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Religion, Society and Politics in a Changing Turkey Religion, Society and Politics in a Changing Turkey RELIGION, SOCIETY AND POLITICS IN A CHANGING TURKEY RELIGION, SOCIETY AND POLITICS IN A CHANGING TURKEY ISBN: 978-975-8112-90-6 TESEV PUBLICATIONS Prepared for Publication by: Derya Demirler, Fırat Bozçalı, Hande Yalnızoğlu Translated from Turkish by: Çiğdem Aksoy Fromm Edited by: Jenny Sanders Book Design: Rauf Kösemen, Myra Cover Design: Bora Tekoğul Prepared for printing by: Myra Printed by: Sena Ofset, 0212 613 38 46 Turkish Economic and Social Studies Foundation Democratization Program Bankalar Cad. Minerva Han No: 2 Kat: 3 Karaköy 34420, İstanbul Tel: +90 212 292 89 03 PBX Fax: +90 212 292 90 46 [email protected] www.tesev.org.tr Copyright © 2007 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced electronically or mechanically (photocopy, storage of records or information, etc.) without the permission of the Turkish Economic and Social Studies Foundation (TESEV). The viewpoints in this book belong to the authors, and they may not necessarily concur partially or wholly with TESEV’s viewpoints as a foundation. TESEV would like to extend its thanks to the Turkey Representative Office of the Friedrich Ebert Stiftung Association, the Open Society Institute-Turkey, and TESEV High Advisory Board for their contributions with regard to the publication and promotion of this book. RELIGION, SOCIETY AND POLITICS IN A CHANGING TURKEY Al‹ Çarkoğlu – B‹nnaz Toprak TRANSLATED FROM TURKISH BY: Ç‹⁄DEM AKSOY FROMM EDITED BY: JENNY SANDERS Acknowledgements The authors would like to extend their gratitude to TESEV and especially to the administrators and staff of the Democratization Program for their contribution; to their colleague Timur Kuran for his valuable suggestions; to Nazlı Çağın Şahin who did not spare her assistance; and to the staff of the Frekans Research company, particularly to Çağlayan Işık and Ebru Tetik, who carried out the field research for the study. It is only the authors of this book who are responsible for the views presented herein. Ali Çarkoğlu-Binnaz Toprak Contents Foreword to the English Edition, 9 Foreword to the Turkish Edition, 11 Summary, 13 1. INTRODUCTION, 17 2. METHOD OF THE STUDY: SELECTION OF THE SAMPLE AND DESIGN OF THE SURVEY, 21 2.1. General Observations on the Sampling Logic, 21 2.2. Sample Used for the 2006 Study, 22 3. GENERAL FINDINGS OF THE STUDY, 26 3.1. The “Turban” Issue, 26 3.2. Approaches to the Issue of Identity, 30 3.3. “Islamist-Secularist” Polarization, 32 3.4. Opinions Concerning AKP and the AKP Government, 34 3.5. Issue of “Islam and Terrorism”, 35 4. MAIN DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SAMPLE, THE PROBLEMATIC OF IDENTITY AND POLITICAL LEANINGS, 36 4.1. Demographic Characteristics of the Research Sample, 36 4.1.1. Education, 37 4.1.2. Ethnic Origin, 37 4.1.3. Ownership and Income, 39 4.1.4. Positions on the Left-right Ideological Platform, 40 4.1.5. Alevi Origin, 40 4.2. Turkish Voters and Ethnic Religious Identity, 42 5. RELIGIOUS, SOCIAL AND POLITICAL RELATIONS IN TURKEY FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF THE STUDY, 47 5.1. Turkey’s Agenda, 47 5.2. Social Tolerance, 49 5.3. Democratic Values, 55 5.4. Inter-faith Relations and Tolerance, 56 5.5. Compulsory Religious Education, 59 5.6. Business, Wealth and Religion, 61 5.7. Headscarf, Yemeni, Turban, and Çarşaf, 62 5.7.1. Experiences of Covered Women, 70 5.7.2. Marriage and the Covering of Women, 72 5.7.3 Relationships Between Covered and Uncovered Women, 75 5.7.4. Evaluations on the Turban, 76 5.8. Is Religious Fundamentalism a Rising Trend?, 79 5.9. Role of the Military in Politics and in Confronting the Threat of “Radical Fundamentalism”, 83 5.10. Is Religion-Based Conservatism on the Rise?, 85 5.11. Evaluating Religion and the Performance of the Governing Justice and Development Party (AKP), 87 5.12. The Presidential Elections, 99 5.13. Suicide Bombings and Terrorism, 100 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS, 101 Biographies of the Authors, 105 TABLes 2.1. Distribution of the sample in 12 TUIK regions according to the number of registered voters, 21 2.2. Distribution of the sample according to selected cities, 22 4.1. Demographic characteristics of the sample, 34 4.2. Age groups, 35 4.3. Education, 35 4.4. Kurdish ethnic origin, 36 4.5. Changing use of the Kurdish language in the course of time, 36 4.6. Ownership, 37 4.7. Ownership index and groups, 37 4.8. Income groups, 38 4.9. Left-right groups (Placing on the 0-10 scale), 38 4.10. Alevi origin, 39 4.11. Religiosity of people according to their self-evaluation, 39 4.12. Religiosity and the Islamist-Secularist cleavage according to individuals’ self-evaluation, 41 4.13. When asked, would you primarily describe yourself as Turkish, Muslim, a citizen of the Turkish Republic, Kurdish or Alevi? -1-, 43 4.13. When asked, would you primarily describe yourself as Turkish, Muslim, a citizen of the Turkish Republic, Kurdish or Alevi? -2-, 44 5.1. What do you think Turkey’s most significant problem is? What is the second most important one?, 46 5.2. Which problem do you think must be solved first?, 46 5.3. Which of the following policies should the government implement first?, 47 5.4. Tolerance groups, 49 5.5. Fundamental variables and tolerance groups -1- , 50 5.5. Fundamental variables and tolerance groups -2-, 50 5.6. Do you think that the repeated publication of the cartoons of Prophet Mohammad, originally published in a Danish newspaper, despite strong opposition from the Islamic world, is an inevitable consequence of democracy and the freedom of thought?, 52 5.7. Opposition against children who marry a non-Muslim or a Muslim from a different sect, 55 5.8. I would not allow my daughter or son to marry someone from a different sect – Independent Variables - 1-, 55 5.8. I would not allow my daughter or son to marry someone from a different sect– Independent Variables -2-, 56 5.9. Jerusalem is a sacred city for Muslims, Christians and Jews. Which of the following do you think should govern the city?, 56 5.10. Evaluation of religion classes at school and İmam Hatip high schools, 58 5.11. You have said that the entry of graduates of İmam Hatip High Schools to certain faculties at the university level has drawbacks. Which faculties are those?, 58 5.12. Business, wealth and religion, 60 5.13. Do women cover outside the home; if yes, how do they cover?, 61 5.14. Do you think the number of women who cover has increased in the last 10 years?, 62 5.15. If you have or had a daughter who wears a turban, would you approve of her removing it in order to attend university?, 64 5.16. Why do they cover ? -1-, 65 5.16. Why do they cover ? -2-, 66 5.17. Which of the following is the main reason you use a head cover?, 67 5.18. If the women around you decided to uncover, what would you do?, 67 5.19. Do you think women who cover are bothered by others for doing so?, 68 5.20. Everyday experiences of covered and uncovered women, 68 5.21. Everyday experiences according to the type of cover-1-, 69 5.21. Everyday experiences according to the type of cover -2-, 70 5.22. What type of marriage?, 70 5.23. What type of marriage – Cross-tabular analysis -1-, 71 5.23. What type of marriage – Cross-tabular analysis -2-, 72 5.24. Relationships of covered and uncovered women: Could you please indicate if women who wear a çarşaf, yemeni/headcover, turban or who do not cover exist within the groups I will list now?, 74 5.25. Evaluations on the turban, 74 5.26. Women who cover using a turban, headscarf or other types of covers are more honorable than women who do not cover – Cross-tabular analysis results, 75 5.27. If the headscarf ban was lifted, which situation would disturb him/her?, 76 5.28. Some people claim that a religious fundamentalist movement which aims to establish a radical Islamic society and state in Turkey has been on the rise in the last 10-15 years; do you agree?, 77 5.29. Some people claim that a religious fundamentalist movement which aims to establish a radical Islamic society and state in Turkey has been on the rise in the last 10-15 years; do you agree?, 78 5.30. What is the main reason that makes you think that a religious fundamentalist movement which aims to establish a radical Islamic society and state in Turkey has been on the rise in the last 10-15 years?, 78 5.31. Do you think political parties that base their policies on religion should be a part of the Turkish political party system?, 79 5.32. Do you think secularism is under threat in Turkey?, 80 5.33. Role of the military in Turkish politics, 81 5.34. Role of the military in Turkish politics, 82 5.35. Attitudes that assess religion-based conservatism, 84 5.36. Skeptical attitude towards foreigners, 84 5.37. Reform in Islam, 85 5.38. What factors hold the greatest importance for voting? – Factor Analysis Results- , 86 5.39. Important issues related to voting – Cross-tabular analysis 1 – , 88 5.39. Important issues related to voting – Cross-tabular analysis 2 – , 89 5.40. Are AKP’s policies in solving the turban (headscarf) issue satisfactory? – Cross-tabular analysis- , 93 5.41. AKP is a party that is committed to democracy, 94 5.42.
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