENT STATION, WARREN, PA. OWNER/AGENCY -- USFS DATE TALLIED: APR/1982 FOREST/PROPERTY -- KANE EXP. FOREST DATE PRINTED : 8/NOV/1991 COUNTY/DISTRICT -- ELK FILE: c:\silvah\sample.SIL COMPT - STAND -- 171 23 DEFAULT: SILVAH,DEF ACRES -- 100.00 TYPE: ALLEGHENY HARDWOOD STAND AGE -- UNKNOWN SIZE: SMALL SAW SITE -- 70 FOR BC DENSITY: GT 95 % COMPUTER SAMPLE AS PROVIDED IN TRAINING SESSION HANDBOOK

SPECIES OR % OF PLOTS AVERAGE ------CATEGORY ------STOCKED ------VALUE DESIRABLE...... TREE REGENERATION

BLACK CHERRY 47. SMALL OAK 0 OTHER DESIRABLES 0. ** ALL DESIRABLES 5. LARGE OAK 0. ** ANY SMALL REGEN 50. RESIDUALS 5. ** ANY REGEN OR RESIDS 53. SAPLING REGEN 0. OAK SPROUT POTENTIAL 0. 0. Stumps/ac to sprout ** ANY REGEN OR SPROUTS 50. ** ANY REGEN,RESIDS,SPROUTS 53. ------FACTORS AFFECTING REGENERATION DIFFICULTY

DEER IMPACT 4 High SEED SUPPLY 1 Abundant seeds

...... INTERFERING UNDERSTORY

WOODY INTERFERENCE 5. LAUREL & RHODO 0. % FERNS 11. % GRASSES 0. ** ANY INTERFERENCE 13. GRAPEVINES 0. SITE------LIMITATIONS FOR REGENERATION

SITE LIMITATIONS 0. SILVAH -- SILVICULTURE OF ALLEGHENY HARDWOODS - V4.50 STAND SUMMARY, PRESCRIPTION, AND MANAGEMENT SIMULATOR PROGRAM DEVELOPED BY THE NORTHEASTERN FOREST EXPERIMENT STATION, WARREN, PA.

OWNER/AGENCY -- VSFS DATE TALLIED : APR/1982 FOREST/PROPERTY -- KANE EXP. FOREST DATE PRINTED: 8/NOV/1991 COUNTY/DISTRICT -- ELK FILE: c:\silvah\sample.SIL COMPT - ST=D -- 171 23 DEFAULT: SILVAH.DEF ACRES -- 100.00 TYPE: ALLEGHENY HARDWOOD STAND AGE -- UNKNOWN SIZE: SMALL SAW SITE -- 70 FOR BC DENSITY: GT 95 % COMPUTER SAMPLE AS PROVIDED IN TRAINING SESSION HANDBOOK

SPECIES OR % OF PLOTS ------CATEGORY ------STOCKED ------VALUE

------SITE INFORMATION

COVER TYPE 1 Forest

HABITAT TYPE 9 Unknown

SOIL TYPE 9 Unknown

SITE CLASS 9 Unknown SITE SPECIES BC SITE INDEX 70 REL MERCH HT 1.00 ELEVATION 0 ASPECT 0 SLOPE % 0 TOP0 POSITION 9 Unknown

OPERABILITY 9 Unknown

ACCESSABILITY 9 Unknown

STRESS------FACTORS DEER IMPACT 4 High GYPSY MOTH 4 Unknown OTHER STRESS 4 Unknown SILVAH -- SILVICULTURE OF ALLEGHENY HARDWOODS - V4.50 STAND SUMMARY, PRESCRIPTION, AND MANAGEMENT SIMULATOR PROGRAM DEVELOPED BY THE NORTHEASTERN FOREST EXPERIMENT STATION, WARREN, PA.

OWNER/AGENCY -- USFS DATE TALLIED : APR/1982 FOREST/PROPERTY -- KANE EXP. FOREST DATE PRINTED: 8/NOV/1991 @OUNTY/DISTRICT -- ELK FILE: c: \silvah\sample, SIL COMPT - STAND -- 171 23 DEFAULT: S1LVAH.DEF

ACRES -- 100.00 TYPE: ALLEGHENY HARDWOOD STAND AGE -- UNKNOWN SIZE: SMALL SAW SITE -- 70 FOR BC DENSITY: GT 95 % COMPUTER SAMPLE AS PROVIDED IN TRAINING SESSION HANDBOOK

NANAGEMENT------GOALS

No restrictions on mgmt for either visual or wildlife goals. For this goal, stand value is Medium

WILDLIFE------TREES NO. /ACRE

POTENTIAL DEN TREES .O EXISTING DEN TREES .O SNAGS WITH POTENTIAL CAVITIES .O SNAGS WITH EXISTING CAVITIES -0 OTHER STANDING DEAD TREES (Not Snags) .O

WATER HABITATS WITHIN THIS STAND INCLUDE: Unknown Unknown

HABITAT------CONDITIONS SUWOUNDING THIS STAND CLEARCUT ACRES W/I 1 MILE .OO CULTIVATED ACRES W/I 1 MILE .OO OPEN ACRES W/I 1 MILE .00 WATER HABITATS INCLUDE: Unknown SILVAH -- SILVICULTURE OF ALLEGHENY HARDWOODS - V4.50 STAND SUMMARY, PRESCRIPTION, AND MANAGEMENT SIMULATOR PROGRAM DEVELOPED BY THE NORTHEASTERN FOREST EXPERIMENT STATION, WARREN, PA.

OWNER/AGENCY -- USFS DATE TALLIED: APR/1982 FOREST/PROPERTY -- KANE EXP. FOREST DATE PRINTED: 8/NOV/1991 COUNTY/DISTRICT -- ELK FILE: c:\silvah\sample.SIL

COMPT - STAND -- 171 23 DEFAULT: SILVAH.DEF

ACRES -- 100.00 TYPE: ALLEGHENY HARDWOOD STAND AGE -- UNKNOWN SIZE: SMALL SAW SITE -- 70 FOR BC DENSITY: GT 95 % COMPUTER SAMPLE AS PROVIDED IN TRAINING SESSION HANDBOOK

ORIGINAL STAND

PRODUCT LISTING (total stand)

SPECIES > ALL SP I BC RM SM AB WA B NET LOG VOLUME (INT 1/4" LOG RULE) - MBF / 10 VENEER 7.8 ' 6.7 .8 .I .O .3 .O GRADE 1 44.4 37.7 4.8 .4 -0 1.5 .O GRADE 2 33.8 15.1 11.4 1.9 .3 5.1 .O GRADE 3 23.0 9.9 7.2 3.6 .1 1.1 1.1 PALLET .O I .O .O .O .O ,0 -0 TOTAL 109.1 1 69.4 24.2 6.0 .4 8.0 1.1 NET BULK VOLUME - CORDS / 10

BOLTWOOD .o ' -0 .o .o .O .o .O PULPWOOD 185.4 75.9 52.9 40.8 3.9 5.5 6.4 FIREWOOD .O I .O -0 .O .O .O -0 TOTAL 185.4 1 75.9 52.9 40.8 3.9 5.5 6.4 VALUE - DOLLARS / 1000

VENEER 37.2 GRADE 1 210.6 GRADE 2 81.3 GRADE 3 36.6 PALLET .O TOTAL 365.6

BOLTWOOD .O PULPWOOD 3.7 FIREWOOD .O TOTAL 3.7

$/CORD 2. f 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2.

GR. TOTAL 369.3 (328.9 16.2 3.1 .1 20.8 .2 SILVAH -- SILVICULTURE OF ALLEGHENY HARDWOODS - V4-50 STAND SUMMARY, PRESCRIPTION, AND MANAGEMENT SIMULATOR PROGRAM DEVELOPED BY THE NORTHEASTERN FOREST EXPERIMENT STATION, WARREN, PA.

OWNER/AGENCY -- USFS DATE TALLIED: APR/1982 FOREST/PROPERTY -- KANE EXP. FOREST DATE PRINTED : 8/NOV/1991 COUNTY/DISTRICT -- ELK FILE: c:\silvah\sample.SIL COMPT - STAND -- 171 23 DEFAULT : S ILVAH. DEF ACRES -- 100.00 TYPE : ALLEGHENY HARDWOOD STAND AGE -- UNKNOWN SIZE: SMALL SAW SITE -- 70 FOR BC DENSITY:' GT 95 % COMPUTER SAMPLE AS PROVIDED IN TRAINING SESSION HANDBOOK

ORIGINAL STAND

SPECIES > ALL SP f BC RM SM AB WA B

COMPOSITION -- BA, % OF BA, TREES

TOT BA SPECIES% # TREES

QUALITY -- % IN AGS

SAPS POLES SM SAW MED SAW LG SAW ALL SIZE

DIAMETERS AND AGES -- INCHES, YEARS

DIAM DIAM MER QUAD DIA

YRS MAT EFCT AGE

STRUCTURE

Q FACTOR WEIB C

RELATIVE DENSITY -- %

REL DEN AGS RDEN

VOLUMES AND VALUES - INT 1/4" LOG RULE

GTOT CDS NTOT CDS PULP CDS GRS BDFT NET BDFT DOLLARS SILVAH -- SILVICULTURE OF ALLEGHENY HARDWOODS - V4.50 STAND SUMMARY, PRESCRIPTION, AND MANAGEMENT SIMULATOR PROGRAM DEVELOPED BY THE NORTHEASTERN FOREST EXPERIMENT STATION, WARREN, PA,

OWNER/AGENCY -- USFS DATE TALLIED: APR/1982 FOREST/PROPERTY -- KANE EXP. FOREST DATE PRINTED: 8/NOV/1991 COUNTY/DISTRICT -- ELK FILE: c:\silvah\sample.SIL

COMPT - STAND -- 171 23 DEFAULT: SILVAH.DEF

ACRES -- 100.00 TYPE: ALLEGHENY HARDWOOD STAND AGE -- UNKNOWN SIZE: SMALL SAW SITE -- 70 FOR BC DENSITY: GT 95 % COMPUTER SAMPLE AS PROVIDED IN TRAINING SESSION HANDBOOK

ORIGINAL STAND

BASAL AREA - SQ. FT. PER ACRE

SPECIES > ALL SP DIA. 2 5.3 / 4 6 508 1 8 11.68.4 1 10 17.4 I 12 22.6 I 14 27.9 I 16 22.6 I 18 20.5 1 20 I 22 9-5 1 5-8 1 24 -5 1

SAPS 11.1 POLES 37.4 SM SAW 73.2 MED SAW 35.8 LG SAW -5 TOTAL 157.9

ACCEPTABLE GROWING STOCK ONLY SAPS 3.7 / .O 1.1 1.6 1.1 .O .O POLES 23.7 2.6 6.8 11.6 .O .5 2.1 SM SAW 55.3 26.3 18.4 5.3 .5 3.7 1.1 MED SAW 27.9 24.7 2.1 .O -0 1.1 -0 LG SAW I .5 .O .o .O .O .o TOTAL 111.1,-5 1 54.2 28.4 18.4 1.6 5.3 3.2 SILVAH -- SILVICULTURE OF ALLEGHENY HARDWOODS - V4.50 STAND SUMMARY, PRESCRIPTION, AND MANAGEMENT SIMULATOR PROGRAM DEVELOPED BY THE NORTHEASTERN FOREST EXPERIMENT STATION, WARREN, PA. OWNER/AGENCY -- USFS DATE TALLIED: APR/1982 FOREST/PROPERTY -- KANE EXP. FOREST DATE PRINTED: 8/NOV/199 1 COUNTY/DISTRICT -- ELK FILE: c:\silvah\sample.SIL COMPT - STAND -- 17 1 23 DEFAULT : SILVAH .DEF ACRES -- 100.00 TYPE: ALLEGHENY HARDWOOD STAND AGE -- UNKNOWN SIZE: SMALL SAW SITE -- 70 FOR BC DENSITY: GT 95 % COMPUTER SAMPLE AS PROVIDED IN TRAINING SESSION HANDBOOK

This Allegheny hardwood stand is dominated by Black Cherry, Red Maple,

and Sugar Maple, which together comprise 86 % of the basal area.

This is a small sawtimber stand, with average diameter of 13.1 inches. Total growing stock amounts to 158. sq. ft. of basal area per acre. Gross total volume in all trees, to a 4-inch top, is 40. cords per acre; if divided into pulpwood and sawtimber the net merchantable volume is 19. cords of pulpwood and 10909. board feet of sawtimber (Int 1/4" log rule) per acre. The total stand value is estimated to be about 3693. dollars per acre.

Relative stand density is 97. % of the average maximum stocking expected in undisturbed stands of similar size and species composition. This density is well above the optimum for best individual tree growth. At this relative density, growth rate of the biggest trees is probably moderate, while growth rate of the medium and smaller-sized trees is probably poor and mortality due to crowding high. Partial cutting to provide more growing space for trees of better quality and species is highly desirable at this time. If this stand is managed under an even-age silvicultural system, the several species groups will mature at markedly different times. The average number of years to maturity is 22. and effective stand age is about 75. years old. If this stand is managed under an all-age silvicultural system, the distribution of diameters, proportion of sawtimber, and density of shade-tolerant species are adaptable to selection cutting. Trees of acceptable quality for future growing stock provide a fully stocked stand by themselves and warrant further management. Sapling trees too small to be merchantable do not represent a significant proportion of stand stocking and need not be included in any partial cuttings, Advance regeneration of all types is scarce; harvest cuttings at this time will not likely result in a satisfactory new stand. Neither site limitations nor undesirable understory plants are likely to interfere with attempts to establish regeneration. SILVAH -- SILVICULTURE OF ALLEGHENY HARDWOODS - V4.50 STAND SUMMARY, PRESCRIPTION, AND MANAGEMENT SIMULATOR PROGRAM DEVELOPED BY THE NORTHEASTERN FOREST EXPERIMENT STATION, WARREN, PA. OWNER/AGENCY -- USFS DATE TALLIED: APR/1982 FOREST/PROPERTY -- KANE EXP. FOREST DATE PRINTED: 8/NOV/ 19 91 COUNTY/DISTRICT -- ELK FILE: c:\silvah\sample.SIL COMPT - STAND -- 171 23 DEFAULT: SILVAH.DEF ACRES -- 100.00 TYPE: ALLEGHENY HARDWOOD STAND AGE -- UNKNOWN SIZE: SMALL SAW SITE -- 70 FOR BC DENSITY: GT 95 % COMPUTER SAMPLE AS PROVIDED IN TRAINING SESSION HANDBOOK

Commercial Thinning (integrated sale) Perform a thinning to provide additional growing space for the better trees and provide some intermediate yield. Stand size and composition are such that the thinning can be performed on a commercial basis and will yield a product mix consisting of both sawlogs and pulpwood.

The volumes to be removed are: 2001. bd ft (Int 1/4" log rule) and 6.4 cords per acre.

Reduce relative stand density to 63. % leaving 109. sq. ft. of basal area per acre. Remove trees in the size and quality classes shown below:

Cut 3. out of 5. trees from the polesize class. Cut 1. out of 4. trees from the ssawsize class.

Cut 1, out of 4. trees from the msawsize class.

Cut 1. out of 2. trees from the lsawsize class.

About 80 % of the trees cut will be UGS. This will result in the removal of about 84 % of the UGS this stand and about 100 % of the merchantable-sized UGS. Within the size and quality constraints above, favor the best trees whenever possible. Try to preserve seed sources of scarce species if they are desired in the regeneration, and strive for uniform spacing among residuals whenever possible. LOO SILVAH -- SILVICULTURE OF ALLEGHENY HARDWOODS - V4.50 STAND SUMMARY, PRESCRIPTION, AND MANAGEMENT SIMULATOR PROGRAM DEVELOPED BY THE NORTHEASTERN FOREST EXPERIMENT-STATION, WARREN, PA.

OWNER/AGENCY -- USFS DATE TALLIED: APR/1982 FOREST/PROPERTY -- KANE EXP. FOREST DATE PRINTED: 8/NOV/1991 COUNTY/DISTRICT -- ELK FILE: c:\silvah\sample,SIL

COMPT - STAND -- 171 23 DEFAULT: SILVAH .DEF

ACRES -- 100.00 TYPE: ALLEGHENY HARDWOOD STAND AGE -- UNKNOWN SIZE: SMALL SAW SITE -- 70 FOR BC DENSITY: GT 95 % COMPUTER SAMPLE AS PROVIDED IN TRAINING SESSION HANDBOOK

1 ORIGINAL CUT RESIDUAL I ORIGINAL CUT RESIDUAL I BASAL AREA - SQ FT/A i SPECIES COMPOSITION - % SAPS POLES SM SAW MED SAW LG SAW TCITAL

1 NUMBER OF TREES - #/A 1 QUALITY -- % IN AGS

I # TREES I % AGS 70. 93.

1 DIAMETERS - IN. I AGES - YRS. DIAM ] YRS MAT 22. DIAM MER 13-9 14.8 EFCT AGE 75. QUAD DIA 7.6 6.9 1

RELATIVE DENSITY - % I STRUCTURE REL DEN 97. 63. I Q FACTOR 1.4 1.3 AGS RDEN 62. 54. WEIB C -0 .O

BD FT INT 1/4", VALUE/A I CORD VOLUME/A

GR, BDFT 14047. 2636. 11411. ' TOT CDS 50.2 12.9 37.3 NET BDFT 10909. 2001. 8909. NET CDS 40.1 10.3 29.9 DOLLARS 3693. 657. 3036. ,I PULP CDS 18.5 6.4 12.1

I BD FT INT 1/ 4", VALUE I CORD VOLUME GR. MBF 1404.7 263.6 1141.1 ' TOT CDS 5019. 1286. 3733. NET MBF 1090.9 200.1 890.9 NET CDS 4015. 1029. 2986. M DOLLAR 369.3 65.7 303.6 PULPCDS 1854. 642. 1212.

* US. Government Printing Office: 1992-649-503 Marquis, David A.; Ernst, Richard L; Stout, Susan L. 1992. Prescribing sihricultural treatments in hardwood stands of the Alleghenies (revised). Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-96. Radnor, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 101 p.

This publication brings together the results of 20 years of research and experience in the silviculture of hardwood forests in the Allegheny region. It provides a summary of silvicultural knowiedge,and guidelines, decision tables, and step-by-step instructions for determining silvicultural prescriptions in individual stands.

Keywords: Silvicultural prescriptions, management guides, regeneration, stand culture, I Allegheny hardwoods, northern hardwoods, oak-hickory, decision support system

CAUTION

Pesticides used improperly can be injurious to man, animals, and plants. Follow the directions and heed all precautions on the labels.

Store pesticides in original containers under lock and key--out of the reach of children and animals--and away from food and feed.

Apply pesticides so that they do not endanger humans, livestock, crops, beneficial insects, fish, and wildlife. Do not apply pesticides when there is danger of drift, when honey bees or other pollinating insects are visiting plants, or in ways that may contaminate water or leave illegal residues. Avoid prolonged inhalation of pesticide sprays or dusts; wear protective clothing and equipment if specified on the container.

If your hands become contaminated with a pesticide, do not eat or drink until you have washed. In case a pesticide is swallowed or gets in the eyes, follow the first aid treatment given on the label, and get prompt medical attention. If a pesticide is spilled on your skin or clothing, remove clothing immediately and wash skin thoroughly.

NOTE: Some States have restrictions on the use of certain pesticides. Check your State and local regulations. Also, because registrations of pesticides are under constant review by the Environmental Protection Agency, consult your local forest pathologist, county agricultural agent, or State Extension specialist Po be sure the intended use is still registered. Headquartersof the Northeastern Forest Experiment Station is in Radnor, Penn- sylvania. Field laboratories are maintained at:

Amherst, Massachusetts, in cooperation with the University of Massachusetts

Burlington, Vermont, In cooperation with the Unkersfty of Vermont

Delaware, Ohio

Durham, New Hampshire, in cooperation with the University of New Hampshire

Hamden, Connecticut, In cooperatlon with Yale Unlversity

Morgantown, West Virginia, in cooperation with West Virginia University

Orono, Maine, in cooperation with the University of Maine

Parsons, West Virginia

Princeton, West Virginia

Syracuse, New York, in cooperation with the State University of New York, College of Environmental Sciences and Forestry at Syracuse University

University Park, Pennsylvania, in cooperation with The Pennsylvania State Unl- versity

Warren, Pennsylvania

Persons of any race, color, national origin, sex, age, religion, or with any handicap- ping condition are welcome to use and enjoy all facilities, programs, and services of the USDA. Discrimination in any form is strictly against agency policy, and should be reported to the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, DC 20250.

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