CENSUS OF INDIA 1981 SERIES-23 WEST BENGAL PART X-D

HANDICRAFT SURVEY REPORT

CONCHSHELL PRODUCTS

Investigation and Draft: DIPANKAR SEN Editing and Guidance: SUKUMAR SINHA HANDICRAFT SURVEY REPORT

, CONCHSHELL PRODUCTS

Assistance in Investigation and Tabulation: Sri Sanat :Kumar Saba, Assistant Compiler

Preparation of Map: Sri Subir Kumar Chatterjee, DraftsmaJi

Preparation of Sketches; Sri B. N. Mullick, Senior Artist

Photosraphy: Sri Arunabha Dutta, Investigatf,):r

FOREWORD The Indian handicrafts are known the world over for their rich variety, grace, elegance and skilled craftsmanship. Nevertheless, a number of handicrafts because of their stiff compe­ tition with factory made products, non-availability of raw materials, exhorbitant increase in the manufacturing cost, lack of proper marketing facilities for finished products or due to a variety of other reasons have either become extinct or have reached the moribund stage. After independence, however, a number of schemes were introduced by different govern­ ment agencies for their growth and development but still this sudden impetus have helped only a few crafts to flourish and thereby becomes spinners of foreign exchange for the country.

Despite the unique position being enjoyed by the handicrafts especially in the realm of national economy, the general awareness among the people in the country about our crafts and craftsmen had been deplorably poor. Nothing was practically known about the commodities produced, techniques employed for the manufacture of different" objects, raw materials used, their availability, methods adopted for the sale of finished products, etc. An attempt was therefore made in connection with the 1961 Census to study about 150 crafts from different parts of the country with a view to provide basic information on those crafts which were selected for the study.

At the 1971 Census, the study on handicrafts was not taken up but this was again revived in connection with the 1981 Census. There has been, however, some difference between the studies taken up in connection with the Censuses of 1961 and 1981. While the 1961 studies have covered both rural and urban crafts, the 1981 studies have focussed their attention only on traditional rural based crafts.

That apart, the 1981 studies besides touching upon those aspects which were covered under the 1961 series, have laid emphasis on matters that are vital for the revival of rural crafts and thereby for the rejuvenation of the economy of the region particularly the villages. This is in consonance with the policy of the government to give due inportance to the rural sector with focus on employment intensive strategy of development in which next to agriculture, the small scale industries and handicrafts playa significant role.

The formats required for undertaking the study were formulated by Dr. K. P. Ittaman under the able guidance of Dr. N. G. Nag the then Deputy Registrar General, Social Studies Division. Dr. Tttaman who succeeded Dr. Nag as Deputy Registrar General, Social Studies Division, co-ordinated the study undertaken in different StatesiUnion Territories by the Directorates of Census Operations. The reports received from the Directorates were examined by Shri M. K. Jain, Senior Research Officer with the help of Smt. Suman Prashar, Assistant Director of Census Operations and Shyam Singh, Junior Investigator. I am grateful to all of them for organising this study.

The present report is the outcome of a study undertaken on Conchshell Products by the Directorate of Census Operations, West Bengal. I have immense pleasure in acknow· ledging the services rendered by Shri Sukumar Sinha, Joint Director and his colleagues in the Census Directorate for bringing out this publication.

New Delhi, v. S. Verma The 1st June, 1988 Registrar General, India

PREFACE

If the western legend conjures up 'Triton blowing loud his wreathed horn' the Hindu mythology too depicts Lord Vishnu holding the conchsheIl which the symboJic syllable Om (q. v) is inherent 1. The blowing of trumpet in the war-front was extant in the occident for a long time. 'The trumpet's loud clangour, Excites us to arms', writes Dryden 2. The conchshell horns too in olden times struck terror in the hearts of the enemies in battle­ fields. The Kaurava armies in the battle of Kurukshetra were terrorised by the sounds produced by the shell-horns 3. Various myths and legends are current about conchshell and its protective value. The shell of the cowrie is hung on the necks of women, children and cattle, and it is supposed to crack when the -evil eye falls upon it 4. The blowing of the conchshell scares evil spirits from the temple offerings, from the married pair, and from the corpse fi. When the coils of the shell are turned to the right (Dakshina-Varta), it is specially valued 6. Man has at all times been moved with 'concord of sweet sounds' and also with 'music sent up to God'. In Buddist literature among different musical instruments one comes across Sankha which is chank (shell) and a kind of horn '"{. In Bengal the Pauranik has a drum behind him and blows occasionally upon a conchshell 8. Sankha in the Atharvaveda with the epithet Krisana denotes a pearl shell used as an amulet and in the Brihadarayna Upanishad it denotes a shell or conch used for blowing as a wind instrument 9. -Va-tsayallil" -refers to conchshell bangles worn by married women to make themselves attractive. Numerous references in the Puranas and the Shastras to the beliefs and practices connected with the articles of conchshell have been discussed in detail in the monograph. With a glorious tradition rooted in the hoary past dating back to the prehistoric period. the craft of conchshell products once thrived in India along the coastal belt and the use of the products was prevalent among the non·tribals and tribals of India and the adjoining countries like Tibet, Bhutan, etc. The craft once flourished in South India even though its products were exported to Bengat But gradually the centre shifted to Bengal and during the British rule in India the seat of production and trade had been firmly entrenched in Benga1. The British policy in India had made India subservient to the industries of Great Britain and to make the Indian people grow raw produce only, in order to supply material for the looms and manufactories of Great Britain. The British manufactures ... employed the arm of political injustice to keep down and ultimately strangle a competitor with whom he could not have contended on equal terms ; millions of Indian artisans lost their earnings; the population of India lost one great source of their wealth 11. Millions of 'boatmen and boat-builders, cartmen and bullock owners' lost their living Ill. ----- 1 Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethic9, Ed. by James Hastings, Edinburg, Vol. IX, pp. 46. • Song for St. Cecilia's Day by John Dryden. iii. • STimadbhaga-vad Gita, 1.19. • James Hastings, op. cit., Vol. III. pp. 443. • ibid. I ibid. 'James Hastings, op. cit., Vol. IX, pp. 15. S ibid., PP. 47. • Vedic Index of Names and Subjects by A. A. Macdonell and A. B. Keith, London, 1912, Vol. II. pp. 350. 10 Ka1lUlJSUtram, VIII, 1.11. 11 The Economic History of India under Early British Rule by Romesh Dutt. London. 1950, pp. vii. uibid., pp. 311. to Census/88-B (x)

Fortunately, however, many crafts and artisans had not been hit hard by the British :md if so, it was not because of their benevoJence. The British had advanced into only those realms of commerce, trade and industry in which they had their own finished produCl~ to prcmote. Conchshell products along with many other articles of Indian handicrafts did not appear to them to be competitive. The craft, therefore, continued to prosper in undivided Bengal. If with the Partition, the territory of former East Pakistan (now BangIa Desh) was lost, the influx of displaced persons including both the producers and the consu­ mers of the craft's products did not affect the craft's course. The real problem cropped up with the imposition of ban on the import of conchshells from Sri Lanka. But, even then. the craftsmen did not lose heart but looked forwSlrd to the raw material from Tamil Nadu. The crisis that had appeared in the decade 1960-70 had been tided over by timely inter­ vention of the Government of West Bengal in the matter of collection of raw materials from the Government of Tamil Nadu and their distribution among the craftsmen in different districts.

According to the Directorate of Cottage and Small Scale Industries (Handicrafts Section), Government of West Bengal, 12,000 to 12,500 artisans are connected with the cra~t in 38 centres over ] ° districts including Calcutta. There are 40 co-operative societies of craft~mcn functioning in West Bengal. Despite the best efforts of the West Bengal Handicrafts Development Corporation, a Government of West Bengal Undertaking, the craft is facing the problem of inadequate supply of raw material. Against an estimated annual requirement of two million pieces of conchshell the supply of raw material by the West Bengal Handicrafts Development Corporation has been ensured to the extent of one million pieces, supplied by the Government of Tamil Nadu.

The annual production of about 10 million pieces of different articles of conchshel1 is worth about Rupees thirty million approximately. Even though the demand of the raw material is met to the extent of only fifty per cent, the craft is not at all moribund. In fact, the state of the craft is more or less the same as that in the 1960's. The association of a large number of artisans with the craft all over the State highlights the potentiality of this craft to dfer employment to the men and women in the rural areas, urban areas not eX'::!l1ded. Since custom, faith, rites and rituals have stood up steadfastly for the use of the articles produced by the craft, the demand of the customers among pious men and women for the use of the products at house and in temples has waned the least. Besides, conchshell ornaments have been accepted even by secular women for purposes of adornment of the body. The clientele of women as aha the Hindu devotees have largely been the arbiter of the fate of the craft. At the moment the craft'" life is assured a long cruise provided the sea off the coasts of Tamil Nadu does not become too tumultuous to transfuse steadily the supply of blood in the form of white conchshell to the artisans in West Bengal.

II The present monograph is the first in the series of the Rural Craft Survey Reports a') pact of 1981 Censu" programme, the scheme having been delineated in details by Sri V. S. Verma, Regi<;trar General, India, in his Foreword. The investigation into the present craft v:a<; conducted in ] 986-87 by Sri Dipankar Sen, Investigator with the help of detailed Qllesti(mnaires and schedules. Sri Sen was assisted by Sri Sanat Kumar Saha, Assi<;tan1 Comnije-. Published books and journals. group discussions and participant observation for.tified the comprehensive study of the craft, the guiding principle being objectivity. Y ct. subjectivity, though kept in bay most1y, hns tinged the portrait of the craft in some place'). R~lt, the ~ame is not divorced from realitv. Omissions here and there are involuntary and, therefore, may be excused. Opinions here or elsewhere are personal and do not reprc')cnt the policies or the view'> of the State or Central Government. (xi)

III The present monograph bears an eloquent testimony to the active assistance, warm co-operation and interested response of the practising and non-practising artisan.;; of the craft-centres. While all of them earn my unqualified tribute, 1 specially recall with gratitude the help rendered by Sri Shyamapada Nandi of Raibaghini, Sri Robi Das of Kamarsol and Sri Ramanath Bhadra of Shashpur. all experienced craftsmen in their craft-centres.

Sri V. S. Verma, Registrar General. India, has becn the moving spirit behind the accomplishment of the present task. He inspired us to imbue the work with quality. His constant watch saw through the completion of the work. I revere his inspiring leadership.

Dr. N. G. Nag, former Deputy Registrar General, India. and Dr. K. P. Ittaman, the present Deputy Registrar General, India. Social Studies Division. Sri M. K. Jain, Senior Research Officer and Smt. Suman Prashar, Assistant Director in the Office ·.)f the Registrar General, India assisted us with helpful suggestions and critical comments which provided an impetus to this enquiry. I gratefully remember their scholarly guidance.

Dr. B. K. Roy, Deputy Registrar General, India, Map Division had guided us techni· cally in preparing the map included in the monograph. I recall his erudite help thank· fully.

To Sri M. Thangaraju, Deputy Director of Census Operations, Tamil Nadu, lowe a sense of special gratitude for his excellent article entitled, 'The Chank Fisheric~' included in Appendix II of the monograph. The scholarly article has added a new dimension to the present report.

Sri K. K. Dey, Director, All India Handicrafts Board (Eastern Region) has kindly con­ tributed an article entitled, 'A Note on Conchshell Craft in Some Selected Pockets of West Bengal' to the monograph included as Appendix III. To the labour of love fwm . Sri Dey and his colleague Sri K. S. Bhattacharyaweare indebted.

Sri Krishna Chandra Majumder of the Directorate of Small Scale and Cottage In· dustry, Government of West Bengal has supplied us many useful data relating to the craft and the craftsmen of West Bengal. His kind help is gratefully acknowledged here.

Prof. Ananta Kumar Ganguly of Sanskrit College, Calcutta, came to our help with historic references relevant to the craft. Sm. J. Ganguly and Sm. S. Bhadury of Sanskrit College Library, Calcutta had provided us with all the books and references required for consultation. I am deeply indebted to their scholarly assistance.

Sri A. K. Dutta, Deputy Director of Census Operations, West Bengal has many a time enthused me with his reasoned critical comments and invaluable suggestions. To him I remain grateful.

Sri Dipankar Sen, Investigator, with his seasoned experience and mature iudgement has dedicated himself to the study of the craft with same spirit of enquiry as in the sixties. The nostalgia of the earlier enquiry did not affect his objectivity. In fact, his experience enriched the quality of the present report. Sri Sen has been ably assisted by (xii)

Sri Sanat Kumar Saha, Assistant Compiler, in canvassing the schedules and collecting the data. Sri Saha has also prepared the tab1cs included in the monograph. Sri Arunabha Dutta, former Investigator, had taken the photographs and the sketches have been drawn by Sri B. N. Mullick, Senior Artist. One sketch on the conchshell products has been drawn by Sri Subir Kumar Chatterjee, Draftsman, who has also prepared the map included in the mono­ graph. Sri Swapan Kumar Guha, Investigator, has provided us with Census Publications before and after the investigation. Sarbasree Gour Chandra Bagchi and Subhas Ranjan Chow­ dhury, Investigators, have unhesitatingly offered their comments on the draft. Sri Manas Kumar Mitra, Computor has assisted us in arranging the photographs and sketches accord­ ing to their technical order. Sri Sunil Kumar Patra, Lower Division Clerk, ha~ shouldered the burden of typing out the manuscript, while Sarbasree MotHaI Chakraborty and Dilip Kumar Chatterjee, Typists had type-copied many statements included in the report. Sm. Dipti Rudra, Senior Stenographer and Sri Dilip Banerjee, Stenographer, took down dictated notes covering some chapters. Sm. Namita Roy, Librarian, met our requirements of books and publications. Sri Himangshu Saha Chowdhury, Printing Inspector, for press edited the manuscript. Sri Nikhil Chandra Nag, Duftry neatly bound the typed manus­ cripts in a volume.

All my colleagues have been associated in one way or the other with the present work. The monograph attests to their collaborative enterprise. To all of them ] owe my heart-felt gratitude.

Sri Arun Kumar Roy, Investigator, kindly took pains to help us by getting the cover design for this monograph drawn by his friend Sri Jitendra Kumar Das, Artist, who is in no way associated with our office. I remain ever grateful to Sri Das for his artistry and creative contribution. Sri Roy deserves my sincerest thanks for this assistance.

The Government of India Press at Santragachi headed by Sri A. K. Ghatak, Manager, and his staff without whose sincere help and co-operation the publication of this book would not have been possible. Sri Himangshu Saha Chowdhury, Printing Ins­ pector not only attended to the proof-reading work, preparation of lay-outs, arrangement of blocks and so on and so forth, but also main tained a very warm and cordial relationship with the Press. Shri A. K. Dutta, Deputy Director of Census Operations, West Bengal, was also keen to see the progress. I pay my respect to all.

I propose to thank profusely Sri B. P. Jain, Deputy Director (Printing), Office of tbe Registrar General, India, for printing of the present monograph.

Sukumar Sinha Calcutta, Joint Director of Census Operations, The 4th September, 1988 West Bengal CONTENTS

Page

Foreward Vll

Preface IX CHAPTER·I : History of origin and development of the craft 1-10 Introduction, origin and history of the craft, myths and legends about the articles, the craft and craftsmen, magical and religious practices, craft­ centres within the state, communities associated with the craft, articles produced in different craft centres, disposals . of finished products, areas where finished products are sold, agencies engaged in the development of the craft, co-operative society, training-cum-production centre. CHAPTER·II: Craftsmen in their rural setting 11-18 Introduction, location of the craft centres, ameni· ties and services, ethnic composition, other crafts, particulars of craftsmen, settlement pattern in the craft centres, economic condition, social status, demographic profile of practising craftsmen house­ holds, occupational characteristics of practising artisan households, demographic characteristics of non-practising artisan households, occupational characteristics of non-practising artisan households, growth and development of the craft in the craft centre, services available to the craftsmen. CHAPTER·III : Processes of learning 19-21 Introduction, duration of association, source of training, division of work, period of training, terms and conditions of training, acquisition of skill, Biographical sketches of selected craftsmen. CHAPTER·IV : Manufacturing processes 23-36 Place of work of the craftsmen, purity and pollu­ tion, name, description and use of the articles produced, average monthly production, seasonal variation in production, raw_ materials for different articles, monthly consumption for raw materials, source of main raw materials, terms and conditions for the purchase of main raw materials, terms and conditions for the purchase of subsidiary raw xiv

CONTE~TS- contd. Page rnaterials, price of main raw materials, price of subsidiary raw materials, problems regarding procurement and quality of raw materials, etc., stages of production in the manufacture of different articles, tools and equipments used, name, descrip­ tion and use of the tools, name, description and use of equipments, price of tools and equipments, manipulation of the tool during processing, division of work among the artisans, application of new techniques or tools, designs, name and description of the design, preparation of design and duration of use, purpose of use, absence of any new design.

CHAPTER·V : Marketing 37-40 Annual production of articles, purpose of produc­ tion, method of disposal, markets, hats, mela, quantity sold to different agencies, margin of profit, terms and conditions of disposal of finished articles, sale price, problems of marketing.

CHAPTER·VI : Craft and employment • 41-44 Employment in the craft since inception, unemploy­ ment, general health of the craft during the last few decades, attitude and opinion of the craftsmen, development of the craft for generation of more employment.

CHAPTER-VII: Conclusion 45-49 View point of the artisans on the craft as a source of livelihood, role of mahajans, margin of profit, role of salesman, income of the artisans, shift from traditional occupation, occupational mobility, problems of the craft, inadequacy of capital, irregular supply of raw material, lack of efficient modem tools, lack of formal training, competi· tion with industrial products, change in consu­ mer's preference, lack of amenities and services, role of agencies concerned with the development of the craft, an over view of the sorry lot of the Indian artisans, suggested panaceas, prospectus for the future. BIBLIOGRA· PHY 50 APPENDIX·I : Table Nos. 1 to 84 51-114 A"PPENDIX·II : The Chank Fisheries by Sri M. Thangaraju, Deputy Director of Census Operations, Tamil Nadu, Madras. 115-126 xv CONTENTS -concld. Page APPENDIX·III A Note on Conchshell crafts in some selected pockets of West Bengal by Sri Kalyan Kumar Dey, Director, Office of the Development Commissioner (Handicraft),' Eastern Regional Office, Calcutta. 127 -136 LIST OF STATEMENTS Statement 1.1: Important Craftcentres in West Bengal 6

1.2 : Community-wise participation 7

1.3 : Craftsmen households and their demographic profile 8

1.4: Articles Produced in Different Craft centres 8

1.5 : Co-operative Societies of the Craftsmen 10

11.1 Ethnic composition in Raibaghini 12

11.2 Ethnic composition in Shashpur 13

II.3: Ethnic composition of Kamarsol 14 II.4 : Demographic profile of practising and non­ practising artisan households 15 n.5 : Distribution of population classified by age, sex and educational levels 15 II.6: Population characteristics of non-practising house­ holds 17 IV.1 : Average Monthly Consumption of Raw materials by an Artisan Household 26 IV.2 Price of subsidiary raw material 29 IV.3 Sources of varieties of Chanks formerly used 30 IV.4 Prices of Tools and Equipments 33 IV.S : Name and Description of the Designs 35 V.1 List of Fairs attended by the Artisans 38 V.2 Sale price of article 39-40 VI. 1 Employment from 1961 onwards 41 VII. 1 : India's export by commodities and countries through Calcutta Customs Zones 48 MAP Location of selected craft centres Facing page PHOTOGRAPHS AND SKETCHES : 1 to 53

WEST BENGAL DISTRICT BANKURA LOCATION OF SELECTED CRAFT CENTRES

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CHAPTER-I

HISTORY OF ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE CRAFT

INTRODUCTION

About a quarter of a century back in the mid­ conchs hell products (Sri Sri Chandi Madhyama­ sixties the gentle knock of hammer of the artisans charitam, II. 21). Since then, the Goddess Durga on the chanks gave one the impression that the craft has been holding a conch in one of her ten hands of conchshell-carving was at its lase gasp. Though (Sri Sri Chandi Uttaracharitam, XI. 16). the Monograph on the craft was then not intended to be written as its epitaph, there was a lurking fear ·Kings and royal personages in the Epic Age that the craft would not liw long to welcome the visit possessed their respective conchshell-horns· as their of another enquiring team in future. But the appre­ personal insignia and bugle. Besides, conchs hell hension that "some day some frail memorials of these horn has been holding a prominent place in the socio­ poor artisans and their dwindling craft will be implor­ religious ceremonies of the Hindus. . ing the passing tribute of a sigh" proved totally un­ founded and the craft still persists. How the craft was saved in a critical iuncture and how it obtained Ornaments of conchshell were widely used for a renewed lease of life cannot be answered p~omptly decoration of the hands by womenfolk in ancient in one pithy sentence or two. The feat has been India. References to women adorned with such accomplished by a number of factors, social and ornaments are found in the Mahabharata (IV. 15.2, economic, to be discussed later in the relevant place. 21. 7, 21.26) and also in the Harivamsa (III.64). The great Sanskrit writer Magha describes in the Shishupalabadha (XIII. 41) about women of Indra­ ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE CRAFT prastha wearing conch bangles and bracelets. Sanctified by a glorious tradition in India, conch­ J ames Hornell (vide Memoirs of the Asiatic shell products including ornaments lik~ bangles and bracelets once heightened the natural beauty of Indian Society of Bengal, Vol. III) expresses the view that women. Evidences testifying to the existence and the prevalence of the use of chank bangles among the extensive use of conchshell ornaments and shell-horns Dravidians points to the use of chank ornaments as are found in the classical literature, archaeological having had a purely Dravidian origin and as having explorations and available testimonies, Puranic, pre­ been a custom prevalent and solidly established among at least some sections of the Indian people prior to historic and historic. the advent of the Aryans and the rise of the Brahmanic To start with, shell-horns were blown in the battle­ faith. fields to mark the start of war. In all probability the shell-horns served to function as modern bugles. The Bruce Foote collections of Indian prehistoric In the famous war of Kurukshetra Lord Krishna had and protohistoric antiquites in the Madras Govern­ blown his personal shell-horn Pancha;anya and others ment Museum demonstrate that the industry of chank­ followed suit. The Srimadbhagavadgita (I. 15-16) cutting and the custom of wearing chank bangles had refers to the blowing of the shell-horn Devadatta by once much less restricted geographical coverage than Dhananjaya (Arjuna), Poundra by Bhimasena, at the present Vedic period the Aryans brought with of ornamentation. The finds of a broken iron blade them the use of conchshell products and left it as a bear resemblance to the smaIl hand-saw used by legacy to the posterior generation. The Atharva workmen in Bengal in later years for carving out line Veda refers to shell amulets. In the latakas Guild decorations. of shell-workers is mentioned to refer to the Associa­ tion of craftsmen. The Vinaya Pitaka provides In South Tndia the chank bangle remains of evidence of the craft during the Buddhist period. Gudivada in Ki5tna rlistrict are of earlv Buddhist Excavations of important Mauryan cities also testify period. Bruce Foote holds that the custom of using to the existence of the craft. Kautilya in his Artha chank banpJes was as extensive as numerous were Shastra describes the duties of the Superintendent of the bangle factori"s of different olaces in Guirat ,md Ocean Mines to include among other things the coIIec­ Kathiawar. Of the plentiful of fragment~ of Amba­ tion of conchshells and regulation of the commerce vaIIi and Valabhipur, some are figured with ornamen­ in the commodity. Megasthenes in his Indica refers tation well-executed and exhibiting considerable skill to the craft during the Mauryan period. The use of in the emnloyment of effective tools of sorts-sands, conehshells in Tndia during the 11th and 12th cen­ drills and files. turies A.D. has been referred to in Naisadhacharita (XII-35 and XV-45). Tavernier in 1666 observed Hornell pre~ume~ that chank being a religious Bhutanese merchants carrying from Pabna and Dacca symbol to both the Hindus and the Buddhi.,ts, chank bracelets from sea-sheIls as large as an egg. Ancient Tamil classics refer to chank-cutting They prefer wearing handsomely carved chank industry and to widespread use of carved and orna­ bangles. But womenfolk in general in Bengal are too mented chank bangles among the Pandyan women. conservative to dispense with the custom altogether The classics of the Sangam age make it clear that of putting on ornamental bangles and red marriage the chank fisheries were exploited under the Pandyan bangles. Hornell also observes the use of chank rulers 1800 years ago. Cosmos lndico-Pleustes (530- bangles in the form of massive gauntlets made up of 550 A.D.), an Egyptian traveller, makes reference to separate bangles among the Rajbanshis, the Paliyas, the chank market at Marallow. About the the Koch, the Muchis and even the Santals, and the middle of the 9th century the Arabs came into contact Kurmis of Chhotanagpur and Orissa. with the chank industries of Ramanathapuram coast. Sui aim an and Abu Zaid, two Arab writers, recorded Hornell, however, fails to account for why and that chank and pearl were the greatest treasures of how the seat of bangle-cutting trade was transferred Indian kings. and limited to Bengal. He conjectures that the close of the unchallenged Hindu supremacy in the Soutb, Cosmos, an Egyptian monk, who travelled in the spoliation of the riches of the Pandyan cities by India in the sixth century A.D. and Arab writer Abu the Muslim invaders and the heyday of Arab sea­ Zaid who wrote in 851 A.D. refer to the production powers in the Indian coasts contributed to the change and export of the chank shells from the Tamil coasts of seat of trade from the rest of India to Bengal. to Bengal. Barbosa who was in India about 1500 A.D. refers to the trade in conchs hells at Kayal, an MYTHS AND LEGENDS ABOUT THE ARTICLES, THE important seaport wherefrom supply of chanks was CRAFT AND THE CRAFTSMEN made directly by sea to the workshops in Dacca, Garcia de Orta in 1563 and Boccaro in 1644 speak of Whether they carry conviction or not to the the trade in the chank shells with Bengal where bangles people, the magnificent myths about the craft are a were made for the arms. In 1700 Father Martin legion. It is no wonder that chanks which have been describes how the Dutch reaped a huge profit from used in the religious and social life of the people of the trade in chanks with Bengal. India for ages and considered sacred from time im­ memorial should have bred and not contrived a good The finds of the chank cut into cones at Arika­ number of myths and legends. Among the many medu, near Pondicherry, point to it as having been stories about the association of Lord Vishnu with a flourishing trading mart of Indo-Roman commerce chank, one story goes that this deity once pursued in the 1st and 2nd centuries A.D. Tamil classics of by a sea demon did himself into chank. The story the Sangam Age reveal the widespread use of owes its origin to the Greek and Latin writers of the chank bangles in the Tamil country. At the begin­ pre-Christian era. According to another legend, ning of the Christian era there were chank bangle Lord Krishna, another incarnation of God Vishnu, workshops at Korkai and North Ceylon. Madurai­ killed a marine demon called Panchajana who did kanchi describes the Parawas as the divers for pearls himself into a chank which was taken by Krishna as and chanks and also as chank-cutters thriving in the a trophy of victory. Lord Vishnu derives the name city of Korkai, their chief town. Chank bangle Shankhapani from his association witl] chank. industry once flourished in Tirunelveli, Kathiawar and Southern Deccan. The Tirunelveli industry had its Sankhachura, the King of the Demons (Asuras), own chank fishery in the Gulf of Mannar. The chank after a long rule took up arms against the gods and shells for the Deccan workshop might have come from vanquished the rulers of the heavens. Later, Lord the Tanjore coast. The fishery in the CaJ;natic Coast Malzadeva joined the gods in their war against Sankha­ was fairly lucrative till the middle of the nineteenth chura. Lord Mahadeva killed the Demon with the century when economic forces led to the collapse of help of his trident. The bones of the slain demon the industry. The disappearance of the chank bangle were thrown into the bed of the salty sea. From the industry from the Deccan may have been brought dry bones originated the chanks. about by the constant strife through the six centuries of Muslim rule in the land. Conchshells, considered very sacred, are used during the worship of the deities by the Hindus. The Hornell in the Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of legend goes that whenever conchshell horn is blown, Bengal (Vol. III) deals extensively with the tribes Lakshmi (the Goddess of Wealth) is pleased with the and castes using chank bangles. The custom of the sound and stays in her place. The sound of the people of India, especially of the Tamil country, the blowing of a shell-horn is considered auspicious. If Deccan, Kathiawar, Gujarat and Bengal has now one bathes in the water taken out from the Panisankha been restricted to West Bengal only. The red sankha (a variety of conch used for offering water to the (conchshell bangle) is a necessary pre-requisite for a deities and different from the shell-horn used for blow­ Bengali bride during her ceremonial marriage. Garcia ing), one carns the virtue of taking bath in the waters de Orta, a Portuguese writer of the 16th century, of all the sacred rivers of India. refers to how in Bengal a virgin in honour and esteem could be corrupted by placing of chank bracelets on Nemi or Neminath, the twenty-second Tirthankar her arms. The custom at one point of time tended of the J ains, holds a chank in one of his arms. The to die out from among women of higher social status. chank is sacred to the Saivites too, as Lord Siva is 4 said to blow the chank while dancing with the demons. According to popular belief, the Kankan type of conch­ Tile Saivites during their prayers at home blow the shell bangle is worn by the Goddess Durga. Once chanks. 1n the Hindu temples ~hell-horns are blown the deity had helped a poor Brahman with rice and during the celebration of AtJhishek~m an~ Aradhan~. pulses in the guise of a small girl. After the meal Some Muslims also have chanks In thelr houses ill was over, she went to a nearby tank to take a bath the belief that the possession of the shell-horn of the but never returned. The anxious Brahman rushed to right-whorled type will be benefic to the family. The the tank but to his total surprise found a feminine mendicant beggars of the Vaishnavite sect blow the hand with a pair of Kankan type of conchshell bangle shell-horn to announce their arrival. aloft the surface of the water. The Brahman could recognise that the hand was that of the Mother During the weddings of non-Brahmin castes in 'Goddess. South Indian districts the barber blows the chank during or immediately after the tying of the Tali A mythological anecdote relates to the appearance (sacred marriage necklace) on the bride's neck. In by Lord Siva as a hawker of conchs hell bangles before Bengal, however, chanks are blown during the Sati, consort of Lord Siva. Prajapati Daksha once marriage ceremony of all Hindus and also during any 8bserved the bare hands of his daughter Sati and auspicious socia-religious ceremony like Broth~r's sarcastically asked her if Siva, her husband, was too Day, Birthday, birth ot a newborn child, first nce­ ?oor to afford her a pair of bracelets. Sati felt eatlllg ceremony of a baby etc. Besides, conchs hells nsulted by her father's insinuations at her husband are blown at the sacred altar by every devout Hindu and at once returned to her husband. She requested woman during the evening prayer. In the Madras Siva to present her a pair of conchshell bangles. A Province, only the Vellalas and the Idayas use chank ::ouple of days later, a Sankhari (dealer in conchshell bangles, though the use is universal among all Hindu products) came to Sati with a box of chank bangles brides during the marriage ceremony and after. In and requested her to put any pair of bangles on her carly days the chank was directly connected with the wrists. Sati started trying to put on her hands the Tali in the Tamil country. Chanku Tali is common bangles but the bangles did not fit. The Sankhari among the Chanku Tali Vellalas, Idayas of Tamil Nadu remarked that this might be due to lack of fidelity who had immigrated into Travancore, Thandan Pulayas and devotion to her husband. Enraged by this un­ of South Malabar and the Parawas of the Tirunelveli ceremonious remark, Sati refused to wear any bangle. coast. The Parawas even after conversion to The Sankhari who was none else but Lord Siva in Christianity call their marriages Chanku Tali marriages. disguise appreciated Sati's devotion and at once revealed his identity to his spouse. The chank is sounded while taKlllg a dead body to the funeral pyre or funeral ground in some parts of This traditional story explains why Hindu married South India. In Tibet chank is blown while the women regard chank bangles as sacred as wedding corpse of a monk or a nun is taken out for the last rings and treat them as traditional signs of marriage journey. It was also blown as the call for a batt~e and also as an invitation to the celebration of a reIl­ (Sabitri Sankha). As late as the 19th Century, Sankhas bore higher value than Karis (small shells) used as gious rite and sacrifice. medium of exchange. It may be due to this higher value of conchshe11s that conchshell bangles were treated as Chanks have a ~ide use as an amulet against evil eyes and also as a charm to propitiate some planets. sacred and valuable by women imbued with a sense of In Tamil Nadu and Kerala a small chank-shell is tied value based on tradition and folklore. round the neck of an animal for protection against evil spirits. The Christian Parawas believe in the chank In early days unmarried girls too used to wear amulets. Children of indigent Chettis and Vaniyans conchshell bracelets (Bhagwat Gila 11.9.6), Muhurta use chank beads, chank-bangles and rings. Indian Chintamoll; (57.17) makes it obligatory for married females in some areas dangle small pieces of girls to wear conchshell bangles (vide Paushnadhrubas­ chanks from their hair or ears. Chanks are also sus­ wikara-panchaka Basabejyaditye Prabalaradasankha pended from one side of chain-holding key-bunch. Suvarnavastram. Dharyyam Biraktasanichandrakujeh­ Chanks are also used as name-plates and incense niraktam Bhoumedhrubaditiyuge Subhage Na Dadh­ stick-holders. yat). Sankha here means Sankhavalaya (conchshell bangle) and Subhaga stands for a woman whose hus­ Chunks were once used as currency in India. In band is living. In the Vedic literature and the Sans­ the coastal districts of Tamil Nadu and some parts krit grammar similar explanation is adduced for Su­ of West Bengal lime, obtained from burnt chanks, is bhaga. Dwipikagrantha also supports the same inter­ used to whitewash temples and shrines. Medicinal pretation under which Angana has the same import as ointments and powders obtained from chank are used Subhaga. The ladies with husbands living must put on in the treatment of some skin diseases. Besides, the conchshell bangles for the well-being of their husbands. Ayurvedic doctors also use chank for the treatment (Pustendau Samaye shubhe dhruvasuracharyyoditom of some diseases like tuberculosis etc. shengana-No ratnang bibhriyat prabalakamaneen shankhang hitang swamine). The commentary entitled There are many legends about the origin of the Piyushateeka on Rajamarttandavachana seeks to bangles put on by married Hindu Bengali women. explain a young woman (Yuvati) as being a lady with a living husband entitled to put on conchshell The saint is wOlshipped in the form of a clay bangles (vide Raktendubhanu dibase' sngshaka barjite image modelled by a Sutradhar clay-modeller of the cha sankhancha raktapataking yuvatih kathanchit). village. The image is kept for three more days even after the worship is over in an altar in a pucca perma­ In Jyotisagarasaragrantha it is held that a woman nent structure on a raised platform at Sankharipara. desiring a long life for her husband must put on con­ During the six days of worship till the immersion of the chshell bangles and other ornaments as per Shastric image in a local tank called Talpukur, no artisan Law (laws laid down by the scriptures) (vide SanAha­ touches his tods and there is no work. Offering of bidrumamuktanang paridhanang prashasyate Dharayan rice, sweetmeats and fruits are offered daily by the nacha rohinyang bhal'ttujeevitakankhinee). According Sankhabaniks during three days of ceremony. On the to Devibhagavata (IX, 19.25), Viswakarman (the second day of worship on the 31st Bhadra, known Engineer God) presented Sankha to Tulasi after her as Madhyam Puja, practising artisans of other castes marriage with Sankhachuda (Shankhang cha ruchirang make their individual offerings. A Brahman resi­ chittrang yaddattang viswakarmana). In Varnaratakara dent of the village officiates as a priest during the of Iyotirisvara Kavisekharacharyya on Vivahabarnana worship, assisted by another Brahman priest. The (pp. 64-65 in Kallola VIII) it is prescribed that a girl Brahman priests take away a portion of the offer­ is to be offered alankara parichchada (ornaments and ings after the worship and get some dakshina or dress) along with Nirvahu (conchshell bangles, gold, remuneration in cash from the Puja Committee. The vermilion etc.). Widows are, however, forbidden to exact amount of remuneration has not been disclosed. put on conchshell bangles or any other decoration on the body (vije Patiheena . . na . . srajang ella chandan­ After the worship is over, the image is kept for ang chaiva shankhang sindurabhushanam-Brahma­ three more days to enable devotees, related to the vaival ffa Purana Chapters 81-83). artisans, from neighbouring villages to come to Rai­ baghini and see the image. The festival thus pro­ MAGICAL AND RELIGIOUS PRACTICES vides an opportunity for an annual reunion of families. Craftsmen come to the place of worship with their In Raibhaghini, one craft-centre in the district of tools and implements and touch the foot of the Bankura, the principal community worship of the image with these in the belief that the holy touch practising artisans takes place on the 30th Bhadra will make them capable of doing better work quanti­ (August-September) of the Bengali calendar and tatively and qualitatively. Through this gesture the continues for three days at a stretch. The artisans artisans seek divine blessings from the saint. After worship Agastya Muni $' Muniraj. the mythological immersion of the image, work is resumed. sage, who is popularly believed to have been the inven­ tor of the design of the saw, an indispensable tool of The practising artisans of Raibaghini stop their the craftsmen till the recent past before the introduc­ work on two other days of the year, though these tion of the electrical saw. are not even remotely concerned with any religious or social ceremony. On the 17th and 29th Bhadra, The legend runs that Viswakarma, the Engineer of red letter days for the artisans and for that matter the Gods, had taken the initiative to manufacture the holidays, the artisans organise a general meeting. On saw initially. The saint Agastya came to his help by the 17th Bhadra they discuss about the ways and designing the saw with the stem of a Kusha plant, after means to organise the festival and on the 29th Bhadra Viswakarma had failed to manufacture the tool. The they asc;emble to make arrangements for the observ­ design helped Viswakarma manufacture the saw with­ ance of the annual festival. out any great effort. Thenceforward, the Sankhabaniks held Agastya in high esteem and worshipped him as their preceptor, who was the prime designer of the It is interesting to note that throughout West vital tool. Bengal on the lCJst day of Bhadra all artisan castes connected with any manufacturing activity, whether The annual ceremonial worship is mainly organised in rural or urban areas, in household industries or by the Sankhabanik families of the village as big factories, hold the worship of Viswakarma, the conchshell-earving is their traditional occupation. celestial engineer. But since the divine engineer had Subscriptions are collected at the rate of Rs. 5.50p. failed to manufacture the saw, the artisans in Rai­ per Sankhabanik artisan and Rs. 11 .OOp per artisan baghini worship Agastya Muni but not Viswakarma. of other communities. The principle as laid down ensures that the subscription from an artisan of other In the craft-centre of Shashpur in the district of castes is double the rate for a practising Sankhabanik Bankura the Sankhabanik artisans worship Agastya artisan. The artisans belonging to other castes do not Muni on the 30th Bhadra. There being no perma­ have to supply any material or offering during the nent pucca structure in the viH age , the artisans con­ worship which has been observed for many genera­ struct a temporary structure where the clay image tions past and every practising and non-practising of the ~aint is worshipped. The artisan households Sankhabanik artisan has to contribute at the rates contribute Rs. 25.00p. and 5 kgs. of paddy per family stipulated. No subscription is raised from a non­ as subscription for the ceremony. The worship is practising artisan belonging to other communities. held in the same way as in Raibaghini. 6

In the village Kamarsol in the same district, an­ in South India. The introduction of cheap glass ban­ other craft-centre without any Sankhabanik artisan gles might have dealt a fatal blow to the chank indus­ household, Sankheswari, instead of Agastya Muni, is try in South India. worshipped by the practising artisan households on the 30th Bhadra. Sankheswari is believed to be the Mother Goddess Durga, consort of Lord Siva. The COMMUNITIES ASSOCIATED WITH THE CRAFT artisans worship their tools and equipments in their own houses individually on the 30th Bhadra, invok­ Since the Sankhabaniks or the Sankhakars (San­ ing the Goddess Sankheswari. The artisans cease kharis) are the craftsmen traditionally associated with from their work for two days on this occasion. the craft of conchshell cutting and carving of conch­ shell bangles, it js relevant to discuss about this caste in the historical perspective. According to some cra~ts­ CRAFT-CENTRES WITHIN THE STATE men in Raibaghini, the Sankhakars or Sankhabamks are the disciples of the sage Agastya or M uniraja (the Carving of conchshell products is an old, tradi­ mythological saint) who is believed to have initiated tional craft of West Bengal with a large number of the community into the craft. artisans engaged in the manufacture of articles like bangles, rings, shell-horns etc. in different districts. I:)' ',li,,1 ;" till"re-j'nrc, respected as a (;/Jru (God· Particulars of some of the important craft-centres man) and the primogenitor of the community. One where the craft is pursued is furnished in the follow­ informant, however, offers an altogether different ing statement. version about the origin of the community. Lord Siva and His consort Parvati are believed to have been STATEMENT 1.1 the originators of the community.

rmportant Craft-cenlres in West Bengal The Sankhakaras or Sankhabaniks in the fold of artisan castes and stratified in different periods of ------~-~------history belong to the Naba Sakha group. The earliest Name of the Craft-centre Police Station District reference to the community is to be found in Vaikha­ ------2 3 nasadharmasutra III. 11.9 (of the 2nd or 3rd Century ------B.C.) in the word Shankhavalayakarina meaning Raibaghini (Mauza Mirzapur) Kotalpur Bankura makers of conchshell bangles. According to Brahma Vaivartta Purana, Prakritikhanda, XVIII, the Sankha­ Shashpur Indas do. karas along with nine other castes (Sudragarbhe Viswa­ karmano latah) were born of Viswakarman (Celestial Kamarsol Barjora do. Architect) and a Sudra maiden Ghritachi, a celestial Ghutgarya do. do. nymph born as a Gopa girl by lndra's curse. In the Brahmavaivartta Purana the Shankhavalayakarinas are Hatgram Indpur do. otherwise named as Shankhikas, in Shavda Ratnavali Lakshminathpur Domka\ Murshidabad as Kambojakas and in Jatadhara, as Shambabikas. But, according to Brihad Dharma Purana III. 13.34a, the Gopalpur Swarup- 24-Parganas Sankhabaniks are the offsprings of the Brahman father nagar (North) and a Vaisya mother (vide Kangsakara Shankha­ karen a Brahmanat Sangbabhuvatuh). The Bangabasi Batul Bagnan Haora Press edition of Brihad Dharma Purana III (Uttara­ Chilakhali Tehatta Nadia khanda 13-14) contains the story of Vena, said to have created 36 mixed castes by intercaste marriage Yogjber Panskura Medinipur~ induding the Sankhakara or Sankhika caste which Sri Gopalpur Ketugram Barddhaman was assigned the manufacture of conchshell ornaments as their avocation (Shanghkhabhusang cha Shankhika -Brihad Dharma Purana III. 14.61 a). Of the craft-centres noted for their craftsmen, majority are situated in the district of Bankura. The first three craft-centres have been selected for an H. H. Risley in the book 'Tribes and Castes of intensive survey and an in depth study. Bengal' gives a ditIerent version of the origin of the Sankhabaniks, who are said to have been the descen­ dants of Srikanta, the third son of Dhanapati Sadagar According to information received from offices of of Karnatak. Risley, however, does not oppose the the Directorate of Census Operations in other States, claim of the Sankhakars to be Vaisyas. He points the craft is practised nowhere outside West Bengal. out that upto the time of Adisur, a great King of Even though chank industry once flourished in Bengal, the Sankhakars wore the Brahmanical threads. Tamil Nadu which before 500 A.D. sent the chanks But, by a royal edict during the reign of Adisur the cut into bangles to other parts of India, now Tamil Sankhakars were degraded for the offence that they Nadu sends only the raw chanks. It is not known had cut to pieces a golden cow presented by the King why and how the demand for ch~k bangles declined as a gift to some Brahmans during a special sacrifice. 7

Risely holds that the Sankhakars have a Brahman!cal STATEMENT 1.2 origin for the reason that they "have the Brahmalllcal gotras and observe the same taboo of prohibited Community·wise Participation degrees as the higher castes". ------

Name of the Whatever the origin, the Sankhakars or the Sankha­ community baniks claim to be Vaisyas with their traditional occu­ pations consisting of cleaning of conchshcll by filing, participating Religion Name of the Craft-centre in the craft production of round rings by means of a saw, half ------moon-shaped blade, and shaping of the rough round 2 slices of conchshell into bangles and engraving of 3 designs on the outer surface of these bangles and decoration of intact chanks llsed as blowing shell­ Sankhabanik Hindu Raibaghini, Shashpur, horns. Kamarsol, Sri Gopalpur and Hatgram

To indicate their position in the social hierarchy Mahisya the Sankhabanik artisans narrate a legend, according " Kamarsol, Ghutgarya and to which, a Zam{ndar named Ranjit Roy once lived Sri Gopalp.ur in a place near Arambagh. The landlord had no daughter. It so happened that Mother Goddess Brahman Kamarsol, Ghutgarya and Durga once appeared in the guise of a small girl in " Sri Gopalpur the same village and chanced to come across a Sankhari trader peddling his wares. Durga asked the Bairagi Sankhari to fit a pair of conchl>hell bangle':'. on her " Kamarsol and Ghutgarya hands. The Sankhari obliged her. Durga then wanted to fulfil anv of his· desires. But when the Kumbhakar Lakshminathpur, Sankhari insisted on- payment, requested him to Chila­ Durga " khali, Yogiber approach Ranjit Roy whom She referred as Her and Ghutgarya father. The Sankhari went to the Zamindar and narrated him the story. The Zamindar, totally per­ Modak plexed as he had no daughter. went to the side of the " Lakshminathpur tank where the Sankhari had met the girl. There they did not see any girl but the hands wearing the Gandhabanik Ghutgarya conchsl1ell bangles from above the water were visible. " Both the Zamindar and the Sankhari recognised the Karmakar hands to bave been of Durga's. The Sankhari was " do indeed overjoyed since he had been respectfully addressed as Sankhari Thakur. This divine legendary Napit association has assigned the Sankhabaniks an elevated do status in the social hierarchy. Subarnabanik do Even though the craft of carving of conchshell products is the traditional occupation of the Sankha­ Tantubaya do banik (San"'1fhakar) caste, the data from other craft­ " centres do not attest to the monopolisation of tbe --_._------craft by the Sankhabaniks only. Rather, the craft NOife.-None of the communities is SC/ST-Editor. seems to have knocked down the bClrriers of caste since other castes have taken to this craft as their main source of livelihood. Interestingly, even the Next to the Sankhabaniks, the Kumbhakars are upper caste Brahman has also taken up the craft as engaged in the craft in four· craft-centres. But in an occupation. The Brahmans were drawn to tbe the craft-centre of Ghutgarya, as many as nine com­ craft on account of local influence and heritage. The munities, not traditionally associated with the craft, parents of the Brahman artisans were engaged in this have chosen the same as their occupation. It may non-traditional occupation because the craft as a be pointed out in the very beginning that inspite of source of livelihood proved to them more lucrative best efforts, details regarding various castes associated than priesthood. with the craft have not been available from any government agency, state or central. However, The statement next relates to the association of detailed information in this regard on the three selected craft-centres be discussed subsequently. different communities with the craft in different craft­ will centres. The statement next wiII touch the demographic profile of the craftsmen in the three selected centres. 8

STATEMENT 1.3

Craftsmen Household and their Demographic Profites

Name of the Religion Number of Child worker Community households Population Workers below 14 years r-----.A. r---,A. ,----0.--_____, Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female ------(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)

Sankhabanik Hindu 25 188 89 99 84 46 38 1 ------Mahisya 21 120 72 48 35 35

------_- - --~~- Bairagi 8 44 22 22 15 12 3

------_-- Brahman 4 18 11 7 6 6

Total: 58 370 194 176 140 99 41

~------Note.-None of the communities is SCjST -Editor. STATEMENT 1.4-contd. Only one female child worker below the age of 14 years belonging to a Sankhabanik artisan house­ hold is engaged in the craft. However, not a single Name of the Craft-centre Name of the article child worker in the artisan household belonging to ------other communities is found to be associated, as the children of the present generation are said to have Kamarsol White bangle and coloured no aptitude for the craftwork. On the other hand, bangle. they are interested in jobs with fixed incomes.

ARTICLES PRODUCED IN DIFFERENT CRAFT­ Lakshminathpur White bangle, coloured bangle, ring and shell-horn. CENTRES Cbilakhali White bangle, coloured bangle, ring and shell-horn. In the three selected craft-centres the artisans manufacture white bangles, coloured bangles, rings, necklaces, brooches, ear-rings and shell-horns, whercas in other craft-centres articles like paper-weight, Sri GopaJpur White bangle and coloured vermilion-pot, incense stick-holder and ashtray are bangle. produced in addition to those manufactured in the three selected craft-centres. The following statement will show the production of the articles craft-centre- Batul White bangle, coloured bangle, paper weight and wise. shell-horn. STATEMENT 1.4 Articles Produced in Different Craft-centres Yogiber White bangle, coloured ------bangle, vermilion-pot and Namc of the Craft-centre Name of the article incense stick-holder. ------Raibaghini White bangle, coloured Hatgram White bangle. bangle, ring, ear-ring, hair­ pin, necklace, brooch and shell-horn. Ghutgarya White bangle and coloured Shashpur White bangle, coloured bangle. bangle, ring, hair-pin, and shell-horn. ------~ ------,------_--- 9

It is observed that the bangles of two varieties and districts of Bihar and Orissa with a fair concentration articles like rings and shell-horns are the common of tribal~.'" Local production is adequate enough to items of production, produced in the artisan house­ take care of the d.:mand in different areas of the holds throughout the year. But other items of produc­ State for the finished products. Articles like white tion are manufactured only on special occasions and bangles, rings and shell-horns have a steady market specially during the winter when most of the fairs and within West Bengal and the demands are fully met. festivals are organised. Since finished products are not directly sold or exported outside West Bengal and outside India by No data at the state level could be furnished by the artisans, it is difficult to ascertain if the local pro­ any State or Central Government agency. However, duction fully meets the outside demand for finished details regarding items of finished products in the three products. selected craft-centres will be given in the relevant chapter. AGENCIES ENGAGED IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CRAFT DISPOSAL OF FINISHED PRODUCTS With regard to any agency engaged in the develop­ Regarding disposal of finished products in differ­ ment of the craft, the artisans point out that two ent craft-centres it is necessary first to know about agencies havc made some useful contribution to the the type of production unit. Two types of production development of the craft and enabled the craftsmen units, independent and auxiliary, have been found. to partially tide over their difficulties in the matter of Independent units arc run by independent workers as supply of raw material. One of the agencies is the owner craftsmen who take the entire responsibility West Bengal Handicrafts Development Corporation, a of the disposal of finished products. The auxiliary State Government Undertaking, and the other is the units are run by Bani workers who work on rate­ Zilla Parishad, Bankura. The former institution has contract basis against payment of wages. The Bani partly canalised the supply of raw material to the workers are not at all concerned with the disposal of craftsmen directly and organised partly the sale of finished products, as because the raw material is finished products through different sales emporia provided by the Mahajan (financier-producer) to located at important towns and cities in the State. The whom the artisans deposit or deliver the finished West Bengal Handicrafts Development Corporation products after work is over. has procured raw materials of intact conchshell from the Government of Tamil Nadu and distributed the As data for other craft-centres in the State on raw material among the craftsmen through the Zilla this aspect could not be furnished by any source, the Parishads. same for the three selected craft-centres are discussed here. Out of 58 artisan households, 40 are independent It has also supplicd the raw material directly to its production units disposing of products directly to the 400 registered card-holders all over the State. The local customers without taking any help from any Corporation is also engaged in the sales promotion outside agency for the sale of the finished products. service of the articles by organising adequate publicity. In the auxiliary units the Bani workers hand over the Since inception in 1976, the institution has addressed articles produced to the Mahajans who supply the itself to the betterment of the craft and the welfare raw materials for the production of the articles on of the craftsmen. The artisans of the state annually contract basis. Only one female head of household require two million pieces of conchshells but gd a running an independent production unit disposes of supply of only one million pieces. So far the artisans her finished products to the local pedlar. have obtained the raw material from the Corporation against payment in cash and not on credit. The Local artisans owning independent units sell their Corporation sells gunny bags of conchshells in lots. articles with a margin of 10 per cent profit. The the price of which varies from Rs. 4,700.00p. to Mahajans also follow the same practice. No artisan is Rs. 6,400.00p. per lot of two to three gunny bags of found to be an itinerant hawker of articles on a assorted conchshells of different sizes. The Zilla full-time basis. Since the finished products are no! Parishad, Bankura too has been engaged in the supply disposed of thiOUgh local shopkeepers, commissioned of raw material to the artisans in the district of agencies, exporters, co-operative society or any other Bankura since 1985 after having obtained the gunny government agency, the question of margin of profit bags of conchshells from the Corporation. The artisans through sale by other agency does not arise. of Bankura district have obtained so far the supply of the raw material only once from the Zilla Parishad, which undertook the distribution of the raw AREAS WHERE FINISHED PRODUCTS ARE SOLD material after having prepared a list of 120 artisans for the purpose. But only 100 artisans actually The data available from the three craft-centres collected the raw material from the Zilla Padshad at indicate that finished products are sold in the local a price of Rs. 676.00p. per gunny bag containing con­ markets and fairs within the State. Only coloured chshells of various sizes and aualities. The role of the bangles have markets outside West Bengal in the Zilla Parish ad has been confined only to the supply 10 Census/88-2 10 of raw material to the enlisted artisans. The total sale In the absence of any information about the co­ of conchshells by the West Bengal Handicrafts operative societies their activities cannot be delineated. Development Corporation in 1985-86 was _valued at Only one society which has responded to the enquiry Rs. 1,96,040.00p. is located in Medinipur and does not cover the craft­ centres selected for l11tensive study. The society, CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETY named Dubrajpur Co-operative Sankha Shilpa Society There is no Central or Apex Co-operative Society Ltd., functioning since 29th March, 1956 after having of the artisans at the State level. However, there are been founded by one Hari Sadhan Datta, a practising 15 Co-operative Societies in different craft-centres of artisan, has its rcgi:;lered oHice at Tamluk in the West Bengal, the following statement providing the district of Medinipur with Dubrajpur and Daspur details. under its area of operation. With 17 members the society has three Manag('[s as salaried staff on a STATEMENT 1.5 monthly wage of Rs. 45.00p. The Society transacted Co-operative Societies of the Craftsmen busincs> worth Rs. 12,000.00p. in 1985-86 and the financial condition of the society is reported to be Name of the N umber of Co-opera­ satisfactory. district tive societies of craftsmen TRAINING-CUM-PRODUCTION CENTRE Medinipur 8 Murshidabad 2 Any institution like training-cum-production Haora 2 centre in any part of the State is conspicuous by its Nadia 1 absence. The craft heing traditional and 0f the house­ 24-Parganas 1 hold industry category, there is no formal training of Bankura 1 workers as in any modern industrial unit. The train­ ing now imparted is non-formal and confined to the Total 15 level of households individually. CHAPTER-II

CRAFTSMEN IN THEIR RURAL SETTING

INTRODUCTION

Conchshell bangles and other ornaments, popular AMENITIES AND SERVICES in Bengal among marded women, were manufactured quite cxtensively in many districts including Bankura The nearest railway station for Raibaghini is in West Bengal. About 7S years ago, the craft was Bishnupur, the sub-divisional headquarters (at a practised in many mral cwtres in the district of distance of 20 kms.), on the Kharagpur-Adra Bankura. At present the craft-centres are localised in branch line of the South Eastern Railways. A metal­ the mral areas in the police stations of Kotalpur, led road runs by the village connecting it to Bishnupur Indas and Harjora and also in the towns of Bankura, and Calcutta via Arambagh. Kotalpur serves as the Bishnupur and Patrasair. nearest marketing and commercial centre. While there is a primary school in Raibaghini, the mouza Since the objective of the present study is to focus Mirzapur of which Raibaghini is a constituent village the attention of the enquiry on the ccaft and the has a middle school and a secondary school. A artisans in their rural setting and to gauge the potential junior college is located in Kotalpur .but the nearest of employment of the craft, the villages where the degree college is si.tuated in Kamarpukur in the district craftsmen are concentrated have been selected for of Hugli. Postal facilities are available both at Rai­ intensive survey. Three villages, namely, Raibaghini, baghini and Mirzapur but telegraphic and telephonic Shashpur and Kamarsol, known for a fair assemblage services are available at Kotalpur. The branch offices of skilled craftsmen producing various items of pro­ of the State Bank of India and the United Bank of ducts marked by quality and where the number of India at Kotalpur afford banking services to Rai­ artisans is quite large compared to other craft­ baghini too· The rural health centre at Mirzapur centres of the region, have been selected. apart, there is another rural health centre at Gogra at a di:;tance of two kms. The office of the Block LOCATION OF THE CRAFT-CENTRES Development Officer is located at Kotalpur and the Gram Panchayat functions from its office at Bargaria, All the three selected craft-centres where the craft a neighbouring mouza. Raibaghini being electrified of conchsheU-carving has bs:en practised for a pretty the artisans make use of this facility by running the long'-time are located in the district of Bankura machines to polish the bangles. Tubewells provide within a radius of 25-30 kms. One such craft-centre drinking water while tanks are used for bathing and is . situated in the village Raibaghini in the mauza washing. Mlrzapur (J. L. No. 54) in the police station of Kotalpur at a distance of five kilometres from the The Village Shashpur is served by the adjoining headquarters of the police station at Kotalpur and railway station of Shashpur Road on the Bankura­ 62 kms. from Bankura town, the headquarrel'S of Rainagar narrow gauge branch line of the South ,the district. It may be of interest to recall that the Eastern Railways. A semi-pucca motorable road craft was studied intensively in 1961 Census in this passes through Shashpur, an important marketing craft-centre. centre for the rural areas around. The village has a primary school, a middle school as also a second:. The second craft-centre is situated in the village ary school· The nearest degree college is situated in Shashpur (1. L. No. 75) in the police station of the town of Sonamukhi (51 kms. ) in the same Indas at a distance of eight kms. from the head­ district. Postal, telegraphic and telephonic servicl!s quarters of the police station at Indas and 75 kms. are available in the village which has also a branch from Bankura town. of Mallabhum Gramin Bank. The village has a charitable dispensary and also the office of the local The third craft-centre is located in the village Gram Panchayat, though the office of the Block Kamarsol (1. L. No. 23) in the police station of Development Officer is situated at Indas. The village Barjora at a distance of four kms. from the head­ has not yet been electrified. Tubewells are the only quarters of the police station at Barjora and 40 kms. source of drinking water while tanks are used for from Bankura town. From the socio-religious point bathing and washing purposes. the area of the village extends beyond its adminis­ trative area and includes a portion of the mouza The nearest railway station for Kamarsol is at a Ghutgarya 0. L. No. 24) also within the same distance of 17 kms. at Durgapur in the district of police station, though the present st.udy is concerned Barddhaman on the main line of the Eastern Railways. only with it portion of the village Kamarsol where The motorable metalled road is half a kilometre away the artisan households live. To the artisan households from the village. Ghutgarya, the adjoining mouza the area is known as Solo Ana Committee Area. is the main marketing centre for the village. Ther~ 12 is a primary school in Kamarsol but the secondary ETHNIC COMPOSmON school is located in Ghutgarya. A junior college is situated at Barjora but the nearest degree college The village Raibaghini has 200 households is at Durgapur. Postal and telephonic facilities are available at Ghutgarya but telegraphic services are belonging to 15 communi,ties, namely, Bagdi, Bairagi, provided by Barjora. Ghutgarya has also a branch Baud, Brahman, Goala, J alia Kaibarta, Kalu, Karma­ of the State Bank of India. The nearest health cen­ kar, Modak, Sadgope, Sankhabanik, Sunri, Sutradhar, tre is situated at Barjora where the Block Develop­ Tambuli and Tantubaya. The Bagdis, the Bauris, the ment Office is also located. The Gram Panchayat Jalia Kaibartas and the Sunris belong to the scheduled has its office at Ghutgarya. The village has not yet been electrified. Tubewells provide the only source castes. The Statement 11.1 shows the distribution of of drinking water, tanks being used by the villagers population and households of each community in the for bathing and washing purposes. village Raibaghini. STATEMENT n.l Ethnic composition in Raibaghini

,--_____Population0. ______-, Percentage Name of the community Religion Number of ('------""------, households Total Males Females Households Population

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

Bagdi (SC) Hindu 28 151 69 82 14.0 14.2 Bairagi 4 26 11 15 2.0 2.5 " Bauri (SC) 74 319 171 148 37.0 30.1 " Brahman 9 45 25 20 4.5 4.2 " Ooala 1 1 1 0.5 0.1 .falia Kaibarta (SC) . 6 50 28 22 3.0 4.7 Kalu 2 16 10 6 1.0 1.5 Karmakar 3 10 5 5 1.5 0.9 Modak 6 38 13 25 3.0 3.6 " Sadgope. 6 3 3 0.5 0.6 Sankhabanik 25 150 73 77 L12.S 14.1 Sunri (SC) . 3 29 14 15 ,1.5 2.7 Sutradhar 9 48 24 24 -4.5 4.5

Tambuli ,,"'1 7 41 14 27 3.5 3.9 Tantubaya ,," 22 131 63 68 11.0 12.4

Total, 200 1,061 523 538 100.0 100.0

Note.-S.C. in the bracket connotes scheduled caste.-Editor. It is interesting that only four communities The village Shashpur is indeed multi-ethnic as belonging to the scheduled castes account for 55.5 there are 17 castes and one tribe in the village, namely, per cent of all households and 51.7 per cent of the Bagdi, Baidya, Brahman, Dhoba, Dom, Gandhabanik, Had, Karmakar, Kayastha, Napit, Rabidas, Sankha­ total population in Raibaghini. Of these, the Bauris banik, San tal, Sunri, Sutradhar, Tantubaya, Teli and are numerically in the majority both household-wise Ugrakshatriya of which the Bagdis, the Dhobas, the and population-wise. Among other communities the Doms, the Haris, the Rabidas and the Sunris belong Sankhabaniks and the Tantubayas are important since to the scheduled castes and the Santals to the sche­ duled tribe. The Statement 11.2 details out the com­ !hese two together constitute 23.5 per cent of the munity-wise distribution of households and population households and 26.5 per cent of the population. in the village Shashpur. . 13

STATEMENT B.2

Ethnic Composition in Sha~hpur

,.. ______Population00 ______-, ,.. ____Percentage..A. ____ , Name of the community Religion Nuniber of households Total Males Females Households Population

(J) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

-~------Bagdi (SC) Hindu 140 700 355 345 31.5 31.3 aaidya 3 18 10 8 0.7 0.8 " Brahman 28 140 75 65 6.3 6.3 " Dhoba (SC) 6 3 3 0.2 0.3

Dom (SC) 15 75 38 37 3.4 3.4

Gandhabanik 6 30 18 12 1.4 1.3

Hari (SC) 12 60 32 28 2.7 2.7

Karmakar 15 75 45 30 3.4 3.4 " Kayastha 7 3S 20 15 1.6 1.6 "

Napit 5 25 15 10 1.1 1.1

Rabidas~(SC) . 100 500 274 226 22.6 22.4 "

Sankhabanik 19 80 42 38 3.6 3.6

Santal (S.T.) 5 30 18 12 1.1 1.3 "

Sund (S.C.) 6 3 3 0.2 0.3

Sutradbar 4 20 12 8 0.9 0.9 "

Tantubaya 2 12 6 6 0.4 0.5 "

Teli 62 310 157 153 14.0 13.9 "

Ugrakshatriya 22 110 60 50 5.0 4.9 ------_ --~ -_--_------~---. - -- - _------Total 444 2,232 1,183 1,049 100.0 100.0

-----~ N Jte.-S.C. and S.T. in brackets indicate scheduled ca~te and scheduled tribe respectively- Editor.

The scheduled castes constitute 60.7 per cent of The village Kamarsol, compared to two other vil- the households and 60.4 per cent of the population. lages, is small from the point of 'view of population. Five communities namely, Bagdi, Bauri (both sche- Among others, the Telis are numerically in the majo- duled castes), Brahman and Mahisya live in KamarsoI, rity. The Sankhabaniks among others rank third the population and household-wise distribution of which from the point of number of households. may be had from Statement II.3. 14

STATEMENT n.3

Ethnic Composition of Kamarsol

Population Percentage Name of community Religion Number of ,--..:....______!I.... _____ ~ ,--..--___....._wA.. ___-, households Total Males Females Households Population

(I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

Mahisya Hindu 28 129 68 61 43.7 40.3

Bagdi (SC) ,;1 14 70 40 30 21.9 21.9

14 83 Bairagi " 49 34 21.9 25.9

Brahman ,t "1 6 30 18 12 9.4 9.4

8 3.1 2.5 Bauri (SC) " 2 2 6 . ------Total 64 320 177 143 100.0 100.0

Note.-S.C. in bracket indicates scheduled caste~Editor.

The scheduled castes account for 25.0 per cent In Kamarsol, strangely enough, the craft of conch­ of the households and 24.4 per cent of the population. shell-carving is pursued as a traditional occupation by The Mahisyas are numerically the majority community none of the 31 households constituted by 21 Mahisyas, in the village. ' six Bairagis and four Brahmans, cultivation, chanting of devotional songs and priesthood being the tradi­ tional occupations of the three communities respec­ OTHER CRAFTS tively. In Kamarsol no other craft is pursued.

In Raibaghini conchs hell articles are produced by PARTICULARS OF CRAFTSMEN 16 households, 14 being Sankhabaniks and two being Bairagis. The craft of conchs hell-carving is the tradi­ In Raibaghini 42 artisans comprising 21 males tional occupation of the Sankhabaniks. But, the Bai­ and 21 females are drawn from 16 artisan households. ragis, a community of Vaishnava mendicants engaged Of these artisans, 35 craftsmen constituted by 16 males in singing of devotional hymns, pursue the craft of and 19 females belong to 14 Sankhabanik households. conchshell-carving as a non-traditional occupation. Seven craftsmen with five males and two females are Handloom cotton-weaving, another craft in Raibaghini, drawn from two Bairagi households. Two categories is being pursued by 20 households of Tantubaya com­ of workers have been identified in Raibaghini in which munity, the traditional occupation of which is weaving. craft-centre there are three artisan households where Carpentry as a craft is practised by five Sutradhar the heads alone work as craftsmen without the help households as a traditional occupation. Weaving of of any family worker. These are classified as single Chatai (indigenous mat from date-palm leaves) is working units. In 13 other households the heads are practised as a craft by 30 Bauri households as a here­ assisted by 26 other members of the households as ditary, if not a traditional, occupation. family workers. Formerly, there was another cate­ gory of workers who were known as Bani (piece-rate In Shashpur conchshell articles are produced by contract) workers. In the earlier report there has 11 Sankhabanik households as their traditional occu­ been a mention of 25 Bani workers in the village. pation. Of the Other crafts in the village, mentioned But, now no such worker is engaged in the craft. has to be made of cotton-weaving practised by two Tantubaya households as traditional occupation, pro­ In Shashpur 33 workers comprising 15 males duction of cutlery and blacksmithy pursued by eleven and 18 females belong to 11 practising artisan house­ Karmakar households also as traditional occupation, holds of the Sankhabanik community. Only in one carpentry in which two Sutradhar households are household the head works alone without the assistance I traditionally engaged and basket-making (from split of any family member. The heads of 10 other artisan bamboo) in which six Bagdi households are tradi­ households are assisted by 22 members of their fami­ tionally engaged. lies. No artisan has been found to be a Bani worker. 15

In Kamarsol 42 artisans constituted by 41 males bers of th~ families mn independent production units and one female are drawn from 31 artisan households and heads of seven other households with eight mem­ (21 Mahisyas, six Bairagis and four Brahmans). Here, bers assisting them work on Bani basis. Thus, 11 in 21 households only the heads work as single wor­ households with 14 workers induding the heads work kers without the assistance of any other member in as independent units and 20 households with 28 wor­ the household. Of them again, eight households are kers including the heads work on Bani basis. independent producers while thirteen others work on piece-rate contract (Bani) under the Mahajan (Finan­ In the three craft-centres 117 artisans comprising cier-producers) . The heads of 10 households work 77 males and 40 females from 58 practising crafts­ with the assistance of 11 members in the households. men households (25 Sankhabaniks, 21 Mahisyas, eight Heads of three such households with three more mem- Bairagis and four Brahmans) are engaged in the craft.

STATEMENT n.4

Demographic profile of practising and non-practising artisan households ------No. of persons Nature ofartisan household Number ,_~--- ~_v'-_~ _ ____---, of households Total Males Females

(1) (2) (3) (5) ------Practising artisan households 58 370 194 176

Non-practising artisan households 15 84 50 34 ------Total 73 454 244 210

STATEMENT 11.5

Distribution of population classified by age, sex and educational level (Including practising/non-practising households) ------Literate without Matticulation Or Graduate educational Higher and Age-group Total popubtion Illiterate level Primary Middle Secondary above ,_~.A. _ ---. r-_v'o_, f-I-A...-~ r--v'o~ ,-,..;...---, ,-,..;..._--, r--"';"'-...... , P M F M F M F M F M F M F M F

------_-- -~------(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16)

_- --~ -----_ 0-4 44 24 20 24 19 ------5-'> 53 24 29 2 22 27

~ ------10-14 59 27 32 4 10 16 12 10 5 2 ------15-19 48 32 16 2 3 2 4 5 19 6 4 3 ------20- 24 53 31 22 7 9 3 3 8 9 3 9 1

------~---- 25 - 34 79 47 32 11 2 4 17 11 13 3 12 3 2 ------_ 35+ 118 59 59 7 40 17 14 11 4 15 1 9

~------Tot'll 454 244 210 36 82 63 67 47 39 61 15 34 7 3 _------_ ----_------N'I{qs. -P=?:r>oa~, M=-Mlles, F-Females. 16

SETTLEMENT PATTERN IN THE CRAFT-CENTRES of profit has not risen high and for a Bani worker the income has not increased much. Adversity has In Raibaghini the artisan households are found to so badly plagued the craft that now no child even in be living in two localities namely, Sankharibazar or his dream will take up the craft as his occupation. Sankharipara which is situated a little inside the village ~he ~rown-ups who are forced to pursue the occupa­ along the main village road taking off from Calcutta­ tIOn In the craft do so out of lack of any other choice Bishnupur metalled road, and in Golipara on the or option for an alterative source of livelihood. A~ village pathway leading to the western side of the a consequence, the young have neither any aptitude village from the main village road_ Some artisan for nor interest in the craft to keep the tn,dition alive households also live on the main village road towards in future. further south. SOCIAL STATUS

In Shashpur too, the craftsmen households reside Of the four communities attached to the craft, the Sankharipara in a locality known as on both sides of Brahmans occupy the highest position 10 the social the kutcha (unmetalled) village road taking off from heirarchy of the village-society. The Mahisyas and the semi-pucca road linking Bankura town with Shash­ the Sankhabaniks come next on an equal footing. pur via Indas leading to the village in the east. Next come the Bairagis. All the artisan households of these communities live i,n amity with households The craftsmen households in Kamarsol live on of other communities and are not SUbjected to any both sides of the village road proceeding from the social disability in the day-to-day social life. south to the north in localities known as Daspara, Mondalpara and Kamarsol Solo Ana Para. In the DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE OF PRACTISING CRAFTS last named locality live the Bairagi artisan households. MEN HOUSEHOLDS

There are 370 persons compnsmg 194 males ECONOMIC CONDITION and 176 females in 58 artisan households. The average size of an artisan household is 6.4 and A general outline of the economic conditions is the sex-ratio is 907 females per thousand males. All given on the basis of data collected in 1964 and the households are Hindus and Bengali is the mother during the present investigation. About twenty five tongue of all the persons. No household is single­ years back, an independent worker could earn an membered and the majority (42 hQuseholds) have annual income of rupees three hundred to rupees 2-7 members. Nuclear type of households with four hundred. The wage per pair of white bangles married couple and with or without unmarried child­ was 12 paise and that for a pair of coloured bangles ren account for 43.1 per cent of the households and varied between 50 paise to 75 paise. Now, an 20.7 per cent households are of joint type. artisan can earn a monthly income of rupees six hundred to rupees fIfteen hundred on an average. Though 55.95 per cent of the persons in artisan The rate of wage now is charged at one rupee per households have not yet married, (vide Appendix pair of white bangles and Rs. 1.50 paise to Rs. 1.75 Table No.1) 129 of them include children in the paise per pair of coloured bangles, if production age-group 0-14. Excluding them, 32.4 per cent of is sustained throughout the year, which is, however, the persons aged 15 years and above are not married not the case at the present moment. An artisan yet. While all the persons above 45 years are can earn an average monthly income of rupees married, 18.4 per cent in the age-group 25-44 are four hundred by manufacturing white bangles and yet to marry. rupees six hundred by carving out coloured bangles. But, whereas two decades back, an artisan with Infants and children in the age-group 0-4 are a per capita monthly income of rupees thirty only excluded from the purview of the discussion on could somehow eke out an existence, the present per literacy and education of the persons in the practis­ capita monthly income of rupees one hundred is ing artisan households (vide Appendix Table No.2). barely adequate enough to make both ends meet. Thus, 19.7 per cent of the total population excluding The artisan opine that with the cost of living now infants in the age-group 0-4 are illiterates, corres­ 10 times of that two decades back, an artisan house­ ponding percentages of illiterates for the males and hold with even an average monthly income of Rs. 1,200 females of five years and above being 6.9 and 33.3 to Rs. 1,600 find it hard to meet the household respectively. Illiteracy among the females is mostly expenses for five to six members. This is the con­ confined to the age-group of 35 years and above sensus of all the artisans in all the craft-centres. (71.7 per cent) and is less pronounced among the females in the age-group of 5-34. While there are In the recent past, the craft as a source of only seven females with education upto matriculation employment and income was considered by the crafts­ level, there is no graduate women in the practising men as lucrative but not so now, even as a gainful artisan households. Only 9.6 per cent of the mem­ employment to an unemployed member in an artisan bers (excluding the age-group 0-4) in the practising household. Therefore, the economic condition has artisan households have education upto matriculation deteriorated. For an independent worker the margin or above. 17

If the demographic aspects of only the practising characteristics of the non-practising members with artisans are examined in isolation from other mem­ some other economic pursuits. Out of 140 workers bers, some characteristks are evident. in the practising artisan households in the three craft­ centres, 117 are practising craftsmen, the rest of the The number of total practising artisans in the 23 workers are associated with other occupations. three craft-centres is 117 comprising 77 males and Of them, eight in Raibaghini are constituted by two 40 females (the average sex-ratio among the practis­ mechanics in cycle-repairing, two instrumental ing artisans being 519 females per thousand males) musicians (playing tabla), a school-teacher, a tutor (vide Appendix Table No. 19). The solitary female in music, a pharmacist and a trader in medicine. practising artisan in the age-group of 0-14 in the village Shashpur is an exception. In the two other In the village Shashpur among eight workers not craft-centres no child artisan has been found to practising the craft, two are cultivators, two are practise the craft. Children constitute 0.9 per cent weavers of handloom cotton textiles, two are grocers, of the practising craftsmen, the age-group 15-34 one is a milkman and one is a mechanic repairi,ng and 35-59 account for 41.0 and 47.0 per cent of the bicycles. In Kamarsol the seven non-practising practising craftsmen respectively while in the old age working members consist of four cultivators, one of 60 years and above there are 11.1 per cent of teacher in a primary schoo], one clerk and one the craftsmen. The sex-ratios among the practising labourer (on contract). artisans in the age-groups 15-34, 35-59 and 60 + are 333, 618 and 625 females among 1,000 males. The 117 practising craftsmen too can be cate­ gorised into three groups. In the first group there The participation rates in different age-groups are 98 artisans who have no occupation other than among the males are 40.4 per cent (15-34), 89.2 the craft itself. The second group covers nine per cent (35-59) and 80.0 per cent (60 years and craftsmen who have a secondary occupation. Eight above) and the same among the females are 20.3 of them have cultivation as a secondary occupation per cent (15-34), 55.0 per cent (35-59) and 83.3 and one manufactures fishing hooks. In the third per cent (60 years and above). group 10 artisans have taken to the craft as a second­ ary occupation in addition to some other economic Literacy-wise, 5.2 per cent of the male and 45.0 activity as their main avocation. Primarily three of per cent of the female artisans are illiterate, 26.0 them are cultivators, two are instrumental musicians per cent of the male and 27.5 per cent of the female playing tabla, one is a grocer, one is a chowkidar, one artisans are literate, 54.5 per cent of the male and is a school-teacher and one more is a fish-trader. 25.0 per cent of the female craftsmen have education upto matriculation standard while 14.3 per cent of In the practising artisan households 230 non­ the male and 2.5 per cent of the female artisans workers (95 males and 135 females) cover 35 infants, have passed the matriculation examination. It is thus 115 full-time students, 64 housewives, 10 job-seekers evident that the female artisans are lagging behind and six dependants. the males in educational attainments. DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF NON-PRAC­ OCCUPATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PRACTISING TISING HOUSEHOLDS ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS A comprehensive study of the craft necessitates Since all the working members in the practising a close observation of the persons and their families craftsmen households do not participate in the craft, who have ceased to be associated with the craft for it is necessary to throw light on the occupational some reason or other. STATEMENT 0.6 Population characteristics of the non-practising householdS

Community No. of Percentage of Percentage of households households Population Male Female population ---- 2 3 4 5 6 7

Sankhabanik! 10 66.7 56 33 23 66.7 Mahisya 3 20.0 16 10 6 19.0 Bairagi 2 13.3 12 7 5 14.3 ------Total 15 100.0 84 50 34 100.0

Householdwise and populationwise the Sankha­ lowest among the Mahisyas (5.3). The sex­ baniks are numerically predominant. The Mahisyas ratio is highest among the Bairagis (715 females are the second largest group. The average size of per thousand males) and lowest among the household is highest (6,0) ;lmong the Bairagis and Mahisyas (600 females among thousand males). 10 Ceususj88-3 18

All the households are Hindus with Bengali as craft in the village. In Raibaghini the craft is stated their mother tongue. Except one incomplete family, to have been started about 300 years ago by one seven families are nuclear and seven others are Sankhabanik artisan named Harl Pada Datta, an im­ joint. All but one of the non-practising households migrant to the village from J{amarpukur in the district are non-migrants. The solitary migrant household of Hugli. The immigrant wanted to avoid the tor­ is headed by a female who had immigrated to the tures on poor artisans by the local landlord in his craft-centre after her marriage from outside the craft­ native place and decided to settle in Raibaghini along­ centre but within the district. wi.th a few other artisans from his village in Hugli district. A craft-centre was started soon after in The children belonging to the age-group of 0-14 Raibaghini by Hari Pada Datta and a few other and the old age-group of 60 years and above Sankhabanik artisans from the district of Hugli. account for 32.1 and 7·2 per cent of the total popu­ Initially, the craft, as the traditional occupatkm, was lation in the non-practising households. Remarkably, the exclusive preserve of the Sankhabanik artisans. no child, whether a male or a female, in the age­ But, subsequently with the development of the craft, group of 0-14 is married. Even in the age-group more and more people from other communities, drawn of 15-24 only two females are married out of 17 to the craft, involved themselves in the processes of persons in the same age-group. None of the females production. Thus, the craft was no lonf';'~( the mono­ above 25 years is, however, unmarried, while four poly of the Sankhabaniks. males, out of 40, in the age-group of 25 years and above are yet to marry. Seven, out of nine women In the village Shashpur the artisans cannot throw aged 45 years and above, are widows. any light on the origin of the "raft in the village. Among the non-practising craftsmen none of the One aged craftsman points out that the craft develop­ males in the age-group of five years and above is ed in the village in the P1St mainly because of the illiterate but only nine females out of 28 in the same inierest evinced by three S:wkhabanik master crafts­ age-group are illiterate. ~n, Shyam Sundar Nandi, Ahi Bhusan Nandi and Dcbendra Nandi who passionately longed to eam OCCUPATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF NON-PRAC­ some celebrity for the craft-centre in Shashpur. TISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS In their efforts they were successful to associate the Sankhabaniks with the .:.raft. No other commu­ It has already been mentioned earlIer that the nity ever participated in the craft and the craft is traditional occupation of the Sankhabaniks is the craft now being practised by unly the Sankhabanik of carving out conchshell products. The Mahisyas artisans. are traditionally preoccupied with agriculture while the Bairagis, as a sect of tile Vaishnavas. are tradi­ ti.onally a mendicant group, singing devotional In the village Kamarsol t!iC craft has been started hymns. not by any Sankhabanik artisan but by a Mahlsya, Haridas Das, the forefather of the present master In the non-practising artisan houstholds 25 per· craftsman. Sri Rabi Das. It was largely at the initia­ sO!1s (23 males and two females) are workers tive of Haridas Das and the interest and help of engaged in some gainful occupation. Eight persons are some of his friends thal lae craft soon developed cultivators. one is a rearer and seller of fish, three into a flourishing stage. It. the present craft-centre persons in the manufacturing sector include one there is no Sankhabanik household, yet the craft has goldsmith, one worker in an ('iI-pressing mill and one been pursued by other communities with which con­ in paddy-husking, one is in construction as a painter, chshell-carving has never been a traditional occupation. five traders consist of two grocers, one shop-owner selling pall (betel), one worker in a cloth-shop and one seller of oil-cakes. In the service sector there SFRVICES AVAILABLE TO THE CRAFTSMEN are seven persons comprising three primary school­ teachers, one deed-writer. one clerk in Block .In Raibaghini there is neither any co-operative Development Office, one postman and one In National s.OCIety of the artisan& nor any training-cum-produc­ Volunteer Force. tIon centre. The artisans recount that in 1958 a co­ operative society in the craft-centre was founded with Of the 59 non-workers consisting of 27 males 20 members initially but could not thrive long due and 32 females, nine ar..: infants (four males and to lack of unity among the craftsmen. The c0- five females), 25 (19 males and six females) are operative society became d-::funct in the early sh.ties full-time stude!1ts, 2 I females are housewives, three and in the late sixties had stopped functioning and unemployed males are seeking employment and one had been liquidated. male is a dependent.

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE CRAFT IN In Shashpur and Karnarsol there is neither any THE CRAFT-CENTRES co-operative society nor any training..cum-production centre. . In Kamarsol a co-operative society was In everv craft··centre the villagers take recourse started III the 1970's but due to non-availabIlity C)f to a legendary story to ;lUude to the origin of the raw materials the society became defunct soon after. CHAPTER-Ill

PROCESSES OF LEARNING

INTRODUCTION

Although the Sankhabaniks traditionally associate is a sister, one is the daughter of the head's brother themselves with the craft, the artisans of other one is the head's father's brother's wife and fiv~ communities too claim that lhey have been COTUlected others are female relations of the heads. with the craft traditionally for a pretty long time and that like the Sankhabanik artisans, they too The training is receIved by the artisans in the inherited the technical know-llo'", vi the craft from households mostly from the elderly kins· rhus, of the members of their iamiiies. 'rIley do not owe 58 artisans heads, 32 ?ave been trained by their their skill or training to any institution or organisa­ fathers, seven by theIr brothers, four Py their tion. It is apparent that the artisans have more on husbands, 13 by their neighbours, one by the head's account of local influence than of anythlJ1g else taken mother and one more by father's brother. up the craft as their occupation. The techniques of production are learnt by the artisans by closely In the case of the wives of '13 heads seven watching the elders at work. No arrangement is there acquired the skill from their fathers, five fro~ their for organised training of the craftsmen. husbands and one from her husband's sister. The sons of 15 •heads have been trained by their DURATION OF ASSOCIATION fathers (13 cases) and lllother~ (two cases.l. Out of 11 artisans, brothers of the head3 of the house­ Since 'each duration of time mirrors in itself all holds, seven learnt the tedmiques from their fathers, temporal durations', it is worthwhile to take note of one from the mother, one from his brother and two the period of association of the craftsmen with their more from their neighboJrs. saw and hammer, file and drill. The time which trickled out during their preocwtldlinn with the craft The son's wife has been trained by her father also has witnessed many moments of joys and sorrows, before her marriage. Four daughters were trained hopes and frustrations and has marked out the young by their fathers and one by her mother, The head's from the old. From the point of time span, only sister in one case was trained by her father and so seven craftsmen inoluding one head of household also were the five female relations. (6.0 per cent) have pursued the craft for not mOre than five years while 14 more craftsmen (12.0 per In the case of six mothers of the heads two cent) have been associated with the craft for more acquired their skill from their fathers, three from than five years but less than 10 }ears and they their husbands and one more from her husband's include two heads of ilousehoids. Thus, the last sister, decade has drawn only 18.0 per cent of the practising One daughter of hea

The craft is the traditi,mal occupation of the DIVISION OF WORK Sankhabaniks and the hercdi:ary pursuit of other communities. The heads of ail the 58 hou:::eholds In none of the craft-centres has any division of are practising artisans along with other members. work in the artisan households been observed during Thus, of 117 craftsmen, 58 me heads of hOt.~eholct~, the manufacture of the articles. The main operati,ons 13 artisans are the spouses of the heads (wives) , of polishing, designing and finishing are carried on by 15 are sons, It are brothers, five are d:1Ughtcrs. t:ix one and the same artisan. There is no difference in are mothers of the heads, one i:, a son's wife, one the nature of work for a particular artisan. 20

PERIOD OF TRAINING The craft of conchshell-carving, even in its present state of adversity, is still an integral part of The peri,od of training varies from six .month~ to the rural economy. The craft has tremendous poten­ two years. or more, depending upon the aptitude, time tiality to arrest unemployment .among the ~r.al youth spent and several other factors concerning the crafts­ in different craft-centres, prOVIded there IS Improve­ men. While the majority of the artisans (83 crafts­ ment in the technical knowledge of the craft. The men) have learnt the processes of production in course ex.perienced elderly artisans. hold. t~e view that be!ter of six months to one year, 34 others (29.1 per cent) results may be achieved If traIlling-cum-productIOn have taken two years or more to pick up the techni­ centres are set up in different craft-centres with the ques. Everyone, however, agrees that one ~annot introduction of the system of payment of stipends master the skill in less than six months, even It one to the trainee craftsmen. is talented enough. . BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF SELECTED CRAFTS· TERMS AND CONDITIONS OF TRAINING MEN Since the training is m~stly .confined. to . fam~ies and imparted by senior artIsans to the JUnIor kins, Any discussion about the learning process of the the question of payment of remunerati?n ~o the artisans will remain incomplete without an idea about apprentice does not arise at all. The questIon IS rele­ the life-history of senior skilled craftsmen who are vant only in the case of 13 artisans who have learnt respected in the village and outside by artisans, young the craft from outsiders· But, aID' of them, instead of and old.. for skill and knowledge. receiving any allowance or making any payment of fees for their training, have had to render free Sri Shyamapada Nandi a Sankhabanik artisan service to thei,r guides during the period of apprentice- of Raibaghini is at present aged 55 years with edu­ ship and training. " cation upto primary standard Sri Nandi is married. His wife Smt. Mira Nandi aged 45 years is also an The artisans have learnt the craft out of their own artisclll. His two unmarried sons, aged 24 and 16 volition. No terms and conditions are laid down even years, an unmarried daughter of 18 years and his when the artisans receive training from outsiders. No widowed sister of 58 years all pursue the craft under restriction is imposed on any artisan for imparting the supervision of Sri Nandi. Born in the village Rai­ training to unrelated members outside the kinship or baghini in a family of traditional conchshell artisans,. the caste. All the artisans feel that their training has Sri Nandi was initiated into the craft at the age of 12 been adequate and that there is no need for fu~er years by his. father Late Kali Pada Nandi. At the training. There being no training-cum-productlOn age of 16 years Sri Nandi receive further training centre in any of the craft-centres, the craftsmen under Late Hari Pada Dutta, a Sankhabanik artisan remain contented with whatever trai,ning they have neighbour. Now Sri Nandi is respected as a master received in their households or from their neigh­ craftsman with his specialisation confined to the pro­ bours. duction of rings introduced by him about 15 years ago. Artisans from other craft-centres come to Sri Nandi ACQUISITION OF SKILL to learn the techniques of production of rings of conch­ In the household craft whatever technical know­ shell. Sri Nandi has been widely appreciated for his ledge is gained by the craftsmen is largely trans­ product in many exhibitions at the district and State mitted by the father to his son. The communication levels. In 1981 some foreign researcher came to of knowledge and experience continues from one village to meet Sri Nandi, collect some specimens of generation to another without interruption. The pro­ his products, interview for the purpose of preparing cess of communication is confined to discussion, a write-up on the craft and take suitable photograph. exchange of opinion and practical demonstration. As Sri Nandi is of the opinion that young men have lost mentioned earlier, 13 artisans, incidentally the heads the zeal and interest in the craft. of households, acquired the requisite skill during their training as apprentices under outsiders while In Raibaghini Smt. Geeta Rani Bhadra, a widowed the heads of 45 other households gained their skill Sankhabanik artisan of 50 years and an illiterate, has as trainees under the elderly members of their house­ been associated with the craft for the past 37 years. holds. They consider themselves sufficiently skilled Born in the village of Raibaghini, Smt. Bhadra learned to be expert craftsmen. the techniques of the craft from her father Late Krishna Bandhu Dutta, a Sankhabanik artisan of the A study of the life-history of the master crafts­ village. She was married to Late Khudiram Bhadra men and of the relatively recent entrants into the a Sankhabanik resident of the village at the age of craft leads one to the conclusion that there has been 16 years. But her husband instead of pursuing the but little change in the facilities for training available craft had been a seller of conchs hell products as a at present and available during the childhood of the roving tradesman. Smt. Bhadra picked up more elderly craftsmen. This view is in general expressed knowledge from her mother-in-law and subse­ by the master craftsmen while di,scussing about the quently tl1l'ned to Late Indra Sutra Dhar, a Sutradhar training now imparted and about that received during artisan, for gaining some skill about deSigns. Now their apprenticeship. Smt. Bhadra is considered to be a master artisan 21

with specialised knowledge in designing white bangles. mal prize at any level. Smt. Bhadra opines that now In fact Smt. Bhadra is the expert female artisan in the interest of the young to learn the craft is on the the village who produces white bangles. Smt. Bhadra wane. It was not so when she was young. is assisted by her eld~t married son of 29 years and another unmarried soit of 22 years in the production Sri Rabi Das, a Mahisya artisan of 62 years in of conchs hell articles. She has imparted training to the village Kamarsol, is a senior craftsman of the vil­ many female artisans in the village in the past after lage. Literate without any educational level, Sri Das their marriage. But at present newly wed women do picked up ·the basics of the craft at the tender age of seldom come forward to undergo training under Smt. ten years from his late uncle . (father'S brother) Bhadra for lack of aptitude for the craft. Though Kamala Kanta Das. At the age of 25, Sri Das was Smt. Bhadra has not received any prize in th~ district an accomplished artisan of the village. He is recog­ level, or at state level, her products are appreciated nised for his masterly skill in producing coloured by her customers. bangJe~. Sri Das has won appreciation of his client­ ele. He has participated in many exhibitions inside Smt. Rajlakshmi Bhadra, a carried Sankhabanik the district and outside. He was awarded a reward ., artisan of Shashpur, was born in Kalna town in the in ('ash of rupees one hundrect and fifty at a State district of Barddhaman 45 years ago. Educated upto level competition in 1966. Sri Das donated the primary standard, Smt. Bhadra started receiving· amount of the reward to the Co-operative Society training in the craftsmanship under her father Late which he had formed some time back in 1960-61. Ratan Nandi, a practising artisan. Smt. Bhadra was The Society, howcver, did not flourish long, even married at the age of 18 years to Sri Rama· N ath though he was its Secretary. The Society became Bhadra, aged 52 years now, who is also a practising defunct in 1967. This incident has made Sri Das artisan in Shashpur. A member of a large joint family, an independent worker, assisted in his production Smt. Bhadra, her husband, her u.nmarried daughter by his widower brother of 54 years. Sri Das's wife of 19 years and other kins like husband's brothers looks after the household. Unlike other master crafts­ and their wives all pursue the craft together. Smt. men in two other craft-centres, Sri Das feels that op­ Bhadra incidentally has received some training under portunities for training has remained the same as her mother-in-law, since deceased. Smt. Bhadra is before. Even now, interested beginners can learn the adjudged a skilled artisan and dexterous in her pro­ processes of the craft from the elderly craftsmen as duction of articles. Her customers appreciate her home appr.entices, if they have the desired will, apti­ products highly, though she has not received any for- tude and mterest.

CHAPTER-IV

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

PLACE OF WORK OF THE CRAFTSMEN marriage and in temples during worship, it does not otherwise pollute the craftsmen like the animal hides In the strict sense of the term the productive or skins. No ritual connected with purity or pollution processes of a craft are carried out in a workshop. has been observed to be associated with any aspect But, it will be a misnomer if the place of work of the of operation or at any stage of work. conchshell artisans is given the appellation of a workshop. Mostly, the place of work of an artisan is The artisans generally work in two shifts, once located neither in a separate room exclusively uscd in the morning and once more in the afternoon. In for the manufacturing processes nor under a separate the morning after ablutions and taking the breakfast, shed. The craftsmen carryon the operations of their the artisans commence their work and continue till craft generally within the confines of their dwelling the time tor taking bath and mid-day meal at noon. house which is neither exclusively used for residential After a short post-lunch rest the artisans resume their purpose nor solely as a workshop. Therefore, it will work and linger till dusk. The hard and complex be more appropriate to treat the place of work of an items of work are done in the morning while the light artisan as a residence-cum-workshop. Majority of the work is carried on in the afternoon. workers have their places of work located in open countryards or open verandahs or in open compounds The artisans opine that there is" no hard and fast of the dwelling house. Fifty two artisan households rule that work should be started in a clean and washed carryon the operations of the craft in their residence­ dress. Nor is it obligatory to take a bath before taking cum-workshops, owned by them, while six artisan up the work. The craftsmen do neither have any households with their places of work away from their custom or practice to clean the tools and equipments dwellings work in the places of work owned by well­ before or after the work. Personal hygiene, cleanli­ to-do artisans running the workshops as Mahajans ness of the workshop, tools and equipments arc more (financiers) . a question of individual taste and outlook than of any ritualistic prescription. In Raibaghini and Shashpur the craftsmen heads of households work in their own residences. But in NAME, DESCRIPTION AND USE OF THE ARTICLES Kamarsol six artisan households work in the work­ PRODUCED shop owned by Mahajans on Bani (contractual work) basis. In the three craft-centres under study the crafts­ me!l at prescnt manufacture plain white bangles The average space in a workshop covers an area (WIthout colour), coloured bangles, shell-horns, rings, of 3.5 metres in length and 2.5 metres in width. The necklaces, brooches, earringlo and hair-pins. White manufacturing processes involving different operations bangles constitut~ the bulk of the manufactured pro­ are conducted in the open verandah inside the house, ducts in all the selected craft-centres. Bangles of both closed on one side but open on three other sides. The the varieties as wen as shell-horns are produced in work-sites obviously are well-ventilated and suffi­ large numbers in Raibaghini and Shashpur. But, ciently lighted in daytime. Within the space the worker Kamarsol manufactures only two types of bangles. squats on a gunny bag or mat or sits on a low stool to perform manifold operations with the help of tools SADA SANKHA (PLAIN/WHITE BANGLES) and equipments. This large ring-shaped article, vertically cut out of In the workshops owned by 52 artisan households an intact conchshell, is circular in form and brittle in 109 craftsmen belonging to those households work. nature. Two pieces make a pair of bangles of this But eight craftsmen belonging to six households work variety. The mouth of each piece is tinged with five in others' workshops outside their residence. These drops of colonr baving a symbolic value. The red craftsmen, all males and belonging to the age-group colour is associated with vermilion, a sacred mark of 20-24, walk to the workshops without availing for married Hindu women. Blue is associated with themselves of any transport. Lord Siva. Green denotes youth and vigour and yellow signifies good omen. The average diameter of PURITY AND POLLUTION a piece of bangle is 51 mm to 54 mm with the circum­ f@£ence varying between 152 mm to 203 mm. Married The artisans do not have any custom or belief Hindu Bengali women use the bangles as a social regarding the observance of purity and avoidance of tradition and custom to ~ignify currently married pollution. COllchshell itself being used for rituals in status. During marriage ceremonies a pair of these 24

bangles is a 'must' for every newly married Hindu blow as a trumpet on religious occasions, a BajantQ Bengali bride. So long the husband lives, a married Sankha varies in length between 102 mm and 127 Hindu woman regards a pair of white conchshell mm and weighing 200 grammes to one kilogramme bangles as an indispensable item of her ornaments. or more. The conchs hell is blown in the temples and . But with widowhood, a Bengali Hindu woman will in Hindu households during an auspicious occasion renounce the article for ever. The customary blessing and during socio-religious ceremonies. Conchshell is of the parents and elderly women to any married also blown every evening during prayer before the Bengah Hindu woman is, "May your shell bangles on household deity by devout Bengali Hindu households. your wrists and the vermilion mark on the parting of your hair last for ever." ANGTI (RINGS)

RANGIN SANKHA (COLOURED BANGLES) Circular in shape and small in size to fit into the fingers, Angti with a diameter of 12 mm or more This article is in shape and form akin to the white and a weight of two grammes is generally manufactur­ bangle. The article is produced by joining fragments ed from the Chhat (rejected portions) of the conch­ or cut pieces of an intact conchsell. Three fragments shell. It is used as an ornament and also to propitiate make one piece of coloured bangle and two pieces of afflicted moon on astrOloger's advice. coloured bangles make a pair as in the case of white bangles. BAR (NECKLACE)

Coloured bangles are generally of five varieties, This is produced from cut pieces of conchshell and namely, Kar Sallkha, Mina Sankha, Ginibala, Khilan is used by women as an ornament round the neck. Sankha and Ganga Yamuna. Majority of the artisans engaged in the manufacture of coloured bangles DUL (EAR-RING) produce only Kar Sankha. Other varieti€s of coloured bangles are produced by a small number of artisans. Manufactured from rejected cut pieces of a conch­ shell, this article is used as an ornament for the ears Kar Scmkha is a plain red bangle with yellow . by female cllstomers mainly for decoration of the decorations painted on the outer surface of the bangle, body. weighing 10 grammes apieces. This bangle is used during marriage ceremony or at the time of any BROOCH AND HAIR-PIN religious ceremony. A plain bangle with green decorations on the Produced from the Chhat of a conchsheII, both outer surface and weighing 10 grammes apiece, Mina the brooch and the hair-pin are used as decorative Sankha is used mainly for decoration of the body. ornaments, the former as a clip for the dress and the latter as a hair-clip. A small red bangle with a diameter of 25 mm to 38 mm and weighing five grammes, Ginibala is used AVERAGE MONTHLY PRODUCTION mostly by children for decoration of the body. Of different articles, referred to earlier neck­ A plain bangle weighing 10 grammes with the laces, ear-rings and brooches are not produded uni­ inner surface white and the outer surface painted formly thlOughout the year. Production is seasonal red, Khilan Sankha has two mouths which may be an? manufactured on special occasions. Only two opened, if necessary, at the time of fixing a piece on artIsan households (one in Raibaghini and one in the hand of a customer. The bangle is used mainly Shashpur) manufacture these items. as an ornament. fn Raibaghini the artisan households on an A plain bangle weighing 10 grammes with the average. manufacture 132 pairs of white plain bawes, outer surface remaining white and the inner surface 133 pUlrs of coloured bangles, 538 pieces of rings, painted red, Ganga Yamuna is used as a decorative 1~ pIeces of shell-horns, 36 pieces of ear-rings, 24 ornament. pIeces of necklaces and 60 pIeces of brooches in a month. During the sixties two more varieties of coloured bangles, Sonamukhi and Maja, were produced in In Shashpur the average monthly production by Raibaghini for marriage and religious rituals. But, the different artisan households covers 270 pairs of plain artisans have stopped production of these varieties \-:hite ban~les, 225. pairs of coloured bangles, 500 long ago for want of demand. pIeces of nngs, 25 pIeces of shell-horns and 100 pieces of hair-pins. BAJANTA SANKHA (SHELL-HORNS) In Kamarsol the artisans produce 200 pieces of A full-sized conchshell wjth its apex removed and white bangles and 213 pieces of coloured bangles in with an opening through which air is passed forcibly to a month on an average. 25

SEASONAL VARIATION IN PRODUCTION WHITE BANGLES

Certain products of the craft being required for Raw materials requirc~oduction of this ceremonial and relligious purposes, there is a steady article may be classified as main and subsidiary. Main demand for thcse articles all through the year and as raw materials are provided by intact conchshells (Gota SUch, the operations of the craft are not seasonal in Sankha) and ring-shaped cut pieces (Rek) of conch­ nature. If everything goes well with the supply of shell. The subsidiary raw materials consist of lac raw material, production is carried on without any (Gala or J au), resin, wax, acid, zinc oxide powder, break. Only during the rainy season, the tempo of charcoal, etc. work slackens down. During the rains the roads and communications between different areas deteriorate Chanks or conchshells used in the craft-centres by and movement between places is difficult. The different artisan households are of three varieties, artisans find it hard to maintain regular commercial namely, Titkutti, Rameswari and Patti. Titkutti link and effective bU'liness liais._on with their custo­ conchshells are large-sized and of superior quality, mers. The customers too from distant places can generally free from any damage caused by pests or hardly visit the craft-centres regularly in the rainy insects. Thick-shelled, hard and white-coloured, Tit­ season. kuttis are found in abundance in the coastal waters off Tuticorin in the district of Tirunelveli in the State of Some of the artisans with agricultural land get Tamil Nadu. On this variety of conchshells artisans engaged in the agricultural operations soon after the find it facile to engrave different designs. monsoons set in. Thc artisans, therefore, have to divide their time between agriculture and the craft Rameswari chanks, thin-shelled, medium-sized and and as a result, production has a slight downward of inferior quality, not unaffected by damages caused trend. by worms or pests, grow in the marine waters of Rame­ swaram coast in the district of Ramanathapuram in Due to non-availability of raw materials the volume the State of Tamil Nadu. Not as white as Titkutti, of production comes down considerably and at times Rameswari chank is also brittle in nature. some artisans are even left with no choice other than cessation of work for a few days, till the supply of Small in Size and reddish white in colour, Patti raw material is restored. But in any case, total pro­ is a chank of inferior quality, found in plenty in Debi­ duction is never dislocated nor do the manufacturing pattanam in the district of Ramanathapuram in the operations come to a grinding halt. State of Tamil Nadu. Pattis are susceptible to attacks by pests and consequential damage.

In winter the tempo of work is brisk. During The artisans find it hard to engrave designs on this part of the year different fairs and festivals at Patti conchsheIl. Needless to mention, the artisans certain centrcs create a heavy demand for the articlcs prefer Titklitti to either Rameswari or Patti. of the craft. To produce finished products in plenty for sale in the places where fairs are organised the Intact conchshells are not exclusively used hy any artisans take an active interest in the schedule to keep artisan for the production of white bangles. A few pace with the calendar of fairs. independent workers, incidentally the owner crafts~ men, use cut pieces as well as intact conchsells while RAW MATERIALS FOR DIFFERENT ARTICLES producing plain bangles. Intact conchshells are our­ chased in the town of Bankura and in Calcutta. But, majority of the artisans take recourse to cut pieces. Chank or intact conchshell is the basic raw mate­ Six to eight plain white bangles may be manufactured rial required for the production of different conch­ from one piece of intact conchshell. shell articles. Conchshell is a univalve, asymmetric gastropod shell, milky white or brownish white in Tn rnaioritv of cases, owner craftsmen produce colour and thick with umbilicus, enamelled, large, plain bangles directly from ring-shaped piece'S, cut out helicoid spiral, fusiform, elongated, sharp spired, short from intact conchel1<; The cut pieces are locally and conical with a few convex whorls with spiral stria­ known as Reks. The Bani workers (job contract tion and distinct nodes confined to the posterior part worker~) produce plain white bangles from the Reks of the shell. The shell has its apex painted, base wpplied bv the Mahajans and order-suppliers. One drawn into a necklike form, aperture lensoid and dex­ cut piece of conch<;hell yields only one piece of bangle. tral, outer lip thick and smooth, inner lip with promi­ nent parallel folds, deep and narrow anterior channel Cala or J au (Lac) and resin are used for repair­ somewhat curved but not closed and with posterior ing the bangles. W

COLOURED BANGLES such as, the demand for the products, availability of manpower and supply of raw materials. . !he !lrtisa.n The main raw materials are provided by cut pieces households are not in a favourable poSItIon In thiS of arc-shaped fragments of conchshells. The pieces respect. are obtained from intact conchshells of inferior qua­ lity. Independent owner-craftsmen produce coloured bangles from fragments procured from the town of According to the experienced artisans of the craft­ Bishnupur in the district of Bankura, Jitpur in the centres, an artisan household consumes on an average district of Murshidabad and Sehrabazar in the district approximately the following quantity of main an~ sub­ of Barddhaman. The Bani workers manufacture colo­ sidiary raw materials in a month for productIon of ured bangles from fragments of intact conchshells sup­ different items of conchshell products. plied to them by the Mahajans and order-suppliers. The cut pieces are locally known as Kuehi, obtained STi\TEMENT IV.I from the Pata portion of the chank. One piece of bangle is obtained by joining together three fragments. Average Monthly Consumption of Raw The subsidiary raw materials required for the Materials by an Artisan Household manufacture of coloured bangles include HinguI (cin­ ------nabar), Harital (orpiment), plain green and plain red Name of the product Average monthly quantity colours for use as dyes during ornamentation. Gala of raw materials consumed or lau is used as adhesive to join different fragments to make a complete bangle. Resin and incense pow­ 2 der are used during repair work, which, in some cases, White bangles 50 intact conchshells or also requires the use of wax, zinc oxide powder and 600 cut pieces, conchshell powder. Acid is used to clean, bleach, 400 grams of Gala, whiten and polish the finished article. Charcoal is 200 grams of resin, required to light the ovens for heating the fragments one bottle of acid and before joining. Wires of tin are essential for shaping one piece of candle-stick. the article and Tops (thin foils of tin) are used during ornamentation. Coloured bangles 800 cut pieces, 200 grams of Hingul, SHELL-HORN 12 grams of Harital, 200 grams of resin and An important finished product, shell-horn is manu­ 400 grams of Gala, and factured at present from intact conchshells of Titkutti 200 grams of wire-scraps. variety which is otherwise hard, thick and ~azzling while in colour and look. Its hardness f~ilitates Shell-horn 25 intact conchshe1is, easy engraving of the desired design on the conchshell one bottle of acid and without any damage or breakage to the shell-horn. two pieces of candle- One conchshell can yield only one shell-horn. sticks. The subsidiary raw materials required for the production of shell-horns are provided by wax, white Ring 2,000 fragments of Chhat, paint and acid. As in the production of other articles, half a bottle of acid and wax is used during repair work and white paint is one piece of candle-stick. used for colouring and for bleaching and polishing purposes. However, there is also seasonal variation in the consumption ~attern of the raw materials. During winter there is a boom in the consumption of raw RING, NECKLACE, EAR-RING, HAIR-PIN AND BROOCH materials induced by increase in demand- for the pro­ ducts. But, on the other hand, the rainy season dam­ The Chhat (scrap or rejected fragment) portion pens the consumption pattern of raw materials be­ of the conchshell is the main raw material required for cause of reduced demand for the products from the the manufacture of the small tiny articles. Wax and consumers. acid, as u'>ual, provide the subsidiary raw materials for repairing and polishing work. The fluctuations in the consumption of raw mate­ rials due to seasonal variation may be explained by MONTHLY CONSUMPTION OF RAW MATERIALS the fact that durin<1: winter the weather is fine, the communication with the outside world becomes eas',' Monthly consumntion of raw materials in the arti­ and there is spurt in marriage ceremonies and festivais san households for the production of different item'> during this period. But the rains make the weather of conchshcll products depend,> on three vital factors, bad and snap the link with the outside world. 27

SOURCE OF MAIN RAW MATERIAL ernment of West Bengal and five craftsmen from INTACT CONCHSHELL different craft-centres (not necessarily from the craft­ centres under study) of West Bengal are sent to Tamil While details about collection of chanks and about Nadu to certify the specifications of the raw materials. the operational particulars have been dealt with great After inspection and certification, the raw materials au.thority and sCholarship by Sri M. Thangaraju, Dy. are procured from the Government of Tamil Nadu by DIrector of Census Operations, Tamil Nadu, in his outright purchase against payment, as agreed to by article, The Chank Fisheries' included in Appendix-II the two Governments. Chanks of all varieties and in this Monograph, information, as collected from the qualities are m_ixed and the selling price is said to be artisans and Government agencies in West Bengal, i~ about Rs. 5.'::;0 p. per piece on an average. being discussed here. Manjusha, an organisation affiliated to the West Chanks are collected in the seacoasts of Rama­ Bengal Handicrafts Development Corporation, sells the nathapuram, Tirunvelly and Thanjavur districts conchshclls purchased from the Government of Tamil of Tamil Nadu from the Bay of Bengal under autho­ Nadu to 400 card-holders covering 6,000 registered rity of the Government of Tamil Nadu. The places, craftsmen. The price of one picce of conchshell of very often referred to by the artisans, are Rame­ Full Size-I is fixed at Rs. 13.00 p. and of Full Size-II swaram and Debipattanam in the district of Rama­ at Rs. 8.50. One undersized conchshell is sold at the nathapuram and Tuticorin in the district of Tirun­ rfate of Rs. 5.50 p. per piece while a piece of damaged velly. The chank industry has been fully under the (worm-eaten) conchshell sells at Re. 1.00 p. One control of the Fishery Department of the Government gunny bag generally contains 200 pieces of chanks of of Tamil Nadu. There are three methods of disposal assorted varieties and qualities and its price is fixed of fishery, viz., (1) by leasing the fishery to private on the basis of different sizes and qualities of chanks chank merchants, (2) by collecting the chanks depart­ in the gunny bag. An artisan can at a time purchase mentally from the sea bottom by engaging divers and one whole lot containing three to four gunny bags of then disposing of the collections and (3) by purchas­ conchshells without being allowed to inspect 01 ing the chanks from the fishermen who catch the examine the contents of the gunny bags, the price of chanks along with fish in their nets and then disposing each lot varying between Rs. 6,000.00 p. and Rupees of the chanks. The price of chank of Jadhi variety 8,000.00p. The artisans can purchase from Manjusha of Full Size-I 75 mm and above is rupees seven only one lot each against payment in cash or by bank draft of the Full Size-II 64 mm and 74 mm variety rupees but not on credit and have to pay sales tax on the five only and for wormed type is rupee one only. The total price at the rate of eight per cent. However, a Full Size-I of Patti variety is priced at Rs. 1.30 p. I subsidy of five per cent is allowed to an artisan. Before and Full Size-II costs Rs. 1.10 and wormed type sells chanks are sold to the artisans, advertisements are at 0.10 paise per piece. Full Size-I and Full Size-ll inserted by Manjusha in the local newspapers laying of Chevayan types are priced at Rs. 1.10 p. and 0.75 down the terms and conditions of the sale. Though paise per piece. the annual requirements of conchshells for the artisans in West Bengal are estimated to be approximately two The chanks collected and stored in godowns are million pieces in the minimum, the West Bengal sold according to the orders issued by the Govern­ Handicrafts Development Corporation procure only a ment of Tamil Nadu from time to time. The chanks million pieces a year from the Government of Tamil are mainly sold to the West Bengal Handicrafts Deve­ Nadu. lopment Corporation by negotiation and sealed ten­ ders. The chanks are sorted out, put into gunny bags fhe Zilla Parishad of Bankura district sends a and transported to Calcutta. list of artisans with its recommendations to the West Bengal Handicrafts Development Corporation. At The quality and size of the conchshells available present 120 artisans in the district of Bankura have to the artisans through the West Bengal Handicrafts enlisted themselves with the Zilla Parishad which sends Development Corporation are known as :-(1) Tif­ the list to Man;lIsha after advertisements are published. kutti (Full sized-I with the diameter of 2.75 mm and The artisans too are advised to be ready to collect the above) from Tuticorin in Tirunvelly district in the raw materials. After the Zilla Parishad is intimated by State of Tamil Nadu, (2) Rameswari (Full sized-Il Manjusha, the former sends to the latter's office in with the diameters of 2.50 mm to 2.75 mm) from Calcutta the bank draft through the State Bank of Rameswaram in Ramanathapuram district in the State India. of Tamil Nadu, (3) Patti (undersized) from Debi­ pattanam in Ramanathapuram district in the State of On receipt of the supply of required chanks from Tamil Nadu, and (4) damaged (worm-eaten) chanks Manjusha, the chanks are rebagged by the Zilla from the State of Tamil Nadu. Parishad before it distributes the bags among the applicant claftsmen. The price of small-sized conch­ A gunny bag, as available to the craftsmen, con­ shell comes to Rs. 676.00 per 100 pieces. The artisan tains conchs hells of various sizes and assorted quaai­ is permitted to purchase one bag of 100 pieces of con- ties. All the bags are, however, properly labelled and ~ chshells of assorted sizes against payment by bank marked. It is reported that one officer of the Gov- -draft. 28

The artisans also procure conchshells from private they visit the centres to procurc their requirement of agencies. Some Muslim ttaders from Tamil Nadu, Reks, Kuchis are fragments of conchshells of inferior residing in Chitpur area of Calcutta, have been quality. engaged in this trade for a considerably long period ot time. Formerly, thesc trad.:rs entirely controlled the SUBSIDIARY RAW MATERIALS business, but now the monopoly is not there due to the intervention of the Govts. of West Bengal and Tamil Subsidiary raw materials like lac, resin, red and Nadu. Even though the busincss of these traders is green dyes, blue pigments, acid, zinc oxide powder much restricted now, the artisans are favourably dis­ cte. arc purchased from traders at Kotalpur, Bishnupur posed to these traders. Three different important com­ and Barjora in the district of Bankura and at panies are Md. Abu Bakkar & Co., Md. Hamid & Co., Barddhaman. The articles, also available in the local and Md. Sultan & Co. The artisans are allowed to markets of the craft-centres, are obtained locally at inspect the :ontents of the gunny bags before purchase times of emcrgency. The subsidiary raw materials are and to pay the price in instalments. purchased in bulk and in retail by the artisans from outside markets. Besides, there arc ,orne Sankhabanik wholesale traders in Calcutta selling the conchshells to the TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR THE PURCHASE OF artisans. Sri Shyama Pada Nandi, Sri Pran Gopal MAIN RAW MATERIALS Nandi, Sri Giri Dutta and Sri Madhusudan Sen, among the wholesale traders operating from Calcutta market, INTACT CONCHSHELL have been traditionally associated with the business for a long time. Jntact conchshells are procured on a wholesale basis from Manjusha and Zilla Parishad, Bankura on The artisans have the option to make payment in payment of price by bank drafts. The craftsmen do instalments for the pun.:hase of small gunny bags and not enjoy the facility of credit from these institutions. may carry the gunny bags personally to their place of But in case the raw materials are purchased from the work, if they so desire. private dealers in Calcutta, retail purchase is allowed on credit or on payment of price in monthly instal­ The artisans in general like to purchase conch­ ments. Besides, the artisans arc allowed the privilege shells of Full Size-I and Full Size-II at a reasonably of personal inspection of the raw material before any competitive price after some bargaining. The artisans purchase is madc. feel that they have no bargaining power when they make the purchase from the West Bengal Handicrafts In the case of purchase of raw matcrials from Development Corporation or from the Zilla Parishad, West Bengal Handicrafts Development Corporation, Therefore, the craftsmen prefer private traders to the the artisans are required to purchase the raw material Government agency and they believe that the raw in one lot or more, each lut containing two to three materials purcha:,ed from the private agencies satisfy gunny bags of conchshells of assorted varieties. But their requirements of quality and size. Since the no personal inspection of the raw material is allowed supplies from the Government also inelude inferior to the artisans purchasing thG eonehshells from the chanks, shell-horns are produced from intact conch­ Zilla Parishad or from the West Bengal Handicrafts shells of inferior quality. Development Corporation. In the case of purchase of the. raw materials from the latter organisation, the CUT-PIECES (REK) artIsans have to collect the gunny bags of conchshells from the godowns at Beliaghata, Calcutta. The Intact conchshells are cut into ringhshaped pieces artisans purchasing conchshells from the Zilla with tbe help of electrically operated machine saws at Parish ad have to collect the material from the godown Bishnupur town in the district of Bankura, at Sehra­ at Bankura town. But, in both the cases the artisans bazar in the district of Barddhaman and at Jitpur in have to visit the godowns personally. the district of Murshidabad. The artisans collect the roughly sliced rings of intact conchshells from these The artisans visit the trading office-cum-godowns places. Formetly, the artisans used to obtain the cut (Arats) of the private wholesale traders in Calcutta piect:s in their own household~ from intact conchshe11s while purchasing the raw material and have to trans:' with the manual operation of the hand-saw. But, the port the purchased raw material to the craft-centres system, itself time-consuming and arduous, has become themselves. The earlier practice of delivery of the raw obsolete and given way to the more economic and material to the artisans in their craft-centres by road efficient operation of the electrical saw. No artisan now transport has been discontinued. cuts intact conchshells manually into Reks for the production of plain white bangles. CUT-PIECES Fragments (Kuchis) of arc-shaped cut-pieces of As already mentioned, Reks are obtained in the conchshells are likewise produced in the places where form of Pan (80 pieces) by the artisans on payment electrical ~aws arc operated. The artisans collect of price in ca~h from Bishnupur, Sehrabazar and Kuchis for the production of coloured bangles when Jitpur. 29

TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR THE PURCHASE OF STATEMENT IV.2 ~UBSIDIARY RAW MATERIALS price of mb~idiary raw material - Subsidiary raw materials are mostly purchased by Name of the subsi- Unit of Price per unit weight. Hingul (cinnabar) is purchased by weight of dialY raw material measurement (in Rs.) a Bhari (11.5 grammes roughly), Harital (orpiment) --- by a kilogramme weight, J au (lac» by weight (one 1 2 3 ------kilogramme), Top (like the tip of a pin) of tinfoil by weight of a Bhari and Dhuna (incense powder) by Gala (Lac) One kilogramme 120.00 weight of a kilogramm..: or part thereof, the dyes and lau (Lac) do 60.00 pigments, red, green and blue, also by weight of one Lata (Stick lac) do 35.00 kilogramme or less. Thc purchase in all cases is made Hingul (Cinnabar) Ten grammes 5.00 by payment in cash. Hurital (Orpiment) do 5.00 Red dye One packet 0.50 The supply of main raw materials of intact con­ Green dye do 0.25 chshells and Reks is assured and smooth to the Bam Charcoal One tin box 2.00 workers by the Maha;ans. But, subsidiary raw mate­ to rials are purchased against payment by cash by the 4.00 Bani workers from the markets. Nitric Acid One bottle 7.50 Zinc Oxide powder One packet 18.00 PRICE OF MAIN RAW MATERIAL Adhesive One large tube 54.00 do One medium tube 23.00 INTACT CONCHSHELL do One small tube 10.00 The Muslim wholesale traders from Tamil Nadu Resin One hundred grammes 5.00 in Calcutta sells one gunny bag containing 50 1arge­ Wire (Tin) One hundred grammes 0.80 sized conchshells for Rs. 1,500.00 p. The Sankhabanik traders in Calcutta sell one gunny bag of 40 pieces of PROBLEMS REGARDING PROCUREMENT AND large conchshells for Rs. 1500.00 p., one gunny bag QUALITY OF RAW MATERIALS, ETC. of 50 medium and small-sized conchshells for Rs. 400.00 p. to Rs. 1,200.00 p. and one gunny bag The artisans complain that majority of the con­ of 50 small-sized conchs hells for Rs. 75.00 p. to Rs. chshells in the gunny bags supplicd by the West 300.00 p. only. The price of one intact conchshell in Bengal Handicrafts Development Corporation and Zilla Parzshad are either small-sized or damaged and the open market varies from Rs. 10.00 p. to only 20 per cent of the conchshells are found to be Rs. 30.00 p. of good quality. Matha Sankha (large-sized chanks) are not generally found in the gunny bags which contain mostly Kulai Sankha (small-sized chanks). CUT·PIECES The price of one lot of three to four gunny bags For 100 pieces of Reks required for the manufac­ of conchshells supplied by the West Bengal Handicrafts ture of plain white bangles an artisan has to pay Development Corporation ranges from Rs. 6,000.00 p. rupees ten only and for the same number of Reks for to Rs. 8,000.00 p. The poor artians are financially the production of Khilan Sankha an artisan pays not in a position to make such a large outlay Rupees seven and fifty paise only. on the cash purchase of basic raw materials accounting for 80 per cent of the total expenditure on raw materials, basic and subsidiary . For the production of coloured bangles Kuehl costs .. ~~"- .... !~ rupees twenty per k.g. and rupees five to rupees twelve The delivery of raw matnials from the godowns per pan (80 pieces). in Calcutta or Bankura or from the Arats in Calcutta involves the artisans in bearing the cost of transport of the raw materials to the place of work themselves. PRICE OF SUBSIDIARY RAW MATERIALS In the past the wholesale dealers used-to despatch the gunny bags to the workshops by road transport. Now, The statement next shows the price of different the artisans have to bear the high cost of transport by subsidiary raw materials. road. 30

The demand for raw materials is high during winter members of the family. The processes of production and as such, the artisans try to collect the raw of different articles by the manufacturing artisans in materials from different sources from September to different craft-centres in the district of Bankura are December. But, strangely enough, the supply from more or less identical with those followed by the different sources is often found to be inadequate during craftsmen in other craft-centres in West Bengal. With these months. the introduction of electrical saws for slicing the con­ chshells into pieces, the manual operations of the The machines for cutting the conchs hells into hand-saw has gone into disuse everywhere. As a desired pieces being located outside the craft-centres consequence, the stages of production have been at different distant places, the artisans are obliged reduced in form and certain operations are done out­ to visit the places and incur additional expendi· side the artisan households. Stages of production in ture for cutting operations. the manufacture of different items may now be discussed article-wise. In the past chanks of different types were avail­ able to the artisans in different craft-centres. But, with PLAIN WHITE BANGLES the imposition of ban by the Government of India on the import of chanks from Sri Lanka and with the During hammering, the artisan makes the shape of nationalisation of the chank fisheries by the Govt. of the chank almost circular by breaking the irregular Tamil Nadu, the supply of conchs hells of earlier edges and by extracting the columella from it. Then varieties has been discontinued. The statement below the lip is broken and a small hole is made at the apex gives one an idea of the varieties of conchshells from where the dusts from inside are cleared out. This formerly used by the artisans. . operation is known as Bindh. But, now this operation STATEMENT IV.3 of Bindh is not done in the artisan's household. Wherever necessary, the artisans take the help of Sources of varieties of chanks formerly used machine saws at the places where the facility is available.

Name of the tyPe Source The next process, locally known as Majar (sizing), of conchshell is also not done in the household by the artisans. This operation is done with the help of electrical T.N. Tirunvelly district in the saws at the places where the machines have been State of Tamil Nadu. installed. By this process the Gnera (Base) of the shell is removed from the body of the chank with Dhala Madras in Tamil Nadu the help of the saw. The remaining portion of the Jagir/ Jagi Calicut in Kerala shell, without the (Gnera) is locally known as malui Do-ani Between Trivandram in Kerala from which ring-shaped slices are obtained by cutting and Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu into pieces vertically with the help of the saw. Some­ times pieces are obtained from Gnera also. Ala-bila Karashaha General The next process of Rek-kata (cutting and slicing) Pira done with the help of machine saw, is not operated Surti Surat in Gujrat by the artisans in their households. Under this pro­ G.R.P. Pondicherry cess the Malui is sliced with the help of the saw Gharbeki Ghani Raja Puram in Tamil into ring-shaped pieces (Reks). Nadu During the next operation of rubbing or polish­ ing, the outer edges of the sliced Reks are rubbed or polished on a Sil (flat slab of sandstone) and the On account of the basic problem of procurement inner portion of the sliced pieces are polished with of the main raw material the artisans at present do the help of Dara (sand-covered mandrel). Majority not earn much profit from the craft. This has acted of the artisans pursue this technique. In Raibaghini, as a disincentive to many artisans who are now however, some artisans take the help of the electri­ thinking of leaving their traditional occupation prac· cally operated polishing machine for rubbing the out­ tised by their ancestors and look for greener pastures side of the Rek, the inside being polished with the in other occupations. Dara. But, for them the operation is partly mecha­ nised and partI) manual. Elsewhere no electricity STAGES OF PRODUCTION IN THE MANUFACTURE being available, the entire operation is done manually OF DIFFERENT ARTICLES by the artisans.

Basically a household industry being restricted to In the next operation of design-making, the polish­ the family, the craft is pursued by the head of the ed cut pieces are incised and different designs are household with the assistance of other particip~nt engraved on the outer polished surface of the Rek 31 with the help of chisels and files. Different lines are In the colouring or lacquering operation, various incised with the help of chisels. Files of different pigments or dyes are painted on the body of the sizes are used to emboss or engrave various designs bangle for decorative purposes with the help of a on the body of the bangle. Kalam (pen-shaped stick). In the production of a Ganga Yamuna Sankha red dye is painted on the Sometimes during the manufacture of plain white outer surface of the bangle, whereas in the manu­ bangles, some repaiJ becomes indispensable. The holes facture of a Khilan Sankha the same dye is applied and cracks on a bangle are sealed with a paste ob­ to the outer surface of the bangle. Guna (thread) tained from molten wax, lac and zinc-oxide powder. designs in yellow colour are also painted on the In some cases, resins and powden::d incense are mixed outer surface of the bangle with the help of a Kalam. to prepare a paste after heating. This is entirely done Both red and yellow pigments are used as decorations manually. on the bangles with the combination of some amount of lac. Green dyes are used in painting a Mina During the finishing operation, five coloured drops Sankha. After the bangle is painted, Tops ~ t~l: (one red and four blue) are painted on the joint of size of the head of a pin from thin foils of tin are each piece of bangle. The pieces of bangles are then pasted on a coloured bangle to make a Kar Sankha. bleached in a solution of Nitric Acid diluted with water, washed liberally in plain cold water and finally In tying operation, 'two pieces of coloured bangle-.. polished by a dry cloth. This operation is also are tied together with a thread to make a pair of manual. coloured bangles of the desired v~~iety, ready for disposal. It thus appears that with the introduction of electri­ city, the operations of Bindh, Majar and Rek-kata are SHELL-HORN done outside the artisan households in places where electrical saws have been installed. But all other In -the hammering operation, the apcx is rcmoved operations from polishing to finishing are done manual­ from an intact conchshell with the help of a small ly in the craft-centres by the craftsmen in their hammer and dusts from inside are cleared. An open­ households. ing is made in the body of the shell, so that sound can be produced when air is blown with pouted COLOURED BANGLES lips through the mouth of the shell.

The operations like Bindh, Majar, Rek-kata and In -the next stage of polishing operation, the shel1 polishing do not show any variation from the same is then rubbed or polished on a Sil to make the followed during the manufacture of plain white outer surface of the conchshell smooth all over. bangles. In the engraving operation, designs are en_graved In the joining operation which follows polishing, on the polished body of the shell with the help of fragments of the inferior or damaged portions of the files of different sizes and functions. Floral designs intact conchshells, locally known as Pata, are ob­ are generally engraved on the body of the polished tained by cutting or slicing operations with the help conchshell. No colour is used in the aoplication of the saw. Now, the fragments are joined together of designs which are engraved only to add to the by piece-out syst.em on lau Kathi (lac stick) or decorative look of the shell-hom. Karar with the help of a gum-like adhesive obtained from heated rough lac, resin, powdered conchshell II' ~ome cases the colouring operation is also etc. By the piece-out system three fragments of followed. For rec;toring the damaged conchshells and conchshell are joined together to obtain one piece chanks tiMed with reddish tint, they are given an of bangle. The pieces are tightly held together by enamel coat with the help of a stick on the surface. a small, minutely thin coil or wire of tin. After The coat of oaint camouflages the poor quality of the colouring of the piece of bangle, the coil and the chank and covers the damaged portion. the marks of the joint are invisible to the eye. RINGS In the drilling o!)eration, a small hole is drilled on each piece of bangle with a Bhramar or Turpun The Chhats (scraps) obtained from intact conch­ (hand-drill). This operation, followed in the past shells are roughly shaped into ring-like forms during decades, is not in use in different artisan households sizing operation with the help of a small hammer. of the selected craft-centres. The rough pieces of rings are then polished with In the operation of incision, straight lines are the help of Dara to obtain the desired shape. In incised on the body of the bangle with the help of some cases, some artisans take the help of electri­ a Batali (chisel). Earlier, incision. was done by cally operated polishing machine in the craft-centre Katti (small hand-saw). of Raibaghini. 32

Holes are then drilled on the body of the ring thick plaster of a mixture of heated lac and sand and with the help of a Bhramar. During designing, lines used for polishing inner sides of the bangles by to are engraved on the outer surface of the rim of the and fro rubbing movement. Dara is used also during ring. the manufacture of other items.

In thc finishing operation, rings are bleached in BATALl (CHISEL) dilute Nitric Acid solution to make the ring look bright and shiny. No tool is uscd during this operation. Batali has replaced the earlier use of small saws for the purpose of engraving incised patterns, mainly The operations followed during the production of straight lines, on the outer rim of plain white ban­ of rings are also observed during the manufacture gles and also in the production of coloured bangles. of other articles. Since only two artisans, one at Raibaghini and another at Shashpur, produce other UGA (FILE) Items and the stages of production are the same as those of rings, no detailed description is given. An instrument of steel with serrated lines all over the body, Uga is used for engraving designs on the TOOLS AND EQUIPMENTS USED outer surface of the bangle. Four types of files are used by the artisans in the craft-centres. Kirkitch is The tools and equipments used by the artisans a variety of fiat-shaped file with a projected point at during the production of various articles are very one end on the lower portion. Choupal is a square­ simple in nature. The use of electrically operated shaped file. Files of two other types are known as machine saw has not been introduced in different craft­ Gol for their round shape. One of these files is very centres but the use of hand-saw has been disconti­ thin and the other is comparatively thick. The lower nued i~ all the artisan households. Polishing machine portion of the files is broader than the blade except has been introduced by one artisan in his household. for Kirkitch. The length of the files is generally 25.4 Another person who is not an artisan and not con­ ems. The files are embedded on a stump of wood nected with the craft has installed one such machine or a short pole of bamboo. Files are used in the in his house for use by the artisans against payment production of different articles. of specific charges in cash. Both the persons are residents of Raibaghini. KALAM (PEN) NAME, DESCRIPTION AND USE OF THE TOOLS A simple tool of the shape of a quill pen of bamboo BATURl (HAMMER) or thin wooden stick, Kalam is used by the artisans for colouring the bangles with red or yellow pigments A small instrument with sharp edge on one side mixed with heated rough lac or with simple green dye and square shape on the other end, Baturi is used on the outer surface of the bangle. The tool, how­ to extract the columella from the eonchshell and to ever, is used only in the production of coloured bangles. open it from one end to the other to have a mouth. The apex and the lip of the chank are chipped off IAU KATHI OR KARAR (LAC STICK) with the help of the hammer. The head of the hammer is made of iron and the handle rod on which the head is fixed is made of bamboo. Another A simple tool of the shape of a thin stick made hammer with fiat edge on one end and square shape fr(lm a strip of bamboo or wood, lau Kathi is used at on the other is also fixed on a bamboo pole. Both the time of joining fragments of conchshell, three frag­ the hammers are used in the production of shell­ ments making one piece of bangle by piece-out sys­ horns. tem. The thin sharp end is covered with a paste of heated lac, resin and powdered conchshell. The tool is used to paste and piece together the fragments of SIL (A SLAB OF FLAT SANDSTONE) conchshell into bangles of the coloured variety and also to repair damages. The outer surface of ban![les is rubbed on the Sil (slab of flat sandstone). Its length varies from 25.4 ems. to 30.5 ems. and its breadth varies from BlIRAMAR (HAND-DRILL) 15.2 ems. to 20.3 ems. This tool is required in the production of all items. A drill made of steel set on a revolving piece of wood, Bhramar is used for drilling small holes on rings. DARA (MANDREL) NAME, DESCRIPTION AND USE OF EQUIPMENT A sand-covered mandrel with length varying be­ tween 38.1 crm;. and 40.6 cms., Dara is a roller-like The equipments used by the artisans in different iron-strip with the bulged middle part covered with a craft-centres are simple in nature, design and function. 33

~DAKHNA BARI (TRIPOD STAND) PRICE OF TOOLS AND EQUIPMENTS

A tripod stand with three wooden legs, two short STATEMENT IV.4 and one long, Dakhna Bari ha~ two short legs joined 'together in an inverted V form in such a way that Prices of Tools & Equipments they connect themselves together at an apex with an ()pening, through which a long stick is inserted. With Name of the tool and Unit Price per unit equipment (Rs.) the aid of the equipment the artisan who sits at one --~_- side of the long "tick gets the required support, while 1 2 3 engraving designs on the bangles inserted through the long stick. Haturi (Hammer) ,.per piece 10.00 to 12.00 DEUGO OR DEUKO (ROUND-SHAPED STAND) Sit (Sandstone) do 40.00 to Round-shaped stand made of burnt clay, Deugo 45.00 or Deuko is used as a support for holding the Chaki­ Dara (Mandrel) do 18.00 pati (lacquering equipment) while lacquering the to bangles. 20.00 Batali (Chisel) do 3.00 Uga (File) do 10.00 CHAKI-PATI (LACQUERING EQUIPMENT) to 12.00 A disc-shaped wooden equipment, Chaki-pati is Kalam (Pen) do 0.50 placed upon the Deugo over which bangles are placed I au Kathi (Lac stick) do 2.00 for painting them with the help of a Kalam. Bhramar (Hand drill) do 2.00 Dakhna Bari (Tripod stand) do 30.00 METE (CYLINDRICAL HEATING EQUIPMENT) to , 35.00 Electrical Polishing Machine do 1,000.00 A cylindrical equipment with wide mouth used to for heating of rough lac, different pigments and the 1,500.00 bangles, Mete holds the burning charcoal on which Deuko (Round-shaped stand) do 1.00 different objects are placed for heating purposes. Chaki Pati (Lacquering equipment) do 1.00 SARASHI (TONGS) Mete (Cylindrical heating equipment) do 3.00 to Made of iron, Sarashi is used for holding different 4.00 articles during different stages of processing. Sarashi (Tongs) Per pair 4.00 Fukan (Blow pipe) Per piece 1.50 Chonga (Cylindrical hollow FUKAN (BLOW-PIPE) pipe) do 1.00 Bati (Bowl) do 1.00 Made of iron or thin hollow reed of bamboo, ----_------Fukan is used as a blowpipe for heating purposes. MANIPULATION OF THE TOOL DURING PROCESSING CHONGA (CYLINDRICAL HOLLOW PIPE) The discussion hereinafter will be made about only those operations which are not mechanised but have A cylindrical hollow pipe made of the stump of a remained manual. bamboo with opening at one end, Chonga is used to "tore subsidiary raw materials and equipments HAMMERING like lac "ticks and colouring sticks. Seated on a gunny bag cloth, the artisan holds an intact conchshell on the palm of his left hand and the BATI (BOWL) small hammer in his right hand and then strikes off the apex, the lip and columella or edges from the A bowl used as a container for liquid materials, intact conchshell. Dust from inside the shank is Bati is often used as receptacles for acid and other cleaned through the hole of the broken apex. Ham­ liquids required for repairing work. mer is used during the production of shell-horns. 10 Census/88- S 34

POLISHING OF INNER PORTION DRILLING

Large ring-shaped cut pieces of bangles are placed Seated on a low stool, the artisan holds the one upon the other like a garland on a Dara by the Bhramar in his right hand and drills the hole on the artisan, being seated on a low stool supported against outer surface of the ring, keeping the same near the the bamboo pole or wooden post of the verandah in feet of the artisan on the ground. the artisan's residence. Between these two supports the Dara is placed above the ground in a slanted position. Polishing is done by rubbing the pieces of DIVISION OF WORK AMONG THE ARTISANS bangles up and down the Dara till the desired effect is obtained on the plain white bangles. But in the The craft calI~ for specialised and technical skill production of coloured bangles, the arc-shaped frag­ in every stage of processiJ:,g from the beginning to the ments of conchshells are rubbed one by one on the end. No artisan, unless properly trained in different Dara by the artisan sitting on the ground. operations of the craft, can undertake the manufacture of different articles produced by the craft. Polishing POLISHING OF OUTER PORTION work in respect of bangles and other items, colouring of bangles, joining of fragments and similar other The Sil is placed on the ground in front of the minor operations like drilling are generally undertaken artisan who sits on a low stool or a gunny bag spread by the female artisans. since these operations involve on the floor. The artisan holds the piece of the arc­ less physical labour. But, it has been observed that shaped chank or the whole bangle firmly in his grip in these operations as also in engraving of designs by its side and rubs it on the Sil by to and fro move­ the performance of the female artisan is better than ments in all directions. The outer surface of the frag­ that 'of her male counterpart. Concentration of mind ments and cut pieces of conchshells, rings and sheIl­ in the work of a sedentary nature suits the female tem­ horns are polished on the Silo perament more than the male one. On the other hand, operations (demanding arduous hard labour ENGRAVING OR DESIGN-MAKING and involving physical strength) like hammering, sizing and cutting are usually done by the male artisans. For the purpose of engraving designs on the arti­ Designing work is always handled by the expert cles, Batalis and Ugas of various types are used. craftsman of the household, irrespective of age and sex. At .the moment the state of the craft being Seated on a low stool, the artisan places the semi­ not very sound, different operations of the craft are finished plain white bangles on one end of the larger now being carried out by one and the same artisan, stick of the Dakhna Bari and engraves the required whether a male or a female. There being a limited designs on the body of the bangle with the help of number of craftsmen now because of problems of Batalis and Ugas. While manipulating the tools, the raw material, the division of work or specialisation artisan holds the handle of the tool in his right hand. in particular operation is not always feasible. In Raibaghini and Shashpur female participation is quite JOINING OF FRAGMENTS noticeable. Coloured bangles are at present mostly Different fragments are joined together by the manufactured by the female artisans. application of the glue-like paste with the help of lau­ Kathi or Karar which is held by the artisan in his right hand. The fragments are kept on the Chaki­ APPLICATION OF NEW TECHNIQUES OR TOOLS Pati placed above the Deuko or Deugo. With the lau-Kathi joints of the fragments are pasted with a Various operations of the craft connected with mixture of gum, heated lac and conchshell powder. the production of white bangles and coloured bangles Kalam is used as a painting implement. have remained unchanged because of limited pro­ duction. If the volume of production had gone up, COLOURING the artisans would have exercised their minds in introducing some innovation in the method of pro­ Colouring is done by the artisan with the help of duction to step up the tempo of work. The only the Kalam held in the right hand. Colouring pigments change, observed to have been introduced, is in res­ of red or yellow dyes with a combination of heated rough lac and green colours are applied to the arti­ pect of sawing, sizing hammering and cutting opera­ tions to obtain sliced pieces of conchshel1s. The cles placed on Chaki Pari, kept above the Deuko or Deugo. . introduction of electrical saws in some places has made the use of hand-saw obsolete in all the three SIZING craft-centres. Similarly, with the installation of two electrical polishing machines in Raibaghini, some arti­ The artisan, seated on a gunny bag spread on the sans of the same craft-centre utilise these machines floor or on a low stool, holds the small hammer in and save time. One remarkable substitution has his right hand and the piece of Chhat on the left hand. been in the case of two tools, Kath and Kathi (both By gentle hammering, the rough shape of a ring is being small hand-saws), earlier used for incising pat­ obtained from the piece of Chhat. terns on plain white bangles and coloured bangles. 35,

Now, the chisels have taken the place of these small phery of the white bangles and rings and on the hand-saws. The reason for substitutIon has been outer surface of the shellhorns with the help of chisels the functional utility of chisels and al~o non-availability manUally. In the case of coloured bangles, colour of the hand-saws. The skill is lacking now in the deSIgns are painted on the body of the bangles. No blacksmiths who had earlier produced the small design is engraved. The colour deSIgns do not bear hand-saws. any specific name. The designs engraved on white bangles have specific names and are either naturalis­ tic (pertaining to natural objects) or stylised (per­ DESIGNS taining to geometric motifs). Designs are usually engraved on plain white bangles, shell-horns and rings. The artIsans carve NAME AND DESCRIPTION OF THE DESIGNS out various delicate designs on the aliter surface of the rim of the plain white bangles, shell-horns and The names and descriptions of different designs rings to imbue them with an ornamental look and engraved on white bangles, rings and shell-horns are value. The artisans emboss the designs on the peri- given in the statement below.

STATEMENT IV. 5 Name and Description of the Designs

Name of the design Description Category Article on which used ------_- 1 2 3 4 ------~------Akhanda Phul A type of flower Naturalistic (Floral) Plain white bangles Bansgit Knot of bamboo Naturalistic (Plant) do Barfi Rhombus Stylised (Geometric) do Bhatia Undulating wave Stylised ( Geometric) do Dhan Sish Sheaf of paddy Naturalistic (Plant) do Gagari Pitcher Stylised (Geometric) do laltaranga Ripples on water Stylised ( Geometric) do Kathal Chaat Jack-fruit Naturalistic (Pomological) do Khejur Chhari Bunch of date palms Naturalistic (Pomological) do Lata Pata Creeper and leaf Naturalistic (Plant) Shell-horns Manipuri Straight line Stylised ( Geometric) Rings Matardana Pea-grain Naturalistic (Plant) Plain white bangles Motidana Pearl Stylised ( Geometric) do Misti Naksha Sweetmeat Stylised (Geometric) do Narkeli Chhat Coconut Naturalistic (Pomological) do Narkeli Phul Coconut flower Naturalistic (Floral) do Pata Phul Leaf & flower Naturalistic (Floral) Shell-horns Sankha Padma Conch & lotus Naturalistic (Floral) do J Sapta Snake Stylised (Geometric) do Shak Phul Flower Stylised (Floral) Plain white bangles

Consumers generally prefer old and traditional designs is limited and is restricted to few months. The designs like Bansgit, Bhatia, Jaltaranga, Matardana use of a design depends largely on the dcmand of the and Motidana. The artisans also choose to use these consumer at a particular time. The use of designs by designs not only to cater for the consumer's pref­ the Bani workers is attuned to the orders placed by rence but also because of easy execution involving the Mahajans. The Bani workers do not have any less labour. The artisans use the old traditional de­ choice of their own to apply a particular design on a signs to meet the demands of the consumers during particular item of manufacture. marriage ceremonies and festivals. PREPARATION OF DESIGN AND DURATION OF USE In the event of assured regular and adequate sup­ ply of raw material, independent workers are capable The designs like Bansgit, Bhatia, Jaltaranga, ot engraving different designs on plain bangles and Matardana and Motidana are found to be old and tradi­ other article'>. Only for shell-horns the use of the tional, since these designs are still being continued 36 in Raibaghini as in 1964. But two designs, namely, sans, consumers do not associate any myth or legend Mane-na-Mana and Railway lines, earlier in use with any design either. The deSigns are naturalistic, in 1964 in Raibaghini, have now passed into the based on the motif of a plant, flower, seed or fruit limbo of history. All other designs have been recently and or object, or stylised, based on geomethic motifs introduced in course of the last two decades. But involving lines, straight or curved. No natural land­ even then, the designs so introduced have been inno~ scape, animal motif or any human activity like hunt­ vated by the artisans themselves and have not been ing, fishing etc. is designed on any article. The idea imported from outside places or agencies. The arti~ of using the designs is motivated by the urge of the sans do not consider the designs introduced to be craftsman not to allow the object to look bare and modern. In fact, they conform to the objects around plain. They invest the article with an ornamental them and the artisans are well aware of their shape beauty by engraving geometric or naturalistic designs and form. on the products. The designs, whether old and traditional or recent innovations, are passed on along hereditary lines from father to son, mother to daughter and from elder ABSENCE OF ANY NEW DESIGN brother to younger brother. The techniques of en­ graving the designs are learnt by the younger members The designs that are in use include old traditional by close observation and practical work. Khejur ones and also recent innovations. But the innova­ Chhari is the most popular design being used by all tions have not been introduced from outside. The the artisans. Regional Design Centre, Government of India, Eas­ tern Region had tried several times to initiate the For carving out linear patterns of geometric de­ artisans in some new designs but the artisans are signs, chisels are used. But for engraving designs averse to their use. The artisans are not prepared involving embossed figures, files are used and the to take any risk with any new design in the appre­ technique, called {iie-engraving, is confined to the hension of losing customers. Besides, the artisans artisans in West Bengal. do not like new experiments with designs introduced by outside agencies without knowing whether the PURPOSE OF USE consumer will accept or reject the design. In case of No myth or legend is ascribed to any design by rejection of any design, the entire production of the the artisans. Since the designs are used by the arti- items with the particular design will amount to a loss. CHAPTER-V

MARKETING

ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF ARTICLES hawking. Another ten per ccnt of the articles are ~old out in the local markets and Hats (open-air Any statistical figure about annual p.roduction is country markets) within a radius of 10 kIDs. by almost very dIfficult to collect in view of some peculiar cir­ all the craftsmen. In Kamarsol Paikars (wholesalers) cumstances prevailing in the field. Since Bam VIsit tlle craft-centre to collect the manufactured workers are tagged to the Mahajans and order­ article~ from the craftsmen against payment in cash. suppliers, they do not maintain any records regarding Cheaper articles amounting to forty per cent of the production. The Mahajans too do not keep any products are sold by majority of the artisans in the account of production figures. The craft being tradi­ ~easonal rural fairs held in the same district and in tional and of household industry type, modern the neighbouring districts. About twenty per cent methods of management whether financial, personnel are sold to the consumers of the neighbouring districts or administrative or sales, are virtually non-existent. and states through wholesale traders who visit the Besides, the artisans, even when literate, do not find craft-centres to purchase the wares. About twenty it at all necessary to keep a regular book of accounts. per cent of the articles are sold in urban areas includ­ mg Calcutta. Despite the limitations, efforts were made to com­ pute rough estimates of production for each item. MARKETS During 1985 the artisans in the three-craft-centres had produced 51,980 pairs of plain white bangles worth The finished products like white bangles are sold approximately Rs. 7,79,700.00 p., 94,270 pairs of by the artisans by undertaking personal visits once a coloured bangles valued at approximately Rs. week to the markets in Bankura, Kotalpur, Bishnupur, 2,82,81O.00p., 550 pieces of shellhorn worlb Jitpur, Barddhaman and Sehrabazar in the districts Rs. 13,750.00p., 33,000 pieces of rings worth Rs. of Bankura, Murshidabad and Barddhaman respec­ 33,000.00p., 1,360 pieces of hair-pins valued at tively. Articles like coloured bangles are also sold Rs. 2, no.oop., 317 pieces of necklace worth Rs. in the markets in Kulti, Barrackpur, Asansol, Puruliya, 1,268.00p., 600 pieces of brooch worth Rs. 1,500.00p. Jamuria, Chittaranjan and Suri within the State. and 300 pieces of ear-rings worth Rs. 150.0Op. Thus, Small quantities of different articles are also sold in in 1985 the three-craft-centres had produced articles the States of Assam and Tripura. Coloured bangles worth Rs. 1,1l4,898.00p. approximately. This is are much in demand in places like J amshedpur, undoubtedly no mean achievement economically. In Deoghar and Ranchi in the State of Bihar from where normal circumstances the average annual production the Paikars visit the craft-centres to collect the articles hovers around the figures obtained for 1985, accord­ for sale. The artisans too occasionally visit the places ing to senior craftsmen. for sale of their products. Koyapat in the police station of Goghat in the district of Hugli is an impor" PURPOSE OF PRODUCTION tant centre for the sale of rings.

The articles are manufactured in the craft-centres " The artisans sometimes sell the finished products entirely for sale and not for use by the artisan house­ from their own households to the non-artisan house­ holds either for ceremonial purpose or for dome~tic holds belonging to other castes in their respective consumption. Since the craftsmen do not have any villages and other villages around within a radius permanent clientele, no article is produced as a matter of 10 kms. as hawkers. In the craft-centre at Shashpur of routine to meet the needs of the permanent or the trader-cum-craftsman has a shop in the local fixed clients. The articles are produced for use by market. Two artisans in Raibaghini run two shops other communities against sale by cash payment. The in Kotalpur where they sell the products manufac­ owner-craftsmen produce articles mainly for sale in tured by them. the open, market against payment by cash. The Bani workers do not own any responsibility for the sale of HATS (OPEN-AIR COUNTRY MARKETS) the articles produced by them. They hand over the articles to their respective Mahajans. The finished products are generally sold in the local Hats. In Sh&shpur and Raibaghini the Hat is METHOD OF DISPOSAL Olgani~ed twice a week but in -Kamarsol though no Hat is held, the artisans visit the bi-weekly Hat at The articles manufactured by the artisans have Ghutgariya, an adjoining village. In Raibaghini the been disposed of in the traditional style along some Hat is organised every Sunday and Tuesday and in set channels. About ten per cent of the products Shashpur the Hat sits every Monday and Friday. are vended to the local consumers in the village and The Hat at Ghulgariya i~ held every Sunday, Tuesday around by six itinerant salesman artisans through and Thursday. 38

MELA (FAIRS) and outside on the occasion of some festivals when some fair is organised. The places usually visited The artisans take the opportunity of selling their by the craftsmen to attend the fairs to sell their articles in difterent places in the district of Bankura products arc enlisted in the statement below.

STATEMENT V.I

List of fairs attended by the Arti sans

Occasion of which the fair Duration of the fairs in Name of the place District is held number of days 1 2 3 4

Arambag Hugli Ambaruni One Kamarpukur do Birthday of Rama Krishna Four Raghubati do Maghi Purnima Four Ranjit Royer Dighi do Ambaruni One Boro Barddhaman Saraswati Puja Seven Balitha Bankura Chandi PUja on the first­ Four day of Bengali month Magha Baital do Chaitra Sankranti Two Haripur do Pous Sankranti Seven Naricha do Sarba Mangala Puja Two Panehal do Chaitra Sankranti Three Raniara do Madan Mohonji Puja Four Sambro do First day oj Magha One Satani do Manasa Puja Two Shior do Chaitra Sankranti Two Raibaghini do Ravan Kala Ruth during Three Aswin Shashpur do Gujan during Chaitra Two ------,------In Raibaghini a fair is held once for three days Majority of the artisans sell the plain white bangles )n the occasion of Ravan Kata Ratha festival in in the local markets and in the markets outside. the Bengali month of Aswin and once more for five About seventy five per cent of the coloured bangles days during the festival of Doljatra during the Bengali are sold directly to the customers in the markets, mOllth of Phalgun. Besides, another fair is held Hats and fairs, while twenty five per cent are sold at Shashpur for two days on the occasion of the -to the Paikars (from outside West Bengal) who visit festival of Gajana during the Bengali month of the craftsmen to collect the coloured bangles. Shell­ Chaitra. Needless to mention, the artisans fully uti­ horns are all sold to the customers by the artisans lise the occasions to dispose of their articles in the in the markets. About ninety-eight per cent of the fairs to the attending customers from outside. rings are sold by the artisans to the customers and two per cent to the roving salesmen. '")UANTITY SOLD TO DIFFERENT AGENCIES There being no co-operative organisation in any Independent workers who have to play the twin of the three- craft-centres, the question of sale of role of producers and salesmen are often pressed the articles through such an agency does not rise. with the need to find outlets for the disposal of Disposal of articles is effected neither through any their finished products. The piece-rate Bani workers other agency like sales' emporium. are not at all concerned with the sale of the articles MARGIN OF PROFIT which are produced by them on the express orders and requirements of the Mahajans. Once the articles It is commonplace to point out that in any field are manufactured. the Bani worker gets the wage as survey of the present kind the respondents invariably per stipulated terms and the Mahajan takes delivery dodge questions framed to elicit information about of the articles from the Bani worker. It is the Maha- income. To the artisans the question of profit n who is out to explore the avenues and outlets for . smacks of income and they try to prevaricate. Be­ ale of the products like independent owner-crafts­ sides, profit can be assessed on the basis of informa­ ~en. tion about cost of production of a unit of article and 39 the sale price of the same unit. But, as pointed shellhorn of medium size will earn only Rs. 3.00p. out earlier, the artisans do not maintain any record by disposing of the same article at Rs. 30.00p. It of either production or of sale. Besides, the craft is is no use entering into any controversy about the conducted by the artisans as a household industry margin of profit. Suffice if so say, that an indepen­ and, therefore, the participation of the members of dent owner-craftsman is financially much more well­ the family on unpaid wage often shields the quantum off and enjoys a better economic and social status of the cost of labour spent on a unit of a particular than a Bani worker. If that be a reality, it is any­ article. body's guess what an independent worker will be earning compared to a Bani worker. During slack A very rough estimate about the cost of produc­ period of the rainy season and also at the close of tion of a pair of plain white bangles and of a pair of the year the artisans dispose of the accumulated stock coloured bangles has been essayed and computed, hurriedly without having an eye on the margin of profit not very satisfactorily. It is found that the cost of earned normally. production of a pair of plain white bangles varies between Rs. 8.35p. and Rs. 13.35p. (Rs. 5.DOp. to Rs. 1O.OOp. being the price of raw material, cost of TERMS AND CONDITIONS OF DISPOSAL OF FINISHED transport bcing O.35p., cost of cutting being Rs. 2.00p. PARTICLES and the costs of designing, polishing and finishing being O.SOp., O.2Sp. and O.25p. respectively). The The artisans do not take any risk whatsoever by cost of production of a pair of coloured bangles is selling their articles on credit either to the consumers approximately Rs. 2.75p. (price of raw material being or to the Paikars. Payment against sale is always Rs. 1.00p., cost of transport being O.25p. the costs made in cash. In very limited cases and very rarely of colouring and joining being Rs. 1.OOp. and O.50p. facilities of credit are offered to the whole<;ale traders respectively) . But, the costs of production of other in Calcutta by a few artisans in the hope of getting items could not be assessed even roughly. A com­ ready supply of good conch-shells. The demands of parison of the cost price with the sale price of a pair the local and outside markets are fully met by the of plain white bangles and coloured bangles gives one craftsmen in the three craft-centres. Though chanks an impression that the margin of profit varies between are exported outside India to Federal Republic of 2S per cent to 50 per cent of the cost of production Germany, Italy, Singapore, Surinam, United Kingdom, in the minimum. On the other hand, the artisans try Spain, Hong Kong and the United States of America to impress on the que'!;tioners that their profit does not no export of any article is made by any craftsma~ exceed 10 per cent of the sale price of an article. from any of the three craft-centres. The artisans also The claim is very hard to accept. Whereas a Bani do not sell their proQucts to any trader on contract worker carns a daily wage of Rs. 1O.OOp. in the basis or against payment in advance. This has somc­ minimum, it is hard to believe that an independent how saved the craftmen from eternal bondage to and worker taking one full day for the production of a exploitation by any financier.

SALE PRICE

The market price at which each article is sold is indicated in the statement below:

STA TEMENT V.2 Sale price of article

----~------.---- Range of price r------'- - ..... ------, Name of the article Variety Unit of article From To r-______-"'-~- ,.....--... ____...... _-.

Rs. pai5e Rs. pai~e --_------2 3 4 6 7

Plain while bangles Thick Per pair (i 00 15 00 fla'lti do 14 00 28 00 Thm do " 00 12 00

}far Sankha I 2 00 4 (\0 Khilall t 'Willa Jf do ')0 2 PO r;an~{[ yamuna 40

STATEMENT V.2--contd. Sale price Of article

Range of Price r------.A._____ --. Name of the artIcle VarIety Unit of al tide ,..---_____From ..A _ To Rs. paise Rs. paIse."

2 3 4 5 6 7

Shell-horns BIg Per piece 12 00 100 • 00 Small do 2 . 00 10. 00

Rings Small do o . 50 Medium do 00 Big. do 3 00 5 00

-~------

HaIr-pin do 2 • 00 2. 50

Neckla(.e do -t • 00

Brooch do 2 • 50

Ear·ring do o . 50

-----~---

PROBLEMS OF MARKETING

The craft i~ beset mainly with the problem of taw than done at present. The Small-Scale Industries material. In fact, many other problems emanate from Directorate of the Government of West Bengal should the basic issue of raw material. The high price of not confine their activities only to the procurement of conch-shell and high cost of production have caused raw materials from the Government of Tamil a price-hike for almost all the articles. The artisans Nadu and to the distribution of the raw mate­ face difficulties in the di~po~af of the finished product" rials through the West Bengal Handicrafts Develop­ like shell-horn becau<;e of high price which is beyond ment Corporation and the Zilla Parishads but should the capacity of an prdipary conwmel A chan~e in expand their area of interest and activity to the field consumer's preference and taste has caused problems of marketing too through the District Industries to the artisan" (vide Appendix Table No. 46) Centre. Even in the matter of raw material the Working women do not normally wear conch-shell artisans' problems remain unattended and they are left bangles becau<;e of their brittleness and high price of to fend for themselves to coUect raw materials of good ~ubstitution in the case of an accidental breakage. quality from private sources. The artisans should Bangle<; of ivory and c;ynthetic articles resembling out­ wardly a conch-<;hell hangle have scnt a "hock-wave not be dragged out of their production units to look of fear among the craftsmen. Cost of production ha" for marketing avenues. This task may be shared by gone up became of inflation all around and price-rise '>ome agency of the Government to brighten the lot for every raw material, tool and equipment. of the artisan<;. In the exploration of foreign markets with fair concentration of non-re,ident Indians West The arti"am generally aver that marketing facilities may be improved by the introduction of spot-purchas­ Bengal Handicrafts Development Corporation can ing scheme bv the Government. The Di~trict Indus­ play a more effective pioneering role to generate scope trial Officer "hould evince more interest in this craft for more production and income for the craftsmen. CHAPTER-VI CRAFT AND EMPLOYMENT EMPLOYMENT IN THE CRAFT SINCE INCEPTION persons to pursue the craft. The localisation of the craft in the craft-centres also offered opportunities of No precise figures of employment in the craft employment to the young unemployed people. Be­ at the time of its inception or during its subsequent sides, the status and esteem the master craftsmen development in the craft-centres under study could enjoyed then also motivated many persons to seek be gleaned from different statistical annals and his­ association with the craft. It is relevant to point torical chronicles of the district of Bankura. In out that 30 artisan households (51.7 per cent) out various census reports too no census-year-wise data of fifty eight opine that the craft had started in their pertaining to the employment pattern of the crafts­ centres long before 1900 AD., though the rest men are available. No separate codes have been cannot ascribe any date to the origin of the craft in assigned to the craftsmen in the coding system of their centres. the National Classification of Occupations or in the National Industrial Classification. In such an even­ All efforts to collect information from the Govern­ tuality when published sources fail to throw any light ment, Central or State, and private or public institu~ on this aspect, one has to fall back upon 'the lore tions about the number of artisan households and of nicely-calculated less or more' of the craftsmen. the number of craftsmen in the craft:.centres for the According to local sources, the craft's origin dates periods prior to 1940, 1941-50 and 1951-60 have back to two hundred years approximately in the proved futile. However, from the local source and craft-centres. In other words, during British rule published reports data relating to the number of a large number of craftsmen eked out their existence artisan households in the three craft-centres pertaining by pursuing the craft. In the remote past Raibaghini, Shashpur and Kamarsol enjoyed a position of pre~ to the periods 1961-70, 1971-80 and 1981 till date eminence and repute for their fine artistic craftsman­ can be reconstructed and are presented in the stat~ ship. The flourishing state of the craft allowed many ment below.

STATEMENT VI·I Emllloymrnt from 1961 onward.

Name of the Period No. of practbing Change in Source craft-centre artisan hous~holds percentage

1 2 3 4 5 --_ Handicrafts Survey "Mono­ graph oIYCon~h-Shell Pro­ Raibaghini 1961-70 31 ducts, 1961 Census, Vol.­ XVI, Part-VIlA. (i) 1971-80 20 - 35.5 Local enquiry 1981 t'm date 16 ._ 20.0 do Shashpul 1961-70 17 do 1971-RO 15 - Il.S do 1981 till d.1te 11 .- 26.7 do Kamanol 1961-70 35 do 1971-80 32 S.6 do 1981 till date 31 3.1 do All the craft-centres 1961-70 83 1971-S0 67 - 19.3 1981 till date 58 - 13.4

----~---- 10 cen~us/88-6 42

A perusal of the figures in the statement over the Besides, factory~made synthetic articles also posed last three decades leads to the incontrovertible con· a great hurdle to the easy-going life of the artisans elusion that there has been a systematic erosion in and exploitation of Bani workers by the Mahaians the number of practising artisan households in all assumed a new phase. The sea~coast of Tamil Nadu the three craft-centres without any exception. An is also said to have been in the grip of a natural analysis of the reaSO:1s for the exit of the artisan calamity in this period, when chank fisheries had households from the craft's arena reveals that lack dried up, having made the procurement of conchshells of financial assistance, shortfall in the supply of taw quite difficult. Many artisans were then forced materials, hike in the price of raw material leading rather grudgingly and with a sense of deep regret to to a shortage in the working capital, absence of ade­ leave their trade. The period ushered in 'a general quate marketing facilities and high cost of produc­ idea of darkness-inspissated gloom', a sense of un· tion dissuaded the practising artisan households from redeemed despondency and a wasting despair in th(' persisting their linkage to the craft. minds of the craftsmen in general. Most of th(' artisans lost interest in the work and a sense of anomie UNEMPLOYMENT besieged them. In the decade of 1970, however, there was a glimmer in the tunnel. The Governmenf Since the number of artisan households during of West Bengal intervened through organisations like the last three decades has shown a steady decline, Small Industries Corporation and the West Bengal there is no wonder that some persons even in the Handicrafts Development Corporation in the matter practising artisan households will remain unemployed. of collection and distribution of conchshells among For the present analysis unemployed persons have the craftsmen. This led to a renewed increase in been equated with abJe-bodied adult members in the demand for chanks and the production of the craft age-group of 15-34, capable of undertaking any ~ro­ had an upswing. But, unfortunately, this phase wa~ ductive economic activity but fOf the time-being Wlth~ short-lived. In the present decade the craft is in out any work and in search of a suitable employment. a state of neither prosperity nor stagnation. It is [n the practising artisan households ten such lln~ rather in a anaemic stage. In the last three decades employed persons have been identified. Of them, there has not been any increase in the number of three are the offsprings (sons) of the heads, five are artisan households. Instead, the participating house· brothers of the heads and two are sons of the brothers holds have been waning. From 1980 onwards the of the heads of households. (vide Appendix Table craft seems to be disintegrating on account of higb No'5. 50, 51). Of the unemployed persons, two are price of raw materials, non-availability of qualita· illiterate, three are literate without anv education, tively good raw material, untimely supply of raw one h;:l<; education uPtl' primarv standard, three have material and lack of sufficient working capital. studied upto the middle <;tandard and one isolated person is a matriculate. These unemployed persons have been in search of a iob for varying periods. One The craftsmen express the view that the craft can person has been on the look out for emplovment for still be resuscitated and rejuvenated by some timely two yeare;, seven nerson'> have been searching for a measures by the government in providing financial lob far three to five vears while two more penons assistance, maintaining a strict quality-control on raw have been unemploved for more than six vear'>. Since materials, and proper marketing of finished products. none of the unemnloved has had anv experience of Though some steps have been taken by the West any previom emnloyment, and since the educational Bengal Handicrafts Development Corporation and level of most of the unemnloved nerson~ i.::; very low, Zilla Parishad, Bankura to procure chanks and distri­ the prosnert of any emnlovment to <;uit their educa­ bute them among the households, some more mea­ tion, :lntitude and exoerience ie; indeed very bleak. sures are yet to be taken in the right direction to end Thev have simply addpd themselves to the burgeoning the present impasse. number of rural unskilled employment-seeking labour force. ATTITUDE AND OPINION OF THE CRAFTSMEN GENERAL HEALTH OF THE CRAFT DURING THE LAST FEW DPCADES The majority of the artisans are of the view that the craft as a source of livelihood had been lucra~ A long discourse with the aged and elderly arti­ tive to many and provided a very good source of sans and master craft~men in the three cr;:)ft-centree; income to others so much so that many craftsmen e~tablishes il patent fact that the craft ~tood in great preferred the craft to agriculture under personal prosperitv in the neriod from 19AO-19()() and reached cultivation, even though thcy had some cultivable great hei!'ht~ It attracted a larae nnmbE'r of artisfln~ land of their own. In the rural economy with very to its callings. But in th" rll'l'adl'~ fnl1owinp', the limited sources of employment, the craft had absorbed inform;:'tnts bemo:m. the craft fen Ollt of hiQh degree to some extent the surplus rural labour force and into rr>i<;pry to end rather wretchedlv. Dunng thi" weaned them awav from agriculture which ',va<; period (If woe thf' "raft W'lq bedevilled hv m::lnv in­ otherwise conO'e~ted with too many hands to follow sHr>rallntablc- nrohlI'M<;. The c-r;o;q ()t i'1wic(I'latp the plough. But, now the craft has failed to hold ,"pply of raw materials set in precisely in this period back the exodus of its own artisans, what to speak of providing a source of gainful employment to others. years on account of lack of capital and irregular The depression of the craft has not enabled the arti­ supply of raw material, two households seceded in sans to improve their economic status. course of five to nine years because of financial problem, four households delinked themselves from The craftsmen hold that their children under th~ [he crait in course of two decades also for want of present circumstances will never engage themselves in capital and three more households have left the craft the craft. The younger generation too cherishes no more than 20 years back owing to lack of profit. fond illusion about the craft's future. Even the artisans engaged in the craft fear of finding something worse All the households have one member or more in the days to come and are not contented with the with necessary skill to practise the craft. But, seven of present economic state of the craft. Some heads of them are though willing to resume production at an artisans' households presage no sure future of the opportune moment, eight are not interested to do so. craft and never want to plan their future by better Of the heads of seven households willing to revive experience of the present and of the recent past. They link with the craft, one is illiterate, three are literate are even prepared to leave the craft in case they secure without any formal education, one has read upto an alternative employment which is equally hard to primary level and two more below secondary level. come. But, others are prepared to wait till the crack They include four cultivators, oge fish-monger, one of doom since it is blasphemous for them to secede school-teacher and one non-worker. (vide Appendix from their traditional and hereditary occupation. They Tables 88-104). are not predisposed to change their occupations. Instead, they love thcir occupations and live upon Even though the ~ged and the experienced non· their daily rations, however inadequate they may be practising artisans have a passionate and sentimental on account of the bad days of thc craft (vide Appendix attachment for the craft, none of them has even the Tables 61-74). faintest desire that their children should pursue the craft. Instead, they leave the choice of occupation to The non-practising households in the past had the youngsters accor~ing to their aptitu~e: proficiency participated in the production of various articles but and educational attall1ments. The peSSImIsm of the in course of last two decades have been forced to snap heads of the non-practising household has been bred their links with the craft on account of failure of the in the adverse situation the craft is passing through craft to provide them with income sufficient enough to at the present moment. Prosperity of the craft in the sustain their families. The factors behind the relative near future is indeed a di<;tant possibility and more fall in income may be enumerated as follows: of a utopian day-dream unless some positive skeps ~re taken to revitalise the craft The craft has been passmg (a) The low margin in profit earned from the through uncertain days and has not flourished to its craft has resulted in insufficient income and past glory on account of uncertain supply of raw proved a disincentive. material. (b) Inadequate supply of raw material has not provided sufficient work. The non-practisin~ heads still ,f~el that the craft may be saved from Its pre~ent cnSlS and developed (c) Lack of sufficient capital for investment in by taking some measures WIthout any further loss of the craft has forced the craftsmen to retreat. time procrastination and delay. The measures may be t~ken along the following lines. (d) Health-hazards from the craft have also ( 1) Supply of basic raw materials ?f conch-shell deterred some to dissociate from the craft. at cheap price and at regular Intervals must be ensurcd directly to the artisans. (e) Lack of job-satisfaction also has dissuaded the young craftsmen from pursuing the craft. (2) The chanks must be large-sizcd and of good quality. The artisans opine that ill the past the craft pro­ vided a source of employment to the surplus unemploy­ (3) Financial assi:,tance to the artisans on easy ed manpower which could not otherwise find any terms must be assured by the Governments source of gainful economic activity in the agricultural (Central and State), publi~ financial insti­ or non-agricultural sectors of rural economy. Thus tutions (including nationahsed banks) and the surplus labour force which depended on land did co-operative organisations. not have to remain underemployed or seek employ­ ment outside by temporary or permanent migration. ( 4) Proper marketing facilities for finished pro­ ducts manufactured by the artisans must be ,The non-practising artisans come from three com­ organised and arranged. munities the Sankhabaniks, the Mahisyas and the Bairagis.' Of the 15 non-practising artisan households, (5) Co-operative movement must be developed six have ceased production in course of the last five among the artisans by the Government. 44

The non-practising artisans a.re of the opinion that wherever possible. This will not only increase the time is running out very fast and if the measures are volume of production but also deflate the cost of not taken now, the craft may not fare well in near production. future. The craft, if not revitalised now, is appre­ hended to die out eventually in the long run, throwing The State Government's involvement and inter­ a large number of practising artisans out of employ­ vention in the procurement and distribution of chanks ment not only in the three craft-centres but elsewhere should be more effective and uniform and not just too, affecting the entire Village-economy. Nobody symbolic. It has been assessed, rather tentatively, wants the peril to come, if one can stave it off. that of the total supply of conch-shells to the artisans, only 30-40 per cent are effected by the agencies of the State Government at the level of the State Capital DEVELOPMENT OF THE CRAFT FOR GENERATlON and the district headquarters. OF MORE EMPLOYMENT The partial supply of raw material by the Govern­ The craft of conch-sheIl-carving, a traditional rural ment to the artisans fails not only to meet their total based craft, has enjoyed a distinctive place in the rural requirements but pushes the artisans more to the economy of the district of Bankura and also in other clutches of the scheming traders and wholesalers deal­ districts where the craft is pursued. The craft has ing in conchshells. Besides, the supply by the State still the potentiality of playing an important role in Government is not at all fool-proof. The raw mate­ generating some more opportunities of employment rial does hardly meet the test of quality, as discussed for the people who were directly or indirectly con­ earlier, nor is it made available at an economically nected with the craft in the recent past but are now cheap price. The Government can also arrange for looking for avenues of income in other areas, provided maintaining a ready stock of conchshells throughout some corrective steps are taken now to remove the the year at the district level to meet the emergent deficiencies, the craft is riddled with at present. needs of the craftsmen in different times. The Government may also help the craftsmen arrange for The most serious problem of the craft at present better marketing and sale of finished products. Since is the high escalation in the cost of production of the chanks are exported outside India, an exploration of articles. Lack of working capital handicaps the markets in foreign countries with a sizable concen­ artisans from increasing their volume of production tration of Indian settlers may also be made to boost and trade. To ease some of the problems, a few the sale of conchshell products abroad. For this, steps are required to be taken. however, quality of the articles should be standardised. Poor and indigent artisans need financial assistance in The exploitative relation between the Mahajans the form of loan and grant. Governmet and national­ and the Bani workers can be bettered, if the former ised banks have a more constructive role to play in offer to the latter a little better rate of wage, instead this sphere. The organisation of multipurpose co­ of taking advantage of the bad weather of the craft operative society for servicing, marketing and supply and the pitiable lack of bargaining power of the Bani of credit is also another worthwhile proposal, the workers. examination of whieh should not brook any delay. The craftsmen have to solve their own problems. The techniques of production may be improved Outside agencies like government can only extend a by the introduction of modem power-driven tools helping hand to overcome them. CHAPTER-Vn

CONCLUSION

VIEW POINT OF THE ARTISANS ON THE CRAFf AS A MARGIN OF PROFIT SOURCE OF LIVELIHOOD Formerly, an independent producer, desirous of The present survey has not succeeded in collect­ earning a reasonable profit from his labour, could do ing golden opinions of the craftsmen about their so because of higher rate of production and compara­ vocation and their livelihood. Woe betides them tively lower cost of production. But, the scenario is often and fortunes very seldom come tumbling into changed now and the trend is reversed. The volume their laps. They seem to be 'perked in a glistering of production at present is low but the cost of produc­ grief and wear a golden sorrow'. In their huts and tion has gone up. The sale price has not been humble houses 'the lamps burn low and dim' and enhanced so as to cope with the rise in the marginal though they 'slave for livelihood', they seldom change cost of production of any article. As a result, the their living. margin of profit has not at all increased for any independent production unit.

The craft has been decaying since long but never ROLE OF SALESMEN decayed into death. Uncertainties, mysteries and doubts assailed A. E. Porter in 1933 who had enlisted In the early sixties a large number of Paikars used the craft among the decaying industries (vide Census to visit the craft-centres frequently from places far of India, 1931 Volume V, Bengal and Sikkim, and near to collect the finished products from the Part-I Report, Appendix I to Chapter-VIII, Page 305, artisan households for sale to the consumers outside. Calcutta, 1933). Even in 1961 the survey on the The Paikars acted as salesmen linking the producers present craft had to bid farewell to the tender leaves with the customers. But, now the distant footsteps of hope about the craft's future prosperity and sur­ of the Paikars no longer echo in the craft-centres. vival. Obviously, in a situation where the craft can­ The visit of a few Paikars is now restricted to only not vouchsafe a steady life to those who pursue it, a few artisan households. Now, the independent the craftsmen are far from being humble livers in producers sell their products directly to the consumers content. The craftsmen are not happy about the in the Hats. markets and fairs. income accruing from the craft. The state of the craft has deteriorated significantly, in the views of the INCOME OF THE ARTISANS artisans, in course of the last few decades. The craft While an average artisan household in the early is no longer popular as an economic pursuit as it was sixties could maintain itself on a monthly income of in the past. The craftsmen are much worried and Rs. 30.00p. it will hardly be able to make both ends mentally disturbed by the present plight of the craft. meet even with a monthly earning _ranging between Rs. 600.00p. to Rs. SOO.OOp. At present, an artisan The craft had in the past released the surplus rural connected with the manufacture of white bangles is labour force from their dependence on agriculture and capable of earning Rs. 400.00p. per month while the absorbed even partially some people. The craft no craftsman manufacturing coloured bangles can earn longer has any appeal to the rural unemployed youth Rs. 600.00p. per month. With a relative fall in the as a lucrative source of income and livelihood. The real value of money the artisan finds it hard in the change has been brought about by a number of factors. face of inflation to keep the wolf from the door. As a result, indigence stalks the average craftsmen and even though 'poverty is no disgrace' to an artisan, 'it ROLE OF MAEIAJANS (FINANCIER-PRODUCERS) is confoundedly inconvenient'. But even now the craft has not lost its potentiality to ensure enhanced In the earlier decades a large number of Mahajans earnings to an average craftsman. With uniform in the craft-centres used to procure sufficient chanks work throughout the year and after full utilisation of from the dealers in Calcutta for supply to the Bani available manpower, an experienced craftsman can workers who worked on contract basis. A Bani still earn Rs. 600.00p. to Rs. 1,200.00p. per month worker could then earn Rs. SOO.OOp. per month as even in the present adverse situation. In the sixties wages on piece-rate basis. But, now it is almost the average Bani worker could earn a daily wage of impossible for him to eam even half the real value Rs. S.OOp. which sufficed to meet the day to day of the amount. The reasons are not far to seek. expenses of the family. But, now a Bani worker can The number of Mahajans has considerably waned at hardly earn Rs. S.OOp. per day. While chill penury present, thus adversely affecting the number of Bani has repressed the ardour and hope of the artisans, workers as a consequence. The system of Bani work their struggle for existence goes on unabated. The has virtually disappeared from Raibaghini and artisans seem to be "more innocently employed than Shashpur. in getting money". 46

SHIFT FROM TRADITIONAL OCCUPATION craftsmen in their face. The number of units of production run independently and on contract basis Once the craft had fetched the craftsmen 'plenty has gradually declined in absolute figures during the of money, money enough and to spare' and won the l:1st three decades. The flourish and great heights artisans spurs, but it docs no longer so. The good old of the craft are now no more than an accepted fiction days have softly and suddenly vanished away and the of the past. Some problems have seriously stunted perpetual struggle for food had started. Instead of the devdopment of the craft. There is still time for offering bread and work for all, the craft now faces redemption and for taking effective sure-footed steps problems not on account of lack of demand for to save the craft from further atrophy and eventual finished products but for want of ~upply of raw deatb. It is important first to identify the problems materials. Such an agonising siluation has not proved and thereafter it is necessary to reprove any dull congenial even to the dedicated craftsmen, many of delay to tackle them. whom are prone to secession from their traditional occupation in favour of a more remunerative avoca­ INADEQUACY OF CAPITAL tion. The educated youth in the artisan households are no longer under the magic spell of the traditional Lack of adequate finance and shortage of capital occupation of the craft. They look for better means have crippled the craftsmen economically. They are in other avenues of employment. incapable of taking any risk of investment in the craft not because they are conservative or feeble-hearted OCCUPATIONAL MOBILITY but essentially because they do not have any surplus capital or savings from which funds may be drawn A t one time. three or four decades back, 'custom, for investment to increase production. that unwritten law' was the great guide of the artisans to whom life was so short and craft was so long to IRREGULAR SUPPLY OF RAW MATERIAL learn that they did not allow their offsprings to leave their hereditary occupation, so firmly entrenched in It has been the common experience of the arti~ the tradition of the family. But now the perspectives sans, and for that matter not a pleasant one, that have irretrievably changed and even the conservative they face great difficulty in getting the supply of the craftsmen in a deus-ex-machina way do not hesitate basic raw material of chank from the government in to prod their children to turn away from the occupa~ the hours of need and urgency. Even when supply tion, so meticulously and piously pursued by the is obtained from the agency of the government" the elders. The occupation of the craftsmen is no more concbshells are reportedly inferior in quality to those forced on the yeung who are now perfectly free to obtained from private dealers. The size of the conch· choose the occupation of their own choice and accord­ ~hell also is small in case the material is made avail· ing to their aptitude. Their involvement in the craft able by government source. An average artisan, is considered a very risky venture to pursue against who is in no way financially sound and economically the present odds. It will be evident from the relevant well-off, feels that the government agency charges table in the appendix that the main working force in an exorbitantly high price for a gunny bag of conch~ the artisan households is engaged in pursuits other shells compared to that charged by a private trader than the craft. in the market in Calcutta. The artisans have a com~ man grouse on this score against the government The occupational mobility thus attaint:d in the which, supposed to be mindful about the economic artisan households has been more fortuitous than cons­ disability of the artisans, should take steps to amelio· cious. The occupational diffusion, con sequenced by rate their poverty and hardship. the critical adversity of the craft, has pervaded too tbe non-practising artisan households in whicb the mem­ LACK OF EFFICIENT MODERN TOOLS bers fallen on evil times have fanned out to engage themselves in occupations which are neither tradi~ The artisans produce the articles by hand with tional nor hereditary, although they have plenty of few implements and fewer tools, old and simple in love and adoration for the vocation they have left design and function. Traditionally the artisans ope­ not long ago. It is only the uncertainty of income rate the tools manually. Only at Raibaghini two that has impelled the non-practising members to go artisans operate power-driven polishing machines. But in for other occupations. here the rest of the craftsmen and elsewhere in two other craft-centres all the craftsmen handle the tools PROBLEMS OF THE CRAFT manually. The operations are time-consuming, dull and not very economical either. The sizing and cut~ It has been made clear from the foregoing dis­ ting operations of the conchshells are done in a limit· cussion that the craft is passing through very difficult ed number of specific places outside the craft--centres days and that the artisans have suffered many hard­ and not quite close to the artisans' work-sites. The ships in their struggles to preserve their life and artisans have to undertake visits outside for cutting braved many odds to keep up their high spirits. But tbeir conchshells at the cost of their time, production the problems do not thereby pale into insignificance. and finance. The cost of transport for this purpose Gradual decadence and paupcrisation stare the average only adds to their financial burden. 41

LACK OF FOR.MAL TRAINING register their names with the state-level agency as card-holders for the purpose of procurement of raw In no craft-centre is there any arrangement for material from Calcutta. any formal training. The artisans learn the tech­ niques of production from their parents or neigh­ AN OVERVIEW OF THE SORRY LOT OF THE INDIAN bours as home apprentices. This has resulted in ARTISANS restricting the knowledge to a limited circle of arti­ sans. In case of a revival of the craft and at times A recent study of the Food and Agricultural of heightened production, no trained manpower will Organisation into the conditions of the Indian arti­ be readily available. sans in general, though not directly concerned with the conch-shell carving artisans in particular, is very COMPETITION WITH INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS relevant, timely and succinctly touches the problems of the craftsmen. For a poor rural consumer the conchshell pro­ ducts like white bangles are more costly than the ,. "The remarkable progress of India's traditional synthetic bangles produced in the factories. As a handicrafts in recent years 'masks the miserable exis­ consequence, white conchshell bangles have to com­ tence and exploitation faced by rural artisans', ac­ pete with the inferior but cheap bangles of plastic cording to a Food and Agricultral Organization publi· or other synthetic material. cation.

CHANGE OF CONSUMER'S PREFERENCE "While the value of production has increased from $ 82 million in 1955 to $ 3 billion in 1985 and ex­ There has been some change in the attitude and ports jumped from $ 8 million to$ 1.4 billion along taste of the consumer in rural and urban areas alike. with an 18 per cent share in total exports in 1985, Consumer's preference too has not remained unaffect­ artisans who should be getting 85 per cent of the ed. Married women in the rural areas while doing net price from the sale of products are in reality any hard manual work do not now-a-days wear any getting less than 20 per cent. conchshell bangle. They usually prefer cheap ban­ gles of synthetic material to the ones of conchsheU, "Thus, while there is a growing interest in handi­ because the former, if broken, can be replaced shortly crafts and a market spurt in demand in both domes­ without hitting hard the personal purse. The rich tic and oversea" markets, widespread poverty, un­ economic experience has made women wise but has employment and underemployment remain common rendered the ordinary artisan poor. Such a replace­ among traditional rural artisans. ment by women has not proved always beneficial to the craft. "Faced with fierce competition from much larger industrial units. artisans are unable to command a LACK OF AMENITIES AND SERVICES fair price in the market or may face difficulties in rbtaining credit for raw materials or other input~ Because of the non-existence of any cooperative Eventually, the publication said, they may be forced institution or training-cum-production centre, the into the ranks of the underemployed and unemployed craftsmen do not draw any benefit, normally catered by such institution. The craftsmen have to solve "The reliance of artisans on private intermedia­ themselves all their problems at the individual level. ries was a reflection of a particular feature of handi­ They cannot serve their common interests like fixing crafts marketing in India. While lower value utili­ a mutually agreed sale price for their finished pro­ tarian items usually find other markets near where ducts or negotiating a remunerative wage for a Bani they are produced, much of the demand for higher worker as they do not have a common organisational valued artistic products arise in areas far from cen­ base. tres of production-in large cities or tourist centres or even in foreign countries. ROLE OF AGENCIES CONCERNED WITH THE DEVE­ "It is the relentless pressure to identify and reach LOPMENT OF THE CRAFT these scattered pockets of demand that has obliged artisans to rely increasingly on private agencies, tra­ The West Bengal Handicrafts' Development Cor­ ders. exporters and shop-keepers to market their poration and the Zilla Parishad, Bankura have been oroducts. observed to be partially connected with the supply of raw material to the craftsmen. But, curiouslv "ADart from their inability to compete in terms enough, the facilities offered by these two agencie~ of prices with items produced bv industrial enter­ have mostlv been enjoyed by a few financially well-off prises, many artisans have difficulties in maintaining craftsmen but not by the commonality. The price of staprhnls of quality. acquiring un-to-date technology, the raw material is beyond the reach of an average cI('~,ploning improv",ct designs and establishing depen­ artisan because of the requirement of one-time invest­ dable linkage" to the markets. ment of a huge amount on the purchase of raw mate­ * Plr~

It is not easy to resolve the problems of the craft Quantity in Value in instantly. But, it will be pertinent to suggest a few Year Countl'ies kilogrames Rupees technical, economic and administrative measures to develop and revitalise the craft. 1 2 3 4 The programme for the development of the craft must first aim at improving the productivity of the Miarch, Gerrnran FRG 10,840 13.870 craftsmen through supply of improved tools and 1969 Italy 5,080 5,385 implements and promoting organised and increased Sinl!iapore 88 102 Surinam 115 115 production without sacrificing the skill and excellence Total: 16,123 19.472 of the craftsmen. To preserve the traditional skill of Italy 18)72----20,300- the artisans it is imperative to orovide facilities for M~rcb, U. K. 962 3,200 training of young apprentices under master craftsmen. 1970 Total 19,244 23.500 The artisans should address themselves to increased M--'~-rc-:-h-,----=G::-eJl-m-an--:P==R=-G-c:::------0 17, 144 26,883 productivity through more efficient use of manpower 1971 and equipments. MardI, German FRG 10,000 24,032 1972 Italy 15.000 35,838 Total: 25,000 59,870 Institutions like training-cum-production' centre­ -----:Ge=--rm-a-n~FRG ·------;;3-:,500 8.946 and design centre may be set up in each district .to Hong Kong 1.330 3.560 cater for the needs of the craftsmen. These institutions MArcih, Spalin 10,000 29,486 are required to impart technical training and better 1973 Italy 5,000 15,281 technical knowled~e and to supply new designs to Total 10,000 57,273 the craftsmen. If the craftsmen had refused once or German FRG 14,000 37,711 M''lfoh, Italy 7.425 25,025 twice to accept the designs from the Regional Design 1974 U.S.A. 1.900 6.916 Centre, it was because of the apathv of the artisans to Totlll 23,325 69,652 experiment with new designs at a time when the craft German FRG 264 9.436 had degenerated into a stagnant state. Rut. this 'lolita'" Itaily 821 24.256 rejection does not necessarilv establish that the arti­ Totall 1,085 33,692 ---~French------200 1.21i - sans will continue to desist from experiments in des· German FRG 5,000 24,409 pair in future. March, Hong Kong 1,440 9,580 1976 Italy 16,288 104.984 Dearth of canital can be made good by supply of Total 22,928 140,190 long-term credit from industrial and cooperative banks - ----Frenoh -15,076---72~f22- to the needv artisans. Financial institutions can play Italy 27,456 158,022 Marcil, Malaysia 35 288 a meaningful role in providing capital for investment 1977 Soain 5.000 20,659 in the craft, as and when necessary. Service coopera· Total 47,567 251,091 tives can also help the artisans procure necessarv raw -GermanFRG- - -- 80 955 materials and market the finished products without March, Italy 15,00 4.1'\40 much flutter. Besides, the artisans may thereby get an 1978 Total _1_,580___ 5,595___ organisational prop to steer themselves clear of aIJ M'arcib, Malaysia 150 4,909 impediments now unsettling their economic security 1980 Ma;:c~ctherlands 400---16:415- 1981 U.S.A. 3,000 28.869 It will not be quite out of nlace to mention that Total 3,400 45.284 there is scone for sales in the internal markets. 'Soot lI,f,qrch-, --MaJ.a-y""""'si;---a-- 55 1.281- purchase' of articles bv government agencies for the 1982 Sngauore 460 2.487 purpose may be an effectiYe measure in the right Total 515 3,768 ------~------. --~----- 49

Among different agencies of the government con· aim to produce more to satisfy the: consumers' demands, cerned with the welfare of the artisans and promotion increase productivity, maximise and stimulate income. of the craft better co-ordination is a long-felt need. PROSPECTUS FOR THE FUTURE Fresh avenues of employment may open up, if new items of consumer goods like table lamps, incense· Cruising down the memory lane from the pre­ burners, paper weights and decorative objects of ar1 historic past in the valleys of Mohcnjodaro and are improvised and introduced to the craftsmen fOl Harappa to the historic peninsular south of India production to satisfy the modern ta~te of new genre along the coasts of Gujrat, Tamil Nadu and Kerala of urban consumers. The secular objects of art may and from the riparian districts of eastern Bengal, to be sold at a fair and reasonable price. A spurt ill the stark reality of the craft-centres in the district 01 production of new items will raise the employment Bankura in West Bengal, one suddenly beholds 'the potential of the craft. Past, Present and Future existing all at once.' Chunks may be transported directly to the artisans One has to answer many puzzling questions not in the craft-centres by the West Bengal Handicrafts beyond conjecture. Even though the 'muddy vestun Development Corporation from its storage depots in of decay' has closed the craft in for quite long with Calcutta. In case the direct transportation is not subtle palmy periods in between, the general pulse of feasible, the artisans should not be drawn away from life has never stood still. The resilience of the craft their production units to a far-off place in Calcutta. has been provided by multitudes of righteous and Storage depot, if set up at the district level to store a devout Hindu consumers, both men and women, who large stock of chunks, will spare the artisans the have not forsaken their faith and custom, rites and trouble of running to Calcutta for raw material rituals as sanctified by their religion. Irrespective of frequcntly. Besides, thc proximity of source of supply education and place of residence in rural and urban will instill in the minds of the artisans a sense 01 areas, womenfolk as the arbiters of the destiny of the security about the supply of raw material. craft have made it a rule to wear the conch-shell bangles during the consecration of marriage and To maximise the margin of profit it is necessary thereafter. This traditional usage has sustained the to develop better entrepreneurial skill and costing craft even in the high sea of misery. Pious men and techniques among the craftsmen by initiating time­ women in their homes and priests in temples, big a,nd saving cost-effective methods of production. Ilmall, will continue to blow the shellhorns during thtl evening prayers and during worship of the deities If the craft-centres are electrified under the Rura, installed at the sacred altars. Shellhorns will be blown Electrification Scheme, rate and vdume of production during marriage ceremonies and other festive will increase with the substitution of manual polishing occasions. Along with ritualistic use the conch-shell by power-driven polishing machines. New tools and bangles have its appeal to secular women too who small machines may also be designed to help artisans use the ornaments for purely decorative purposes. In produce more articles at the shortest possible time. view of the large clientele and an insatiable demand Cost of production may be reduced thereby. But, for the products of the craft one can prophesy with caution is necessary to see that modernisation and some certitude that the end is still "far, far off, and mechanisation do not sap the traditional skill and that the hardest and most complicated part" is only proficiency of the craftsmen and lead the handicraft just its beginning. The nature of the craft and its past to degenerate into a machine-driven industrial produc­ hi~tory has been such that if one begins with tion unit devoid of the deft touch of human fingers certainties about the death of this craft, now languish­ and warm human involvement of the artisans. ing, one shall end in doubts. At least this has been tIlt' outcome of the forecast about the craft during the The artisans, now badly in need of financial hello. survey in the sixties. The craft has not in the late regular supply of raw material and proper marketing eighties implored "the passing tribute of a sigh" and facilitie~, mmt strive to prosper in their handiwork. ~"r will it hopefully ever do so in future.

)0 Ceqsus/88-7 50

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Author Publication Author Publication

Acharjya, Rajani Kanta 'Muhurta Chintamoni' Mitra, A. Tribes & Castes of West (by Daibagna Ram) Bengal Pub. Bombay, 1934 W. B. Govt. Press, 1953 Eng. tran. Mukherjee, Damodar 'Srimat Bhagavad Gita' Bhattacharjee, Nilkantha 'Debi Bhagawat' Calcutta Pub. Calcutta, 1887 Beng. tran. Beng. tran. Nirajananda, Swami 'Sri Sri Chandi Uttar 'Barna Ratnakar' Charitam' Chottopadhya, Suniti and (by Jyotisaran Kabisekher­ Calcutta Mishra, Babna acharjya) Beng. tran. RA.S.B., Calcutta 1940 Beng. tran. Porter, A. E. Census of India. 1931

Datta, M. N. 'Hari Bansa' Risley, H. H. Tribes & Castes of Bengal, Calcutta, 1897 Calcutta, 1891 Eng. tran. Roy, P. C. 'Sri Sri Chandi Madhyam Dutt, G. S. 'Patuasangeet' Charitam' University of Calcutta. 1834 Eng. tran. Dwibedi, Keshabprosad 'Jyotisagara Grantha' in Sanskrit, Sastri, Dr. Shyama 'Kautilya's Arthasastra' Agra, 1931. Mysore, 1960 Eng. tran. Handique, Ramkrishna 'Naisadha Charita' 1934 Sidhanta Bagish, Haridas 'Mahavarata' Eng. tran. Calcutta, 1831 Beng. tran. Harner, I. B. ' 'Vinaya Pitaka' London, 1949-52 Do 'Sisupal Badha' by Magh Eng. tran. Calcutta, 1882 Beng. tran. Hornell, James 'Memories of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. m, Calcutta, 1915 Tarkaratna, Panchanan 'Brahmavaivarta Purana' Calcutta, 1827 Marshall, John Guide to Taxila Beng. tran.

Do Mohenjodaro & Indus Whiteney, W. D. 'Atharva Veda Samhitu' Civilization ]905 193] Eng. tran. APPENDIX-I

TABLES

S3

PRACTIS1NG ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. I Distribution of population classified b:y age, sex and marital status Never Married Married r------_..A.'Widowed ___ .___ Age-group ,------"'"---.---~ ,------"'"------~ p M F P M F P M F

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

0-4 35 21 14 5-9 43 17 26 10-14 51 20 31 15-19 34 24 10 3 3 20-24 27 24 3 20 3 17 7.5-29 14 }4 25 9 16 2 2 30-34 2 1 20 14 6 35-44 1 24 14 10 3 3 45-54 25 12 13 12 3 9 55-69 17 14 3 9 1 8 70+ . 1 1 1

A!~enot stated Total 207 122 85 135 67 68 28 5 23

TABLE NO. l-contd.

Divorced or Separated Umpeciiied Total population ,-____~v'- ______, ,-___v'- __ ___._--, r-- ___.A.. ______, <\ge-gI'OUp P M F P M F P M F

1 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 1~ 19

0-4 35 21 14 5-9 43 17 26 10-14 51 20 31 15-19 37 24 13 20-24 41 2'" 20, 25-29 41 23 18 30-34 23 15 8 35-44 28 15 13 45-54 37 15 22 55-69 26 15 11 70+ 2 2 Age not ------stated Total 370 194 176 S4

PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO.2 Distribution of population classified by age, sex and educ:a1ionallevel ------Age-group Total population Illiterate Literate without ,--.______.,J-... __...... __---..---.. educational level ,.-----'-----, P M F M F

1 2 4 5 6 7

0--4 35 21 14 21 14 5-9 43 17 26 2 15 24 10-14 51 20 31 3 9 16 15-19 37 24 13 2- 2 2 20-24 4'1 21 20 '1 9 3 25-34 64 38 26 10 2 4 35+ 93 47 46 7 33 14 10 Agenot _ ------stated ------Total • 370 194 176 33 68 51 59

TABLE NO. 2-conld.

, ______Educational.A, ______Level ~ --, Matriculation Non-technical Technical diploma Graduate Age-group Primary or Middle or Diploma or or Certificate and Junior Basic Higher Secondary certificate not not equal above equal to Degree to Degree ,.----.-_"'-__--, ,-_.... _-----. ,.. ___oA- ___-, , __.... _-----. r---..Ao------. r---.... ----, M F M F M F M F M F M F

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

5-9 1

10-14 8 10 3 2

15-19 3 4 16 4 1 3

20-24 3 8 7 1 7 1 1

25-34 14 7 10 2 9 3 2

53+ 9 2 12 5

Agenot • stated

Total 37 32 48 10 22 7 3 ------55

PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS rABLE NO.3 Distribution of households classifie4 by religion, caste/tribe/community and mother tongue of bead of tbe household

Number of households where mother tongue Religion Name of castel of head of household tribe/community is Bengali Total

2 3 4

----_------~_--- Hinduism Shankhabanik 25 25

Bairagi 8 8

Mahisya 21 21

Brahmin 4 4

Total 58 58

TABLE NO.4 Dlstributwn of households classified by religion, caste/tribe/community, sex and educational level of head of the household

Number of households by educational level of head of the household Name of Religion Name of caste! Number of (~-...----.I"---"'----~"_""","---'---""--"-""_""---""" tribe! household by Illiterate Literate Primary Middle Matri- community sex of head of without or culation household educational Junior or level Basic Higher Secondary r----..A.----, M F ----- 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

------~------Hinduism Sankhabanik 18 7 5 4 10 4 2

Mahisya 21 4 8 3 4 2

Brahmin 4 3

Bairagi 8 1 4 2 1

'Fotal 51 7 9 14 17 13 5 Note -None of Head Qf Househol<1 was educated above. Matriculation, 56

PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS

TABLE NO. S Distribution of households classified by age, sex and head of the household and number of members

Number of Number of households having members Age of head households by r------""--- -~------., of household sex of head of Single 2 3 4 5 6-7 8-9 10-12 13 and the household above r--'""-----, M F ------2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 ------Below 20 • 1 20-29 . 9 2 3 1 1 30-39 . 15 3 4 2 4 1 2 40-49 6 2 2 2 2 1 50-59 12 2 2 4 3 2 1 60 above 8 2 1 5 2 Age not stated

Total 51 7 4 3 9 10 16 9 4 3

TABLE NO.6 Distribution of households classified by nature of relations of members to head of the household and number of members ------Natur~ of relation of m~mbers to head of the household Number of Number of households members ------1 2 3

Self . Nil Nil Self, spouse 2 S~lf, spome, ullmuried s(>n~'and daughters' 24 124

S~lf, spJu,e, muried son a'li son's wife with or without unm1.rried sons and ilaughters 5 33

S~lf, <;pi)m~, m'uried brot!).. ~r, brother's wife, with/without unmarried sons and daughters 3 35 Self, spouse, married brother, brother'S wife, married son, son's wife, with/without un- 4 28 married sons/and daughters Self (male), unmarried son/daughter 2

Self (female), unmlrried ~on!daughter Nil Nil

S~lf, ~pou~e, with or without unm~mied son/daughter and widowed father Nil Nil

S~lf, ~p:)U>e, with or without unmlrried son/daughter and widowed mother 2 12 Self, (male) unmarried brother/sister Nil Nil Other (specify) , 18 134 ------Total 58 370 57

PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS

TABLE NO.7 Distribution of households classified by migration status with referlll1ce to place of birtll and rElIson fer migration in relation to head of the household

Migration Statuq with reference to place of Birth of head of the Number of Number <.-1' t,(,l.'H­ household households holds which ha"e migrated due tll marriage

------_._------.------.-~-- 2 3 ------A Non-Migrant (Born in the Village) 52 B Migrant. 6 6 Born Outside the Village but in the Same Distrkt 5 5 Rural ·-5 Urban II Born outside tlte District but within the State District -. 1 (Name)-Barddhaman Rural -1 (-) Urban District - 2 (Name) Rural Urban III Born outisde the State . State - 1 (Name) Rural Urban State - 2 (Name) Rural Urban IV Others including unspecified

Total 58 6

------. ------_----_-_-_.------~ -

TABLE NO.8 Distribution of households classified by migration status and durati!)n of stay in the village with reference to head of the household.

Number of households where duration of ~tay in the village of head cf the household is mIgrant Migration status with reference Number of Non­ r------~__. ___0_~ ______~ ___ ------1 to place of birth of head of household~ migrant Less than 1- 5 6-10 11- 20 21 the household 1 year years yeaH, yeals years

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Non-Migrant (Born in the Village) 52 52

Migrant 6 5

Total 58 52 1 5

------~-~ --_-_------_. ----~------10 Census/8S-8 58

PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO.9 Distribution of households classified by traditional occupation. religion and caste/fribe/community of bead of the household

Number of households where tradition31 (ccup_tion of head of the households is

.. ~ - -- - ______~ ,A. _____ ~ ~ _____ - -, Nam~ of Religion Name of Number of caste/tribe/ households Manufacturing Cultivation Priest-hood Smg( r of community of cO'1chshell devotional products songs

2 3 4 5 6 7

Hindui,m Sankhabanik 25 25

Hindui~m Mahisya 21 21

Hinduism Brahmin] 4 4

f.." Hinduism B~iragi; 8 8

Total S8 25 21 4 8

------~------fABLE NO. to Distribution of households classified by number of workers and by main occupational diversity (i.e. different members hafina different occupations)

----~------_ ------_------~------Description of occupational diver~ity Number of Number of households workers

2 3

No occupational diversity 38 72 Chowkider + CO'1chshell Products + Compounder 4 Business + Conchshell Products 2 7

School Teacher + Conchshelll>lOduct~ 2 9 Tabla Playel + Conchshell Products " 2 7 Cultivation. Cycle Repairer. Conchshell Products 1 4

Conch~hell Products, Music Teacher, Me

Cultivation + Conch shell Product~ " 5 11 CO!1chshell Products + Weaver 7

Grocery, Cultivatior', Conchshcll Product~ 4

Grocery, Conchs hell Products 4

CO'1ch~hell raduets, Cultivation, Clerk (Service) _ 3

Laboratory Assistant + Ccnchshell Product, 2

Concllshell Products -~ Contract Labourer 2

Total 58 140 59

PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 11 Households classified by sex, broad age-group and subsidiary .occupation in relation to head of household

Number of Number of househclds having subsidiary Sex households occupation Age-group r---""----, Number of having no ,------""------~ Male Female household subsIdiary Subsidiary Subsidiary Subsidiary occupation occupation- occupation- cccupation- conch-sheK cultivation manufactunng of tools

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

0-14

15-34 21 21 12 5 3

35-59 23 5 28 21 5 2

60+ 7 2 9 8

Age not Stated ______

Total 51 7 5R 41 10 6

TABLE NO. 11

Distribution of workers and non-workel'!l classified by sex, caste/tribe/community and broad age-groUp ------Number ofworkeis and non-wOl kel ~ by age-glOup r- ---- ______0-______------, All ages Name of the caste/ Total population ,- ______,A. ______- _ -, tribe/community Workel s Non-workers ,- ______0.___ 0__ __ _ ... ,------"'------, r------""------, Peisons Males Females P M F P M F ------2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Sankhabanik 188 89 99 84 46 38 104 43 61

Mahisya 120 72 48 35 35 85 37 48

Brahmin 18 11 7 6 6 12 5 7

Bairagi 44 22 22 15 12 3 29 10 19

Total 370 194 176 140 99 41 230 95 135 60

l'RACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS

TABLE NO. 12-colltd.

r--- Number of workers and llon-workers__.A.. ______by age-group --, 0-14 years IS--34 years Name of the ca,te r--- ",,'>" .. __- --..----~ -- - -.., f _- ~--~- -- -~ - - ""'------... tribe,'community Workers Non-workers \\

- --~------11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 ----_----- SankhabaD1k 65 27 38 41 29 12 38 15 23

Mahisya 45 24 21 19 19 25 11 14

Brahmin 2 2 3 3 8 5 3

Bairagi . 16 7 9 5 4 9 3 6 ---_--- Total 128 58 70 68 55 13 80 34 46

-- --- ~- --~~ ------_----- ~~ -~ ---_------

TAI'LE NO. U-coflcld. ------Number of workers and non-workersA ______by age-glOup -, r- ,- __. ______35-59 ,.A. year~______-, 60 + yearS Name of the castel r------""------. Worker~ Non-workers tribe/community Worker\ Non-workers ,.A. ____ ~ .A.___ __ -, r- ___ __ v'-____ ., ,-____ -_,A. _____ -, r-____ r-- p M F P M F P M F P M F

------~- --_ -_-- _- ---- 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34

Sankhabanik 33 13 20 9 4 5

Mahisya 13 13 13 12 3 3 2 1

Brahmin 3 3 2 2

Bail'agi 8 6 2 4 4 2 2 ------Total 57 35 22 20 2 18 14 9 5 2 1 1 61

PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 13

Distribution of worken and non-l\'orkers &:Iassified b) ~ex and educatiollalle\eJ ------Number of Educational level Total Population ,------.--______-'- Workers Non-workers r------""~----- ...... r------""- ...... r- .A., _____~ Persons Males Females Persons Males Females Person~ Males Females

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ------Illiterate 97 33 64 25 7 18 72 26 46 Literate without Educational 106 48 58 34 23 II 72 25 47 Level p rirnary or Junior Basic 74 39 35 37 27 to 37 12 25 Middle 61 49 12 27 3J 22 11 Matriculation or Higher 29 22 7 15 14 14 S 6 Secondary Non-technical diploma or certificate not equal to degree Technical diploma or certifi­ cate not equal to degree Graduate and above 3 3 2 2

Total 370 194 176 140 99 41 230 95 135

TABLE NO. 14

Distribution of workers classified by traditional and present occupation, ~ex and broad age-group

Number of workers by age-group Sex of the head of the Total number of r- )... Traditional occupation household workers 0- 14 years where present occupation is r---_ __.A.. _____ ...._ .--_.""------, r- o.A- ~ M F M F Same as If different (name of in col. I occupation) F M Occupation-I Occupation-2

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 _--- Sankhabanik (conch 18 7 46 38 shell product) Bairagi (devotional songs) 8 12 3

Ma~"a (cultivation) 21 35 Br.\l-unin (l'l'iestnood) 4 6 ------Total 51 7 99 41

------~--~------62

PMeTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS

TABLE NO. 14.-contd. Distribution of workers classified by traditional and present occupation, sex and broad age-group

------~~---- Number of workers by age-group ,- .A. --, Traditional occupation 15-34 years where present occupation is ,- ..A.. -, Same as in col.-l Cultivation Grocery Cycle repairs Mike hirer Weavers Chowkider Compounder ------10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Sankhaba.llik (conch shell 21 4 2 3 2 1 production) Bairagi (devotiona) songs) .

Mahisya (cultivation) 3

Brahmin (priest hood)

Total 24 4 2 3 2 1

TABLE NO. 14.-contd. ------

,- Number_~ of ____ workers.A.. by ___ are-group- ______~ Traditional occupation 15-34 years where present occupation is ,-___ ~ _____~ __ ~ ___ ~ __.A. ______-, School teacher Music Tabla players Medicine Conch shell Labour Labour Clerk teacher seller products maker assistance contractor

18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Sankhabanik (conch shell 2 2 production) Bairagi (devotional songs) 5

Mahisya (cultivation) 13 1

Brahmin (priest-hood) 3

Total 2 2 21 1 63

PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 14-concld.

Distribution 0( workers classified by traditional and present occupatioD, sex and broad age-group ------Number of workers by age-group r---- .A.~_ -.. 35- 59 years where present occupation is 60-;- years where present Traditionalo:;cupation occupation is r--- ~~ -, r-----oA.----., Same as Table Grocery Fi~hery Conch shell School Same as Conch shell in col. 1 player products maker teacher in co1.1 products maker ------1 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33

Sankhabanik (conch 29 2 1 9 shell production). Bairagi (devotional songs) 8 2 Mahisya (cultivation) 2 11 2 Brahmin (priesthood) 2 1

Total 31 2 1 1 21 10 4

TABLE NO. 14 A Distribution of workers by present occupation, type of occupation and otber occupation followed in case tbe present occupation is seasonal

Present occupation Number of members Number of members reported occupation noted in col. 1 as r-'------~.------__ ~ Seasonal Perinial

2 3 4

Conch shell products maker 107 107 Cultivation 9 9 Labour assistant 1 Clerk 1 Labour contractor 1 School teacher 3 3 Grocery 3 3 Business (fishing) Compounder. Music teacher 1

M:ljcin~ seller 1 Tabla player • 4 4 Cycle repairer 3 3 Mike hirer 1 Weaver 2 2 Chowkider 1

Total 140 140 64

PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 15 Distribution of workers classified by &ex, broad age-group, main activity and subsidiary oc(:upati(lll

Number whose main occupation is Total No. of r------~.A.------, Age-~roup Sex number of workers Occupation and also Occup.ti{ n 2 "nd al,\, workers having having (conch shell) having (cultivat~(I1) subsidiary r----.,A.---_-, r-----.,A.------, occupation Cultivation subsidiary Conch shell Subsidiary occupation products maker occupation

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

0-14 15-34 55 13 68 5 4 35- 59 35 22 57 13 6 7 60+ 9 5 14 Age not stated

Total 99 41 140 19 8 11 ------

TABLE NO. 16 Distribution of non-workers by sex, age alld type of Activity

Number of non-workers by type of activity and sex r- .,A. --, Age-group Total number of Full time Household Seeking non-workers Infant Student duty employment Dependant r--~.A,---, r--"""--, ,--"'---, ,--",,"--, .-"""-..... r--""--, P M F M F M F M F M F M F

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

0-14 128 58 70 21 14 3S 51 5 2 15-19 29 17 12 15 5 7 2 20-24 30 13 17 7 17 6 25-29 15 4 11 2 11 2 30-39 9 9 9 40-49 11 10 10 1 50-59 6 5 5 1 60+ 2 1 1 Age not stated

Total 230 95 135 21 14 59 56 64 10 5 65

PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 17 Distribution of household and persons engaged in the craft as related to place of work

Place of work of persons other than head of the household is Number of households r-~------"'------+--...... Place of work of the head of tlte household where place of work of same as that Other than head of the household head of the household of head of r-~----_o.A._---_ ~- ...... (as noted in col. 1) household Place Place ______l~'f_=k:::m:.::._ Lagerdanga! k~

2 3 4 5

Part of the dwelling Ilouse . 52(109) Workshop- (a) Owned by the household 6(8) 7 (b) Owned by others (Mahajan) Training-CUln-production centre­ (a) OWlled by the husehold (b) Owned by others Any other

Total 58(117) 7

Note. - In Colum'l-2, total number of persons engaged in the craft gi ven in parenthesis.

TABLE NO. 18 Households classified by broad age-group, place of 'Work and duration of 'Work In the handicraft in relation to head of the household and otlltr members.

Part of the dwelling house where r-__. ______.,..A.,. ______~ Duration Number of head of Number of persons of work the households other than the head Num ber of persons Age-group in the engaged in the of the household Numbe! of head of other than the bead handicraft handicratt engaged in the the households of the household handicraft engaged engaged r----.,.A..-----, r----"'--~ r-~"""---' r---...... ----, M F M F M F M F

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1u

0-14 Less 5 5-9 10-19 20+ 15-34 Less S 4 1 4 1 5-9 8 3 6 3 10-19 15 5 6 10 5 6 20+ 2 1 2 2 1 2 :IS-59 Less 5 5-9 2 1 2 1 10-19 3 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 20+ 20 4 6 14 20 4 6 14 60+ Less' . 5-9 10-19 20+ 8 2 3 8 2 3

Total 51 7 27 32 45 7 25 32 PRACTm~G ART~AN HOUSEHOLDS

TABLE NO. 18- contd. HOuseholds classified by broad age-group, place Of work and duration of work in the handicraft in relatioJl to head of the household aDd other members.

Place of work r------~ ------. Workshop r------______O.A. -. Duration Owned by the household where Owned by others (,m.hajan) where of work r------~ --. r------o.A.-- -. Age-group in the Number of persons Number of persons handicraft Number of head of other than head of Number of head of other than head of the households the household the households the households engaged engaged engaged engaged r----.A- ___-, r-___..A.. __ -. ,....-_-_o.A.___ -. ,....----.A.-~--. M F M F M F M F

2 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

0-14 Less 5 __ III t 5- 9 -,' 10-19 t-') ~. 20+ 15- 34 Less 5 5- 9 2 10-19 5 20+ 35- 59 Less 5 5- 9 10-19 20+ 60+ Less 5 5- 9 10-19 20+

Total 6 2 .---- TABLE NO. 19 Persons engaged in the craCt classified by distance Crom house and mode oC transport to reach the place of work

Place of work of persons engaged in the craft and mode of transport Distance Crom the house Number of ,------'""------, to the place of work persons Part of the Workshop engaged dwelling ,--~----- ..A.. ______-. in the house Owned by the household Owned by others (mahajan ) r- ~ ____ o.A. __ ----...... , craft r-- o.A. - -. On foot rrode-2 mode-3 On foot mode-2 mode-3

2 3 4 s . 6 7 8 9

Less than 1 km· 109 109 109 1- 2 kms. 8 8 3- 4 kms. . , 5+ kms.

Total. 117 109 109 8 67

PRACnsING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 20 Place of '!fork of persoln engaged in the craft classified by area occupied and nomber of persons working therein

Number of Less than 3 sq. mtrs. and number of 3-5 sq.mts. and number of persons Place of work persons persons wOlking at the place of work werking at the place of ~crk engaged noted in..A. col. ______1 -. noted in col. 1 .A, in the r------r- ~---, craft Single 2-5 6+ 11+ Single 2- 5 6-10 11+

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Part of the dwelling house . 109 3 36 15 28 2 Workshop- (a) Owned by the household

(b) Owned by others 8 4 4 (Mahajan) 3 Training-cum-production centre- (a) Owned by the household (b) Owned by others 4 Any other

Total 117 3 36 19 32

TABLE NO. 20-contt1.

6-10 sq.mts. and number 11-16 sq.mts. and number 17-24 sq.mts. and number 25+ ';q.mts. and number of persons working at the of persons working at the of persons working at the of persons working at the place of work noted place of work noted place C'f work noted place of work noted in col.I in col.1 in col. 1 in col. 1 Place of work .----_.A.____ ---, r-~"A.--., r----"A.------, ,-----..A.----- ...... Singe 2- 5 6-10 11+ Single 2- 56- 10 11+ Single 2- 5 6- 10 11+ Single 2- 5 6- 10 11+

1 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

Part of the dwelling house 3 9 6 9 2 Workshop- (a) Owned by the household (b) Owned by others (Mahajan) 3 Training-cum-production ccntrc- (a) Owned by the household (b) Owned by others 4 Anyother .

Total 3 9 6 9 68

PRACTmING ARTmAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 21 Place of work of persons engaged in the craft classified by area oceupied and problems relatihg to the place of work

Number of occupied area of the place of work r------~.------Place of work Number Less than 3 sq.mts. ,.------..A..3·5 ____ sq.mts. --., 6-10..A.. ------., slt.mts. of ~----.....__-----__., r- -_____ persons Adequate Inadequate Adequate Inadequate Adequate Inadequate engaged (Lack of in the place) craft

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Part of dwelling 109 39 41 2 18 house

Workshop owned 8 7 1 by others (Mahajan)

Training·cum­ production centre

Any other

Total 117 39 48 3 18

TABLE NO. 21- contd.

Number of occupied area of the place of work ,..------..A..------Place of work 11·16 sq.mts. 17·24 sq.mt~. ,..-- __25+..A.. sq.mts. ___ __., Number of persons -; ,..--__..A.._------, ,..----"------., reporting having other Ade- Inadequate Ade- Inadequate Ade· Inadequate problem relating to the quate quate quate place of work

12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

Part of dwelling 9 house

Workshop owned by otbers (Mahajan)

Training·cum. production centre

Any other

Total 9 69

PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 22 Households owning place of work classified by area occupied and number of persoDS working therein

Number of households having occupied area Pla"e 01 WOl k by the Number of ,------"------..., household household Less than 3 sq.mts. 3-5 sq.mts. and 6-10 sq.mts. and owning and number of number of persons number of persons place of persons el!-gaged engaged therein engaged therein work noted thereIn in col. 1 r-----~------~ (----~~.------, ,- - - --"------., Single 2-5 6- 10 11+ Single 2-5 6- 10 11+ Single 2- 5 6- 10 11+

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Part of the dwelling house 3 16 15 10 3 3 1 52 (3) (36) (15) (28) (3) (9) (6) (109) Workshop owned by others 4 2 (Mahojan) 6 (4) (4) (8) Training-cum-production centre

Any other

Total 58 3 16 19 12 3 3 1 (117) (3) (36) (19) (32) (3) (9) (6)

TABLE NO. 22-contd.

Number of households having occupied area Place or work by the Number of r------,------"----'------~------. housebold household 11-16 sq.mts. and 17-24 sq.mts. and 25 +sq.mts. and owning number of person[ numbers of persons number ofpersons place of engaged thelein engaged tberein engaged therein work noted ,-----"- ,-~--"--- ~ ,---~ in col. 1 Single 2 -5 6-10 11+ Single 2 -5 6 -10 11 + Single 2 - 5 6 -10 11+

1 2 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

Part of the dwelling house 52 1 (109) (9) Workshop owned by others 6 (Mahajan) (8) Training-cum-productioD centre

Any other

Total 58 1 (117) (9)

Note: No. of persons engaged in the craft given in parenthesis. 70

PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 23 Distribution of pel'lOllS classifie1l by rela.tionship with the bead, period engaged in the craft and nature of work performed

Numbor of Persons engaged in the craft who are related-fo head as Period engaged Number of ,--- - -"'---,_....._--~-~------~ in the craft persons Self (head of the Wife who Son who Brother who engaged in hOrlsehold) performed performed performed the craft who performed , ___ .A.. ___ -, , ___ ..A. ___ -, ,----"-----, r-- - _.A.._ - --, All All All All operations operations operations operations

1 2 4 s 6 7 8 9 10

Less than 5 years 7 1 4

5-9 Years 14 2 1 6 2

10-19 Years 33 19 4 2 6

20+ Years 63 36 8 3

Total 111 S8 13 15 11

TABLE NO. 23-contd.

Number of persons engaged in_A-~ the craft ______who are related to head as ~ Period engaged Number of in the craft persons Son's Wife Daughter Other Males Other Female engaged Who performed who performed who performed who performed in the craft ~-- ...... r----....A------, r--...A.-----, ,-___..A.._ .. All All All All operations operations operations operations ----- 1 2 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Less than 5 Years 7 2

5-9 Years 14 1 2

10--19 Years 33 1

20+ Years 63 1 1 11

Total 111 1 5 2 12

Note: All operations polishing, Sizing, designing and finibhing. 71

PRACTISING ARTISA~ HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 24 Distribution of ... ersoos classiled by relationship with the head, the person imparted training and the period enllged in the eraft

Number of persons engaged in tpe craft who are related to head as Period engaged Number of ,------.----....,--- in the craft persons Self (head of household) Wife who received Son who received engaged ,who _____ received training.A. ____ from -, , ____training .A. from ____ -, ,-training___ .A. from ____ -, in the craft Father Brother NeighbouI Husband Fatner Father

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 --_------Less than S Years 7 1 4 5- 9 Years 14 1 1 6 10- 1-9 Years 33 11 3 5 3 1 2 20+ Years 63 25 4 7 7 3

Total 117 37 7 14 11 2 15

TABLE NO. 24-co1ltd.

Number of persons engaged in tbe craft who are related to head as Period engaged Number of r------' ------~~------~------__, in the craft persons Brother who received Son's wife teceived Daughter who received engaged tra ining from training from training from in the craft ,-______,.._ ___ -----. ,---__ .A. ____ -, ,.-----.A.--_--~ Father Brothel' Neighbour Father Father Mother

1 2 9 10 11 12 13 14

L~s than 5 Years 7 2 5- 9 Years 14 1 1 10 - 19 Years 33 3 2 20+ Years 63 2 1 1 1

Total 117 6 3 2 4

TABLE NO. 24-concld. ------Number of persons engaged in the craft who are related to head as Period enga~ed Number of ____....,_- - --- '------~ in the craft persons Other males received ' Other females receiveo engaged training from training from ,___ .,A. _____-. ,--____ ...... _____ ~ In the craft Father Neighbour Mother ------2 15 16 17

L~s than 5 Years 7 5-9 Years 14 2 10-19 Years 33 20+ Year" 63 11

Total 117 2 11 1 72

PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 25 Distribution of persons engaged in the craft classified by relatiooship with the head, nature of work performed and the persons imparted training

Number of persons engaged in the craft by nature of work performed r------...... -. Relati(lnship with Number Work Work Work Work Work Work Work Work Work the head of persons (all opera- (all opera- (all opera- (all opera- (all opera- (all opera- (all opera- (all opera- (all opera- engaged tions) tions) tions) tions) tions) tions) tions) tions) tions) in the where the where the where the where the where the where the where tbe where the where the craft relation relation relation relation relation relation relation relation relation noted at Doted at noted at noted at noted at noted at noted at n<.ted at noted at col.-! col.-! col.-! col.-! col.-! col.-! col.-! co1.-1 col.-! received received received received received received received received received training training training training training training training training training from from from from from from from from from ..... ------. Father Mother Husband Neighbour Brother Father's Husband's Mother's Husband's brother sister Sister father's sister

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Self (head of the 58 32 1 4 13 7 1 household)

Wife 13 7 5 !

Son. 15 13 2

Brother 11 7 2 1

Son's wire

Daughter. 5 4

Sister 1

Other females 5 5

Mother 6 2 3

Brother'S daughter

Father's brother's wife 1 1

Total 117 73 5 12 15 8 1 1

NJte: All o1'3(ation'l ...... '.)lisltinlr, sizing, desiillina. finishinlJ' 73

PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 26

Distribution of persons eng.lged in the craft, classified by relationship with the head, the person inrart(d training, period of training and remuneration

Number of persons engaged in the craft who received training from ,------.A. ___~ ______------, Relationship with the Number Kin 1 for the period head of persons ,_____ .A. ___ ...... , engaged Less than 6 months and paid 6 months to 1 year and paid 2+ years and paid in the remuneration remuneration lemuneration craft r- .A. _" .A. _____ , r- --___ .A. --. Obligatory Service Remuneration Obligatory Service Remuneration Obli- Service Remunera- only only gatory only tion

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Self 58 48 10

Wife 13 7 6

Son 15 11 4

Sister

Daughter 5 3 2

Brother. 11 5 6

Mother • 6 5 1 -

Son's wife

Brotber's daughter • 1

Fathet's brotber's wife

Other females 5 2 3

Total 117 83 34

10Cen~u'/88--tO 74

PRACTmING ARTmAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 27 Distribution of persons engaged in the craft classified by relationship with the head, tbe person imparted training, period of training and terms and conditions of training

Number of persons engaged in the craft who received training from r------_ ----,A.------Rchtion~hip with the head Number Kin 1 for the period of persons r- ______..A.o ------engaged in the 6 months to 1 year on 2 years on craft r------,A.------, r------,A.------, No terms and Term, and No terms and Terms and condition conditions condition con

2 3 4 5 6

Self 58 48 10 Wife 13 7 6 Son 15 11 4 Sister 1 1 Daughter 5 3 2 Brother 11 5 6 Mother 6 5 1 Son's wife Brother's daughter Father's brother's wife 1 Other Females 5 2 3

Total 117 83 34 ---_ ------

TABLE NO. 28

Distri!Jution~ of per~on engaged in the craft classified by relationship with the head and source of acquirements of skill (in case the skill passfd on from father to son traditionally) ------_------_

,--_--______Number, reported having..A. acquired skill through

R~lltiomhip with the head Number of persons Traditional skill Father to son Husband to wife Neighbour engaged in the craft (home apprentice) (home apprentice) (apprentice) ------2 3 4 5 6

S~lf (h~a1 of the household) 58 27 12 19 Wife 13 12 1 Son. 15 9 6 Broth;:r II 7 3 Sister 1 Daughter. 5 5 Father's brother's wife 1 I Mother 6 6 Brother's daughter Son's wife 1 Other Females 5 5

Total 117 75 19 22 75

PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 29 Distribution of households manufacturing handicraft items for purpose as related to educational level or the head of the household

Number reporting purpose for which the particular item is used Educational level of the head of the household Name of handicraft No. of households ,------"'------, items manufactures manufacturing For ornamental For ceremonia\ handicraft use use items r------oA.------"\ (1) White baagles (1) Shell horn (2) Coloured bangles (3) Ring (4) Hair-pin (5) Necklace (6) Ear-ring (7) Broach

2 3 4 5

Illiterate (1) Ring 9 8 (2) Shell horn; (3) Coloured bangles (4) White bangles

Literate without educational level (1) Cololllred bangles 12 12 (2) White bangles

Primary or Junior basic . (1) Ring 17 (2) Hair-pin (3) Ear-ring (4) Necklace (5) Broach (6) Shell horn (7) White bangles (8) Coloured bangles

Middle. (1) White bangles 15 (2) Coloured bangles (3) Ring

Matriculation or Higher Secondary . (1) White bangles 5 5 (2) Coloured bangles

Non-technical diploma or certificate not equal to degree Technical diploma or certificate not euqal to Degree

Graduate and above

Total 58 55 3 76

PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 30

Distribution of h()useholds manufacturing handicraft obiects b~ number of items manufactured i.n a m()nth and sea'Sona\ '\'ariation in the prodUction of the items as related to educational level of the head of the household ------Number of households Number. reporting number of items manufactured reported having seasonal in;:1 month variation in the production of the item Number , ____,_..__ ___~.--'.A. ______--., Name of handi­ ,------...---o,.__~.__. _ ____.__"\ Educationallevel craft items of house Less 10-25 26-50 51-H)() 101 + Number Increas- Decreas_ manufactured holds than 10 Shell (1) Ring of house- ing the ing the manufac- horn (2) Earring holds produc- produc­ turing (3) Hairpin tion in tion in hand i- (4) Necklace winter rainy craft (5) Broach season season items (6) White bangles (7) Coloured bangles

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Tlliterate (1) Ring 9 8 9 9 9 (2) Shell horn (3) White bangles (4) Coloured bangles

Literate witbout (1) Coloured bangles 12 12 12 12 12 educational level (2) White bangles

Primary (1) White bangles 17 2 15 17 17 17 (2) Coloured bangles (3) Hair pin (4) Earring (5) Necklace (6) Broach (7) Shell horn

Middle (1) White bangles 15 15 15 15 15 (2) Coloured bangles (3) Rings

Matriculation or (1) White bangles 5 5 5 5 5 Higher (2) Coloured bangle.> Secondary

Non-technical diploma or certi­ ficate not equal to degree

Technical diploma or certificate not equal to degree

Graduate and above

Total 58 3 55 58 58 58 77

PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 31 Average monthly consumption of raw materials by seasonal variation for manufacturing different items of handicraft classified by educational level of the household

Number of Average monthly consumption of each households raw material Educational level of head of Number of handicraft manu­ ,-'------~-----""------, the household items manufactured facturing Raw material Raw material handicraft in.act conch ~hcl1 Fragments/cut pieces items

~------2 3 4 5

Illiterate (1) Ring 9 (1) Intact Conch shell- (1) Conch shell Fragments/ (2) Shell horn 110 Pes. cut pieces-2,500 Pes. (3) White bangles (4) Coloured bangles Literate without educational level (1) Coloured bangles 12 (1) Intact Conch shell- Ditto.-2,800 Pes. (2) White bangles 50 Pcs. Primary or Junior Basic (1) White bangles 17 Ditto.-50 Pcs. Ditto.-3,OOO Pes. (2) Coloured bangles (3) Ring (4) Hair-pin (5) Shell horn (6) Broach (7) Necklace (8) Ear-ring Middle (1) Coloured bangles 15 Cut pieces ~25,OOO Pes (2) White bangles Fragments - 4,000 Pes· (3) Rings Matriculation or Higher Secondary (1 ) White bangles 5 Cut pieces - 1,500 Pes. (2) Coloured bangles Fragments - 2,000 Pes. Non-technical diploma not equal to degree Technical diploma not equal to degree Graduate and above

Total 58

TABLE NO. 31-contd.

Number, reported having seasonal variations in the consumption of raw material Educational level of head of ,.....------~------. the household Number of Raw Material Raw material households intact conch shell Fragments/cut pieces Remarks ,.....--,_A..-_--. Increase in Decrease in winter rainy­ season

1 6 7 8 9 nIiterate . . . . 9 9 9 Note: Sub. : Raw material Literate without educational kvt;l 12 12 12 (1) Acid -1 bottl". Primary or Junior Basic 17 17 17 (2) Wire scrap-200 grams. (3) Wax -2 pes. Middle 15 15 15 (4) Gala -400 grams. (5) Hingul -20 grams. Matriculation or Higher Secondary 5 5 5 (6) Harital -12 grams. (7) Resin -200 grams. Non-technical diploma not equal to degree (8) Char coal -2 kgs. Technical diploma not equal to degree Graduate and above

Total 58 58 58 78

PRACT~ENG ART~AN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 32 Raw materials used for the manufacture of dilferent items of the craft classified by area from where procured by mode of transport and problem faced

Number of house­ holds reported Number of Households which have procured having faced prob­ Raw material from lem for procuring the raw material Name of raw material Number of r------"------, ,-----.A. ___-,. Remarks used for making the households Calcutta, Bishnupur and Kolulpur, Shashpur, Ghut- In- (2) High handicraft using the Jitput and brought to the garia, and brought to the sufficient rate of raw site by site by supply of raw material conch material ,----__-..A---_------, ,----_-----.A.___ ----.., shell Bus On foot (chanks)

2 3 4 5 6 7

Conch shell/chanks 58 58 58 +(1) Acid (intact & fragments) (2) Wire scrap (3) Wax (4) Gala Subsidiary of raw 58 58 (5) Hingul materials* (6) Harital (7) Resin (8) Char coal

Total 58 58 58 58 58

TABLE NO. 33 Tools and equipment used in the manufadure of handicraft items and new techniques and tools introduced classified by educational level of the head of the househOld

Number of households Number of Number of households reported reported having intro­ house­ making use of duced new technique ,--- ____--A.~ ______., holds and tools Educational level of the Name of the handicrafts manu- Tool r------"------. head of the household Items manufactured facturing r------~,A.,~---~ handi­ (1) Hammer, (Z) Files, (3) Pincer Polishing crafts (4) Sandstone, (5) Jou Kathi, machine items (6) Oven, (7) Drilling machine, running by (8) Kalam electricity

1 2 3 4 s

Dliterate White bangles, 9 9 Red bangles, Shell horn, Ring' Literate White bangles, 12 12 Coloured bangles Primary. Rings, 17 17 Ear rings, Hair pin, broch, Shell horn, necklace, White bangles. Coloured bangles Middle. White bangles, 15 15 Coloured bangles, Ring Matriculation White bangles, 5 5 Coloured bangles

Total 58 58 1 79

PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 34 Details of Designs used Design used in the manufacture of handicrafts items classified by the person who prepared the design, his relati()nship with the head of the household, period when introduced and educational level of the head of the househ()ld ------_ Number of Number of household reporting design as tradItional household and is in use since Educational level of the Name of design (flora, making ,-____ --______.A. ___ - __ _ --, n~,d of the homehold scenery, animal, motif, use of the Less than 10 yrs. 10- 19 yrs. and 20+ yrs. and hunting scene, t:tc.) design and prepared by prepared by prepared by ,----.A.-- --, ,--- -- .A.-- ____, ,---.A.--____, Person Person Head Person Head Person

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Illiterate Sapta (flora), panti, 2 2 khejur chori Literate Motor dana, 5 1 Khejur chori

Primary Manipuri (ring) 9 2 5 Motidana Middle Manipuri (ring) 5 3 Motidana Matriculation Manipuri (ring) 3 2 Motidana ---_- Total 24 5 11

TABLE NO. 34

Number of h('useholds reporting design as non-traditiona I anu is in used since B-1u; \tional level of the head of the household ,------"------, Less than 10 years and 10--19 years and 20+ years and prcapred by preapred by prepared by ,-____.A- ______, ,-~ __-.A- ______, r------.A.--_ ----, Head Person Person Person Person Person

10 11 12 13 14 15

Uliterate

Literate 4

Primary 2

Middle

Matriculation ------Total 8 80

PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 35 Design u,ed in the manulacturing (If handicraft items cl.!ssified by myths and legends associated and religion,castc/tribe/community of tt e head of the household

R:ltgiC)n, ca~te/tribe/community of the Name <:f design Number of Number of households reporting m) ths head of the household used by the househdds legend associated with the design r------.-...A..~-----~-___ household making use ,----- .A.--_~-___---, Religion ca~teJtribeJ of the design Myths and Legend Myths and Legend community

1 2 3 4 5 6

Hinduism Mahisaya Motor dana, Khejur 3 chori, Sapta, Motl dana Hinduism Bairagi Ditto 5 Hinduism Sankhabanik Ditto 15 Hinduism Brahmin Ditto

Total 24

TABLE NO. 36

Number of households manufacturing handicraft items classified by quality produced, purpose for which produced and by religion, castel tribe/community of the head of the household

Numb"r of households reportod having produced r- ______Quantity-per ,A.___ annum 1 to _-50,000___ _ Rfligion, caste/tribe/com­ Name of the handi­ Number Entirely for the use munity of the head of the craft items manu­ of house of craftsmen Entirely for the use of other communities and household factured holds community old against r----..A..___ --.---. manufac­ r------,A.------~ turing the Domestic Ceremonial Cash Kind Cash & 0 thers item~ purpose purpose Kmd

-----~-~-- 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 9 10 ------_-- Hinduism Sankha- (1) Shell horn 25 *H.P.-1360 banik E.R.-360 (2) White bangles N-361 B-600 (3) Coloured bangles S.H.-4S0 W.B.-364 (4) Hairpin C.B.-39,970 R-3,300 (5) Ear ring, broach

(6) Shell horn Hinduism Bairagi White bangles 8 W.B.-800 C.B.-600 Coloured bangles Hinduism Mahisya White bangles 21 W.B.-300 C.B.-4500 Coloured bangles Hinduism Brahmin White bangles 4 W.B.--300 C.B.-900 Coloured bangles

Total 58

.Notes: H.P-Hair-pin, E.R.-Ear-ring, N-Necklace, S.H.-Shell horn, W.B.-White bangles, C.B.-Coloured bangles. 81

PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 37 Number of households manufacturing handicrafts items classified by place of sale of articles

Market Hat ~-~----~-~------~ Outside the Village at ~------~------~Inside the Village and held Name of handicraft Number of Inside the ~~ ______,A.______-. r----~---- ___ ,.A. ____~ ______, Items households Village Other Town City Daily Bi-weekly Weekly Fortnightly Monthly manufac- (1) Raina- village (name) (name) Shashpur turing the ghini (name) Barddha- & items (2) Shahs- man Raibaghini pur (3) Kamar­ sole

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

White bangles 22 22 22 15 Coloured bangles 44 44 44 16 Ring 5 5 5 5 Shell horn 3 3 3 3 Hair pin 2 2 2 2 Ear ring 1 Broach 1 Necklace

TABLE NO. 37-contd.

Other Village Town (Name and held) (Name and held) ~ ~ ~ ~ ______,A. ______- - .. ___ • ______.A. ______.. Name of handicraft Daily Bi-wi)ekly Weekly Fortnight- Monthly Daily Bi-weekly Wcc-kly Fortnight- Monthly Items of Ghulga- ly (1) Bishnu- ly riya pur (2) Jitpur (3) Kotulpur (4) Samra- bazar ---_ 1 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 ------White banglcs 7 22 Coloured bangles 28 44 Ring 5 Shell horn 3 Hair pin 2 Ear ring 1 Broach 1 Necklace ------10 C~nsus/88-1l 82

PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 37--colttd.

Number of bouseholds manufacturing handicraft. items classified by place of sale of articles

Mela occasion-1 (Month of Magh) r---~------______"'- ______Inside the village and held Other village (Name and held) Name of handicraft Shashpur and (I) Sambro, (2) Balitha, Town (Name and held) Items Raibaghini (3) Naricha (1) Kamarpukur r----__..A. ______-.. r--. _____.A.. _____ ~ ,------""- --- ~ Monthly Quar- Half- Yearly Monthly Quar- Half- Yearly Monthly Quar- Half- Yearly terly yearly terly yearly terly yearly

1 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33

White bangles 15 15 15

Coloured bangles 16 16 16 Ring 5 5 5 Shell horn 3 3 3 Hair-pin 2 2 2 Ear-ring Broach Necklace ------

TABLE NO. 37-concld.

r---______Mela occasion-2 .A.(Chaitra)______Name of handicr?.ft Other Village (Name and held) Items Imide the village and held (I) Shior, (2) Panehal, (3) Baital Town (Name and held) r------""------~ r------"'------, Monthly Quar- Half- Yearly r------.A.------,Monthly Quar- Half- Yearly Monthly Quar- Half- Yearly terly yearly terly yearly terly yearly

34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45

White bangles 15 Coloured bangles 16 Ring 5 Shell horn 3 Hair-pin 2 Ear-ring Broach Necklace 1 83

PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 38 Household classified by quantity of finished products sold and channels through which it is disposed off by proportion

Name of finished products Number of house- Quantity sold by households in r---Directly____ to the ..A ______consumer in ., produced holds manufac- broad range turing thil items ,-_._.____ .A. ______-, Broad range No. of househ.olds Propo rtion-l Proportion-2 1-1 lakh

2 3 4 5 6

Shell horn 3 550 Pes. 3 100% Total produce White bangles 22 53,460 .. 22 100% Total produce Coloured bangles 44 92.770 .. 44 75% 25% Ring 5 33,000 .. 5 98% 2% Ear-ring 360 .. 1 100% Total produce Hair-pin 2 1.360 .. 2 100% Total produce Necklace 1 317 .. 1 100% Total produce Broach 1 600 .. 1 100% Total produce

Note: Np household disposed finished pr~ct through middle man, cooperative society or any other source.

TABLE NO. 39 Terms and conditions and margin of profit related to sale of finished products through different channels classified by educational level of the head of the household

Number olhousehold sale the items through Educational level of the Number of household r---'"""--~ head of the household Name of handicraft items manufacturing handi- Directly to the con- craft items sumer at the margin of profit ----_.__ ._---. 1 2 3 4

Illiterate (1) White bangles, (2) Coloured bangles, (3) Ring (4) Shell horn 9 10% Literate without educational (I) White bangles, (2) Coloured bangles 12 10% level Primary (1) White bangles, (2) Coloured bangles, (3) Ring (4) Shell horn, (5) Ear-ring, (6) Hair-pin, (7) Broach, (8) Necklace. 17 10% Middle (1) White bangles, (2) Coloured bangles, (3) Rings 15 10% School Final or Higher (1) White bangles, (2) Coloured bangles 5 10% Secondary --_.__ . ------_.------_._---_ PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 40 Particulars of finished products sold locally jexported classified by educational level of the head of the household

Number of households Quantity sold in broad ranges r-__ ~ ____ ..JI ____~_., reported having Educational level of Name of handIcraft items Number of sold finished the hcad of the household Broad ranges Number of products household manufactunng 1-1 lakh households the items Locally r-"--.A...... -., Proportion

1 2 3 4 5 6

Illiterate (1) Ring (2) White bangles, (3) Coloured 9 1-1lakh 9 100% bangles, (4) Shell horn Litcrate without edu- (1) White bangles, (2) Coloured bangles 12 12 100% cationallevel Primary (1) White bangles, (2) Coloured bangles, 17 17 100% (3) Ring (4) Necklace, (5) Hair pin, (6) Ear ring, (7) Broach Middle (1) Ring (2) White bangles, (3) Coloured 15 15 100% bangles Matriculation or (1) White bangles, (2) Coloured bangles 5 5 100% Higher Seceondary

Total 58 58 "

TABLE NO. 41 Details of households reported having faced problems to disposed off finished products classified by educaticral level of the head of the household

Number of Households reported having faced problems to dispo­ sed-off finished products due to reason Educational level of the head Name of the handicl'afts items Number of r----- __ .A. ______-. of the household households High price Change in manufacturing of raw consumer the items materials preference

1 2 3 4 5

Illiterate (1) Ring 9 7 2 (2) White bangles (3) Coloured bangles (4) Shell horn Literate with educational level (1) Coloured bangles 12 10 2 (2) White bangles Primary (1) Ring 17 10 7 (7) Shell horn (3) White bangles (4) Coloured bangles (5) Hair-pin (6) Ear-ring (7) Necklace (8) Bloach Middle (1) Ring 15 13 2 (2) White bangles (3) Coloured bangles Matriculation or Higher Secondary (1) White bangles 5 5 (2) Coloured bangles

Total 58 45 13 85

PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 42

Particulars of unemployed perso'!]s in the household with reference to relationship with the head of the household, age-group, duration of unemployment and experience/training

r- ______Number of persons.A.. unemployed______since -, Relationship of unemployed Ag

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Son. 0- 14 15 - 34 3 1 35- 59 60+ Brother 0-14 15- 34 5 35-59 60+ Brother's son 0-14 15- 34 2 35- 59 60+

Total 10

TABLE NO. 42

Number of persons unemployed since Relationship of unemployed Age-group Number r------""'--.------, persons with the head of of 3-5 years who ha\e 6+ years who have r-__~-- . .A. ______.. ,----___0- _____.-. to tbe housebold uoem­ ployed No expe- Experience/ No expe- Expelience/ Persons 1 iencej training rienee/ training training r----.A.----, Training {""' ___,.I\. ___"'"'\ Dt-scription Description

1 2 3 10 11 12 13 14 15

Son. 0-14 15-34 3 2 35-59 60+ Brother 0-14 15-34 5 3 2 35-59 60+ Brother's son 0-14 15-34 2 2 35-59 60+

------~------~ ~- Total 10 1 2 86

PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 43 Particulars of unemployed persons in the household with reference to relationship with the head of the household educational level, duration of unemployment and experience/training

Number of persons unemployed since Number of ,.-__-- __~ ______.A. ______~ ______...., Relationship of unemployed Educational person with the head of level of the unemployed Less than 1 year who have 1-2 years who have the household unemployed persons ,------...---'------, ,------,.;...--~----...., person No experi- Experience! No experi- Experience! ence! training ence! training training r---___,.A.----, training r----...... -...., Description Description

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Son. IIIiterate-2 3 1 Literate-!

Brother S.F.-ll 5 Pri mary·· 1 Middle-3

Rf'li!llll~ Brother's son • Literate-2 2

Total 10 1 ------_._------

TABLE NO. 43

Number of persons unemployed since Relationship of unemployed Educational Number of ~-~~~------~---~~~---3-5 yeare who have 6+ years who--~--~ have ( -,__,....__._ .. ~ _ _A.._,,_...... -,______"""" person with the bead of level of the employed ,-----~-_..---..., the household unemployed persons No expe- Experience! No expe- Experience! person rience! training rienee/ training training ,--__.A. __-, training ,-__,.A; ___..., Description Description

1 2 3 10 11 12 13 14 15

Son. Illiterate-2 3 Literate-l

Brother S.F.-l 5 3 2 Primary-l Middle-3

Brother's son Literate-2 2 2

Total 10 5 2 87

PRACT~ING ART~AN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 44 Unemployed persons classified by period and reason for unemployment, age-group, relationship with the head of the household and attempts made to be employed

Number of persons unemployed since Relationship of unemploy­ Age-group Number of r------'"" --.~~--~------, ed person with the unem­ Less than 1 year 1-2 years 3-5 years 6+ years head of the ployed and reasons and reason and reason and reason Musehold persons r---A---, r---A--~ r-_-A __-, r---A __-. Reason Reason Reason Reason Reason Reason Reason Reason No No No scope scope scope of job of job of job

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Son 0-14 15-34 3 2 35-59 60+ Brother 0-14 15-34 5 3 2 35-59 60+ Brother'S son 0-14 15-34 2 2 35-59 60+

Total 10 1 7 2

Note: No unemployed person made any attempt to be employed.

TABLE NO. 4S Unemployed persons classified by period and reasons for unemployment, educational level, relationship with the head of the household and attempts made to be employed

Number of persons unemployed since Relationship of unem­ Educational Number of r------0----~------__.., ployed person with level of unem­ Less than 1 year 1-2 years 3-5 years 6+years the head unemployed ployed and reasons and reason and reason and reason persons person r----""-----, r---.A.---, r---""----, r-__ .A. ___-, Reason Reason Reason Reason Reason Reason Reason Reason No No No scope of scope of scope of job job job

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Son IlIiterate-2 3 2 Literate-l Brother S.P.-l 5 3 2 Primary-! Middle-3 Brother's son Literate-2 2 2

Total 10 7 2 ------88

PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 46

Distribution of households reported about starting of the craft in the village classified by broad age-group of the bead of the bous('bold

Number of Number of households reported about the starting of the craft in the households village Age-group of the head engaged r-----~-___. ______- ___ - ___ .,A. __, _____------~---~ of the household in the After 1947 Between Between Between Before Period not craft 1946-1932 1931-1916 1915- 1900 1900 known

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ------0-14

15~34 18 2 6 10

35-59 • 31 3 10 17 1

60~ 9 6 3 --.------Total 58 2 3 22 30 1 ------_------

TABLE NO, 47 Number of households reporting about the number of households and persons engaged in the craft in the ,-ilIage during different period classified by broad age-group of the head of the household

------~_------Number of households reported about the number of households engaged Number of in the craft in the village during the period households r- __. _____._, ___ - __- ______.,A.~_. ______~_ --_____"-, Broad Age-group engaged Before 1940 1940--1950 1951-1960 in the r-______.A. ______, r- ______.A. ______, r------""'------, craft Less than 5---9 10+ Less than 5-9 10+ Less than 5-9 10+ 5 5 5

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 ------0-14 •

15-34 • 18 6 28 6 28 6 24

35-59 31 14 41 14 43 14 34

60+ 9 7 7 7 7 7 5

Age not" stated

Total 58 13 21 69 13 21 71 13 19 58 ------89

PRACTISING ARTISAN HOtJSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 47-contd. Number of bouseholds reporting about tbe number or housebolds and persons engaged in tbe craft in tbe village during different period classified by broad age-group or the head of the household

Number of households reported about the number of households engaged . in the craft in the village during the period Broad Number of r------"A.------______"""l Age-group households 1961-1970 1971-1980 At present engaged r---____ "A. ______-, r-----__ ."A. ____ ~_.. in the Less than 5-9 10+ r------"A.------,Less than 5-9 10+ Less than 5-9 10+ craft 5 5 5

1 2 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

0-14

15-34 18 6 22 6 15 4 14

35-59 31 14 31 14 24 14 17

60+ 9 10 3 5 5 4

Agenot . stated

Total 58 16 14 S3 9 19 39 9 18 31

TABLE NO. 47

Number of households reported about the persons engaged in the craft ,-______in the village...... 00 during ___ the._- period______-, Number of Broad households Before 1940 1940-1950 1951-1960 Age-group engaged ,-______A ______-, (""' ______0-_. _____ -, r------tA.------, in the Less than 10--19 20+ Less than 10-19 20+ Less than 10-19 20+ craft 10 10 10

2 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

0-14

15-34 18 11 11 13 12 14 12 ,... 35-59 31 43 43 50

60+ 9 15 15 17 , 4

Age not '3tated

Total 58 26 54 28 55 31 62

10 Cen,>us/&8-12 90

PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 47-concld.

Number of hou~eholds reporting about the number of households and persons engaged in the craft in the village during different period classified by broad age-group of the head of (he household

Number of households reported about the persons engaged in the craft in the village during the period Broad Number of ~~--~~-~--~-~-~~~~~~-~~------.~----, Age-group households At present 1961-1970 r-~ ____1971-1980 0. ______.., r-_____.A. ____-_--, engaged ,------~ ...... --~-----. in the Less than 10-19 20+ Less than 10-19 20+ Less than 10-19 20+ craft 10 10 10

1 2 30 31 II 33 34 35 36 37 38

0-14

15-34 18 17 12 3 24 3 23

35-59 31 35 22 17 23 13 17 44

60+ 9 17 16 17

Age not stated

Total 58 34 47 22 19 41 21 33 40 44

TABLE NO. 48 Households reported having associated with the craft classified by religion, caste/tribe/community of the head of the housebold and the method by which associated with the craft

Households reported having associated

Number of ,-____~ ____with the ______.A., craft through______~ ____. Religion Caste/tribe) households community engaged in Method Method Method the craft family tradition skill adopted and skill by neighbour 2 3 4 " 6 Hindu Sankhabanik 25 25

Hindu Mahisya 21 21

Hindu Bairagi] . 8 8

Hindu Brahmin 4 4 ------Total 58 25 33 --- 91

PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 49 Households classified by period engaged in the craft with reference to craft started in the village

Number of households reported starting of Number of craft in the village since Period of the household households ,------~--____ 0.,~~ ______~ ______. engag€d in the craft engaged Less than 40-55 56-70 71-85 86+ Period not in the 40 years years years years years known craft

2 3 4 6 7 8 ------Less than 5 years

5-9 years 2 1

10-19 years 12 2 9 1

20+ years 1 13 28

Period not known

Total 58 2 3 22 30

TABLE NO. 50 Reasons reported by the households for disintegration of the craft classified by Period and religion, caste/tribe/community of the head of the household

Number of households reported about the disintegration­ of the craft since ,----______O-A. - ______~-"""' Religion Caste/tribe/community Number of house­ Less than 5 years due to holds engaged in the ,------,_...... ,_~---,..__----___.--"""' craft Reason Reason Reason

2 3 4 5 6

Hindu Sankhabanik 25

Mahisya 21 " Bairagi 8 " Brahmin 4

Total 58 92

PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. SO-con/d.

~e:1son reported by the households for disintegration of the craft classified by period and religion. cast/tribe/community of the head or the household

Number of households reported about the disintegration of the craft since ,..-.--__ _..__".__...-__..-- __.--o ___ -_ .. _""" __-..__._..- ______. __ ------~

Religion Caste/tribej 5-9 years due to 10-19 years due to 20+ years due to community ,----.____ .A..~_. __ _ -, r----- _..A..____ ------. ~ __- _.A.._____ ---, Reason Reason Reason Reason Reason Reason Reason Reason Reason (1) Short (2) High (1) Short (2) High (1) Improper (2) High supply rate supply rate of supply of rate of of raw of raw of raw raw Conch raw materials materials materials materials materials

2 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Hindu Sankhabanick 2 2 21 21 2

Mahisya 5 5 15 IS 1 1

Bairagi 8 s " ", Brahmin 1 1 3 3

Total 8 8 47 47 3 3

TABLE NO. 51 Rea.sons reported by the households for disintegration of craft classified by period and educational level of the head of the household

Number of households reported about the disintegration of craft since ~ __~~~~~~ __~-A_~ ____~ ______~ Educational level of the head of the Numher of Less than 5 years due to 5-9 years due to household households r-~----A------, ~ _____-A _____ -, engaged in Reason Reason Reason Reason Reason Reason the craft (1) High (2) Profit rate of raw margin material low

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Illiterate 9

Literate without educational level 12 2 2.

Primary 17 3

Middle 15 3

Matriculation or H.S. 5

Total 58 8 8 93

PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 51-contd. Reason reported by the households for disintegration of craft classified by period and educational level of the houseeold ------Number of households reported about the disintegration of craft since ~,_ ...... ------,___-.-...,_..._-...A--.- ...... --,.--,,.....--.------______. Educational level of the head of the Number of 10-19 years due to 20+years due to household households r-~-----..A--~-----. ,..-_____-..A-_. ___-_----, egaged in the Reason Reason Reason Reason Reason Reason craft (1) High (2) Profit (1) High (2) Lack rate of raw margin rate of raw of capital materials low matrials

2 9 10 11 12 13 14

Illiterate 9 9 9

Literate without educational level 12 8 8 2 2

Primary 17 13 13 1

Middle 15 11 11 1

Matriculation or H.S. 5 5 5

Total 58 46 46 4 4

TABLE NO. 52 Households reported about the rejuvenation methods to be adopted and the attempts made for rejuvenation classified by educational level of tbe bead of the household

Number of households reported about Number of households reported about the attempts made to rejuvenated the the rejuvenation of craft craft Educational Level of the Number of ,-_..-______----A.... ______-- --"'I r------...,A._------..- ~ head of the household households Craft can Craft can be rejuvenated by No attempt A ttempt made to engaged in not be re- r--- _----A.____ ---, made to re- rejuvenated the craft the craft juvenated by Ways and Ways and juvenated ,.-____--"- __" ___ , any ways and means means in the Description Description means (1) Proper (2) Need craft supply of financial raw assistance materials

1 2 - 3 4 5 6 7 8

Illiterate 9 9 9 9

Literate without educational level 12 12 12 12

Primary 17 17 17 17

Middle 15 15 15 15

Matriculation or H.S. 5 5 5 5

Total 58 58 58 58 94

PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 53 Households reported the craftsmen being looked down upon and claimed the same to be the reason (or discouraging tbe younger generation for engaging themselves in the craft classified by religion, caste/tribe/community of the bead of the household and details of change observed in regard to this attitude

Religion, caste/tribe/community of No of households reported craftsmen No of households reported the head of the household being having noticed No of ~---~--~------~ ~------~------, Religion caste/tribe/community households ~------~------~Not looked looked down upon by the No change Change in the engaged in down upon society in the area and in the attitude attitude in ragard to the craft by the society ~----"------. in regard to looking down upon in the area Considering Considering looking craftsmen by the it not res- it responsible down upon people in present day ponsible for for dis­ the craftsmen ,----"------.. discouraging couraging by the Change Change the younger the younger people in the For alter- generation generation present day native from en- from en- service gaging them- gaging them- selves in selves in the craft the craft

1 2 ~ 4 ~ 6 7 8 9

Hindu Sankhabanik 2S 2S 25 2~ Bairagi 8 8 8 8 Mahisya 21 21 21 21 Brahmin " 4 4 4 4

Total. 58 58 58 58

TA'aLE NO. ~4 Households reported about younger generation of their community taking/not taking inten:5t in the craft with reference their of classified by religion, caste/tribe/community oftbe head of the households

No. of households No. of households No. of households reported reoprted about the reported about the aobut the younger younger generation younger generation Religion, caste/tribe/community of No. of generation taking interest in the not taking interest in craft due to the craft due to the head of the household households ~ __--.A. ___---.. -A~_~ ~ ______,-__ -...... A..__ ~------. engaged in ~--~ Religion Caste the craft Taking Not taking Reason Reason Reason Reason interest in interest in (1) No (2) Not the craft the craft furture profitable business

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Hindu Sankhabanik 2S 2S 25 25 Bairagi 8 8 8 8 " Mahisya 21 21 21 21 " Brahmin 4 4 4 4

Total. 58 58 58 58 95

PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 5S Households rcported circumstances which compelled/motivated them to take up the occupation (craft) with period engaged in the craft classified by religion, caste/tribe/community of the head of tIle households

Religion, caste/tribe/community No. of No. of households taken up the craft since ~..A.. ,..--of___ the head._,_..A. of the_____ household---., house- r- -, holds Less than 5 years under 5-9 years under 10-19 years under 20+ years under Religion Caste engaged r----..A ----, r----..A.---, r----0..---, r----..A.----, in the Local Compul. Family Influence Family Influence Family Influence craft influence sion or tradition of the tradition of the tradition of the of the motivation local local local craftsmen craftsmen craftsmen craftsmen

2 ] 4 S 6 7 8 9 10 11

Hinduism Sankhabanick 25 2 12 11

Bairasi • " 8 1 6

00 Mahisya 21 1 9 10

.. Brahmin 4 2 2

Total 58 ;: 2 12 12 11 18

TABLE NO. S6 Household reported having associated traditionally with the craft with period of association classified by religion, caste/tribe/community ofthe head of the household

Religion, caste/tribe/community of the No. of No. of households reported No. of households reported their ,..--______head of the--A. household ______--, households their association with the association with the craft traditionally engaged in ,..-____.--A. craft____ ----., ,..-______,_..A. since Religion Caste/tribe/community the craft ----., Traditionally Not One Two Three traditionally generation generation generation

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Hinduism Sankhabanik 25 25 9 16

Bairagi . " 8 8 Mahisya 21 21

" Brahmin 4 4

Total 58 2S 33 9 16 96

PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 57 Households reported having satisfaction/dissatisfaction with the occupation (craft) with reasons thereof classified by educational level of the head of the household

No. of household reported their No. of household reported their Educational level of the head of the No. of house­ satisfaction with the occupation dissatisfaction with the occupation household hold engaged due to due to in the craft r-~-~---..A..~--~-----. Reason Reason r------"------,Reason Reason not profitable business

1 2 3 4 5 6

Illiterate 9 9

Literate without educational level 12 12

Primary. 17 17

Middle. 15 IS

Matriculation or Higher Secondary S S

Total 58 58

TABLE NO. 58 Household reported having expressed disstisafaction with their occupation (craft) future plan and period implementation classified by eduationallevel of the head ofthe household

No. of households No. of households intending to leave the occupation and their

,,-___ ...A. ___ -., future plan Educational level of the No. of ".--.-.-,_...... -.-----,.._..-~~---.-...~.---,_....,--~ head of the household household Intending Not Plan and period Plan and period of Plan and period of engaged in to leave intending of implementation implementaion implementation the craft the occu- to leave r-----A..- ----, ,-__--A..-_---, ,.-__-..A.. __---, pation the occu- Period Period Period Period Period Period pation If get alternative service

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Illiterate 9 g ..

Literate without educational level 12 5 7 5 Primary. 17 10 7 10 - Middle. 15 10 5 10 - Matriculation or Higher Secondary 5 3 2 3 ----_--- Total 58 29 29 29

._------~------~---.-~----. -.---~------~----~-- 97

NON.PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 59 Distfibution of population classified by age, sex and marital status

Never married M

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

0-4 . 9 3 6 9 3 6 5-9 . 10 7 3 10 7 3 10-14 . 8 7 1 8 7 1 15-19 . 10 8 2 1 11 8 3 20-24 . 5 4 1 6 4 2 25-29 . 2 2 6 2 4 8 4 4 30-34 • 1 1 6 4 2 7 5 2 35-44 . 1 1 6 2 4 7 3 4 45-54 • 8 6 2 3 1 2 11 1 4 55-69 • 1 1 5 1 4 6 2 4 10+ 1 1 1 1 Age not stated

Total 46 33 13 29 15 14 9 2 7 84 50 34

TABLE NO. 60 Distribution of population classified by age, sex and educational level

Literate without Total population Illiterate educational level Age-group r- 0- -.. r------'""------. ,-0-----. P M F M F M F

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

0-4 9 3 6 3 5 5-9 10 7 3 7 3 10-14 8 7 1 1 1 15-19 11 8 3 1 20-24 6 4 2 25-34 15 9 6 1 35+ 25 12 13 7 3 4 Age not stated

Total 84 50 34 3 14 12 8

10Census/88-13 98

NON·PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 60-contd. Distribution of population classified by age, sex and educational level

Educational Level Age·group ,----~--_....------,A.---~----"""l Primary or Middle Matriculation Junior Basic or Higher Secondary

r-'-~-~--__.., ,.....---= ..... =--~ r-----,A.----"""l M F M F M F

9 10 11 12 13 14

0-4

5-9

10-14 4 2

15-19 3 2 3

20-24 2 2 2

25-34 3 4 3 1 3

35+ . 2 2 3 4 Age not stated

Total 10 7 13 5 12

TABLE NO. 61 Distribution of households classified by religion, caste/tribe/community, sex and educational level of head of the household

Num ber of households by educational level of head of the household r- """l Name of religion Name of caste/ Number of Illiterate Educational Level tribe/community households by sex of r- ..... ------. head of the household literate without educational level r- """l ,..... """l r----..... """l M F M F M F

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Hinduism Sankhabanik 9 1 1 Mahisya 3 1 Bairagi 2

Total 14 1 3 99

NON-PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 61-contd. Distribution or households classified by religion, caste/tribe/community, sex and educational level or head or the household

Number of households by educational level of head of the household ... ""- Name of religion Name of castel Bducationallevel tribe/community ... ""- -, Primary or Middle Matriculation or Junior Basic Higher Secondary ... -, ... r- M F M F M F

1 2 9 10 11 12 13 14

Hinduism Sankhabanik 5 3 Mahisya 2 Bairagi 1

Total 7 3

TABLE NO. 62 Distribution of households classified by age and sex: of head of the household and number of members

Number of house- Number of households having members Age of head of hold by sex of ,- .A. the household head of the Single 2 3 4 5 6-7 8-9 10-12 13 and household above r---_oA._--'""'l M F

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Below 20

20-29 2 1 1

30-39 3 1 1 1

40-49 2 1 1 1 1

50-59 5 3 2

60 and 2 2 above

Total 4 1 4 3 2 2 3 100

NON·PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 63 Distribution of households classified by nature of relation of members to head of the household and number of members

Nature of rolation of mombers to head of the household Number of household Number of members

1 2 3

Self 1 1 Self, spouse 3 6 Self, spouse, unmarried sons and daughters 4 24 Self, spouse, married son and son's wife with or without unmarried sons and daughters 2 20 Self. spouse, married brother, brother's wife, with or without unmarried sons and daughters. Self, Spouse, married brotper, brother's wife, married son, son's wife, with/without unmarried son's and daughters. Self (male) unmarried son and daughter

Self (female) unmarri~d son/daughter Self, spouse, with or without unmarried son/daughter and widowed father Self, spouse, with or witbout unmarried son/daughter and Widow mother 1 7 Self (male) unmarried brother/sister Others . 4 26

Total 15 84

TABLE NO. 64 Distribution of households classified by traditional occllpatlon and religion, caste/tribe/cortItllunity of head of the household

Number of households where traditional occupation of head of the household is Name of religion Name of castel Number of ,-~ ___ ._ ._._._..A. ___._. __ ._._. _____ ~ tribe/community households Manufacture Cultivation Singing Traditional of conch shell devotional occupaticn products songs

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Hinduism Sankhabanik 10 10 Mahisya 3 3 l}airagi 2 2

Total 15 10 3 2 101

PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 65 Distribution of workers and non-workers classified by sex, caste/tribe/community and broad age-group

Number of workers and non-workers by age-group r------""- ._-----, All ages Name of the caste/tribe! r------""- ~ community Total Population Workers Non-workers r---.A---...... r- ""- ...... r------..A. p 1\1 F P 1\1 F P M F

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Sankhabanik 56 33 23 18 17 1 38 16 22

Mabisya 16 10 6 4 4 12 6 6

Bairagi 12 7 5 3 2 1 9 5 4

Total 84 50 34 25 23 2 59 27 32

TABLE NO. 6S

Number of workers and non-workers by age-group Name of the caste/tribe! r- -. community 0-14 years 15- 34 years r- o.A. ~ r- Workers Non-workers Workers Non-workers ,;... r- ""- ,-----0.---'"""'1 r- ~ r- ""---~ p M F P M F P M F P M F

1 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

Sankhabanik 16 10 6 11 11 13 6 7

Mahisya 9 6 3 2 2 2 2

Bairagi 2 1 1 4 2 2

Total 27 17 10 13 13 19 8 11 102

PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABL.E NO. 65-contd. Distribution of worker and non-worker classified by fiex, caste tribe/eommwrlty and broad age-group

Number of workers and non-workers by age-group Name of the caste/tribe/ .-- .h -, community 35 - 59 years 60+ years r- ,A. -, r- ,A. Workers Non-workers Workers Non-workers .-- ,- ,A. ., ,- ,A. ., ,- ,A. -, P M F P M F P M F P M F

1 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34

Sankhabanik 6 5 1 5 5 1 1 4 4

Mahisya 2 2 1 1

Bairagi 3 2 1 2 1 1 1 1

Total 11 9 2 8 1 7 1 1 5 1 4

TABLE NO. 66 Distribution of workers and non-workers classified by fex and educational level

Total Population Number of workers Number of nOD-workers Educational Level r- oA. ., r- ""'-----, ,------"------.., Persons Males Females Persons Males Females Persons Males Females

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Illiterate. 17 3 14 1 1 16 3 13

Literate without educational level 19 11 S 4 3 1 15 8 7

'Primary or Junior Basic 18 11 7 3 3 15 8 7

Middle 18 13 5 10 10 8 3 5

Matriculation or Higher Secondary 12 12 7 7 5 5 Non-technical diploma or certificate not equal to degree Technical diploma or certificate not equal to degree

Graduate and above

Total 84 50 34 25 23 2 59 27 32 103

PRACTmING AR~AN HOUSEHOLDS TABI.E NO. 67 Distribution of workers classified by traditional and pt!eSent occupation, sex and broad aj!e-gr(lUIl

Number of workers by age-group Traditional occupation Sex. of the head of Total number ,.-~__ ,A. ____'_, of the head of the the household of workers 0-14 years where present occupation is the household ,.- .A. _, Same as If different (Name of in col.-! occupation r-- "'"~,-----'~ Occupation-! Occupation-2

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Couch Shell products 9 ! 18 (Sankhabanik)

Singer of devo- 2 3 tional songs (Bairagi) Cultivation 3 4 (Mahisya)

Total 14 1 25

TABLE NO. 67

Number of workelS by age-group Traditional occupation ,.- -. of the head of the 15-34 years where present"'" occupation is household ,.- -. If different"'" name of Occupation Same ,.- ----. as in School Culti- Post- N.V.F. Painter Seller""" Grocer Worker Gold- col-l Teacher vation master (pan (oil smith shop) mill)

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

Conch Shell produ..::t Counch Shell 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 (S3.nkhahanik)

Singer of devo- tional songs (Bairagi) Cultivation Cultivation 1 (Mahisya)

Total 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 104

PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 67-contd. Distribution of workers classified by traditional and present occupation, sex and broad age-group

Number of workels by age-group Traditional occupation r---~-~.~-~ ,~ ______,.A. of the head of the 35 - 59 years where present occupation is 60+ years where present houiehold occupa tion is r- ...... ----, If different (name of If difi'ercl't (name of occupation) occupation) ,.... ,.A. --. r---0-----"! Same Seller of Deed Scbool Cultiva- Paddy Service Cloth Fish Same Occupa- Occupa- as in fried writer teacher tor husking in mer- seller as in tion-! tion-2 col-1 cakes B.D.O. chant col-l Cultiva- Office tor

1 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

Conch Shell products ConchSheU 1 1 2 2 Couch 1 (Sankhabanik) Shell

Singer of devo .. Devotional 1 1 tional songs songs (Bairagi) Cultivation Cultiva- 2 1 (Mahisya) tion

Total 1 2 4 1 1 1

TABLE NO.68 Distribution or workers classified by traditional and present occupation, sex and broad age-group and the reason for leaving the traditional occupation

Number of workers by age-group r- ~ ~ Traditional occupation Sex: of the head of Total Same 0-14 years where present of the head of the the household number as in occ\lpation is househQld ,--~ ...... ---.., of col.l r- ...... ~--...... ,-, M P workers If different the reason for leaving the traditional Occupation Reason Reason

2 3 4 5 6 7

Manufacturing of 9 18 Conch Shell products (Sankhabanik)

Cultivation 3 4 (Mahisya) Devotional songs . 2 3 ~iragi)

Total 14 25 105

PRACIISING ARTISAN HOVSRII9.LDS TABLE NO. 68-contd. Distribution or workers classified by traditional and present occupation, sex and tread age -group and trae reason rot leaving ffle traditl(ll(a'f ocC$tim ------Number of workers by age-group ..­ ------~. ------~ Traditional occupation Same 15-34 years where Same 35--59 years where Same 60+ years where of tite !teN of tfte as in present occupation is as in present occupation is as in present occupation is hou~ehold col.-l gi¥el\berow col.-l given below col.-I CultivatIOn ,-__---"" __~~ r-____.A.. ___-., r- ____J • ___-., If different the reason If different the reason If different the rCllson for leaving the tradi- for leaving the tradi- for leaving the tradi- tionaloccupation tional occupation tional occupation Reason Reason Reason Reason Reason Reason Reason Lack of Lack of Lack of money money ___ money______

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Manufacturing of Conch Manufacturing • 11 Conch Sheil t6 Conch Shell products of Conch Shell products Shell (Sankh'.lbanik) products products

Cultivation Cultivation 1 2 1 (Mahisya) Cultivator Cultivator (Fish seller)

Devotional songs Devotional songs tt3 (Bairagi) ------~ Total 12 2 10 ------.--.. ~~ ,.. ------NDles.- ·Present Occupation- Cultivator- 3 2 Post Master- 11 3 School Teacher- 1 4 Serviee in national ....olentMy force-l 5 Painter-l 6 Pan seller-I 1 Grocery- 1 8 Worker in oil mill- 1 9 Goldsmith- 1 t present Occupation- Sellet of fried cake (Tete bhaja)- 1 2 Deeds writer- 1 3 School Teacber - 2 4 Cultivator-2 tt Present Occupation- (1) Paddy hasking- J (2) Service In B.D.O. offtce-l (3) Cloth merchant- 1

10 Censqs/88-14 106

PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 69 Distribution of non-workers by age, sex and type of activity

Number of non-wcrkers by type of activity and sex Age-group Number of non-workersA _____ -. r------..A- -. r- Infant Full time student Person Male Female r- ,.A. -. M F M F ----- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

0-14 . 27 17 10 4 5 13 4 15-19 8 5 3 5 20-24 4 2 2 25-29 • 5 4 30-39 • 3 3 40-49 5 5 50 - 59 2 60+ 5 1 4 Age not Stated ----- Total 59 27 32 4 5 19 6

TABLE NO. 69

Number of non-workers by type of activity and sex Age-group r----, - '-- - _____ ,.A. ___ ----....--_~ ---__ Household duty Seeking employment Any other (specify) ,.. ___ ...A.. ____ ~ f·---.A---- -. r-__..A ___ -. M F M F M F

9 10 11 12 13 14

0-14 . 15 -19 2 70-24

25-29 • 4 30-39 3 40 - 49 5 50 59 60+ 4 1 (Dependent) Age not Stated

Total 21 3 1 107

PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 70

Households reported reasons for giving up the craft classified by sex, religion and caste/tribe/community of the bead of tbe housebold

Number of households having given up the craft since ,---______..... __~ __-_-0 __ ---. Religion, caste/tribe/community of the Sex of the head of Number 5 r----______Less than years..A.. ______due to --__ --, head of the household the household of house- ,------, r-~ ----, hold~ ,-Reason______Reason Reason .A ______Reason Reason -, Religion Caste/tribe/community M F Profit Insufficient Illness Lack of margin supply of capital low raw materials

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

HinduJ Sankhabanik 9 10 1 1

Bairagi . 2 2

Mahisya 3 3 3

Total 14 1 15 1 1 4

TABLE NO. to

Number of household having given up..A.. the ______craft since . ____,

Religion, caste/tribe/community of the 5- 9 years due to 1~ 19 years due to 20+ years due to head of the household ,- ....-,,-..A..,-,A-..., Reason Reason Reason Reason Reason Reason r­ -----~ --~--, r- ..A. ______...., Religion Caste/tribe/community ,------~,------_, r-'------~,------~ Moneytary Moneytary No profitable problem problem business

1 2 11 12 13 14 15 16

Hindu' Sankhabanik 1 3 4

.., Bairagi •

Mahisya

Total 1 3 4 1M

PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUS£HOLDS TABLE NO. 71

Households rCj)Jrted reaSOliS for giving up the cra£t cla'isified by sex and educational level of the head of the household

r--______Number of households having .A. ______given up the - -craft---- since -., Educationll bvel of the '/)ex of the held of No. of h'!-ld of the homehold the hou~ehold household Less than 5 y.!ars 5- 9 y~ars due to 10-19 years tr----""----_, due to due to 'M F r----,.A.----, r--__oA. ___ _, ,-- - - .....--.-----, Reason Reasoo Reason Reasoo Reason Reason No profit- Moneytory Lack of Insufficiellt able problem capital sultPly business of raw materials

1 2 3 4 s 6 7 8 9 10 lIJiterate . 1 1 Literate without educational level 3 3 Primary or Junior Basic 2 2 2 Middle 5 5 5 Matriculation or Higher 4 4 4 Secondary Non-Technical diploma or certificate not equal to degree Technical diploma or certificate not equal to degree Graduate and above

Total 14 15 3 2 9

TABLE NO. 72 Households reported reasons for giving up the craft classified by sex and occupation of the head of the household

Number of households having given up the craft r------...... ------,------, Occupation of the Sex of the Number Less than S years 5-9 years 10--19 years 20+years head of household head of of ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ the house- hou~e­ r-___ A ___-, r----A ___., r----""-----, r----.A.----, hold holds Reason Reason Reason Reason Reason Reason Reason Reason r--.A.--, Lack of Jnsuffi- Moneytary No profit- M F capital dent problem able and iliness supply of IMIBioeIl8 raw materials

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Non-worker 2 2 1 1 Cultivator 5 6 3 1 2 Fish seller 1 1 Oil cake seller (tele- 1 bhaja) School teacher 3 3 1 2 Deeds writer 1 1 Grocer 1 1

Total 14 15 7 2 4 2 PRAC11BING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 73

~ 1'epM'ted reasons for givillg IIp HIe craft dassified by br%d-ag-e-gr{lup of the ~ ef tbe lwusehold

Number of households baving given up the craft since r-- - - - _ - - _ - - - ,~, - - --- ,./'-_ ------_ - - -. Broad age-group Sex of the Number Less than 5 years Less than 5 _ 9 10 -19 years due to 20 + years due to of the head of the head of the of house­ due to years due to , ___.A. ___., h

I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

0-14

15-34 4 4 2 2

35-59 8 1 9 2 1 2 3

60+ . 2 2 1

Age not ,stated

Total 14 t 15 4 2 2 4 3

TABLE NO. 74

Distribution of households b,aviog members with necessary skill to practice the craft and reported r~asons for liot practicing the craft clasbifi (d by ~n, caste/tribe/oommunity of the head of the household

Religion • .caste!tribe/.community Sex of the Number of Number of Number of households having members with of the head ~f tbe household head of the households households necessary skill to prllc1ice the Craft but not having no practicing the same due to ~------,_._------., households r--______, R ,tigioll caste/tribe/commuDity ,-_,.A._-, members A M F with nece­ Reason Reason Reason Reason ssary skill to Illness and lack of capi- Lack of No pIOfitable practice the lack of tal and high sufficient business craft capital rate of raw income material

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Hinduism Sankhabanik 9 1 10 3 2 2 3

Marusya 3 3 2

Bairagi 2 2 1 "

Total 14 1 15 4 5 3 3 110

PRACT~ING ART~AN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 75 Distribution of households having members with necessary skill to practice the craft and reported reason for not practising the craft classified by educational level of the head of the bousehold '

Number of households having mcmber(s) with Sex of tile Number of Number of necessary skill to practice the craft but not Educational level of the head of the head of the households households practising the same due to household household having no r------.Ao------, r-oA.--. member with Roason Reason Reason Reason M F necessary Lack of Profit margin Lack of High late skill to capital low interset of raw practice the and material craft illness

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Illiterate . 1 1 Literate without educational level 3 3 Primary or Junior Basic 2 2 2 Middle 5 5 3 1 1 Matriculation or Higher Secondary . 4 4 1 2 Non-technical diploma or certificate not equal to degree Technical diploma or certificate not euqal to degree Graduate and above

Total 14 1 15 6 3 3 3

TABLE NO. 76

Distribution of households baving m~mbers with necessary skill to practice the craft and reported reasons for not practj~ing the (faft classified by occupation of the head of the household

Number of Number of householos having member(s) with Sex of the Number of households necessary skill to practice the craft but not practising Occupation 01 the head of the head of the households having no the same due to reason household household member with ,...... ~~ .;..,------...... r-"'---. necessary Reason Reason Reason Reason M F skill to Illness. Insufficient Lack of No prontable practice lack of supply of capital business the craft capital raw material and profit margin low

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Non-worker 2 2 1 1 Cultivator 5 1 6 3 1 2 Fish seller 1 1 Oil cake (fry) seller 1 1 1 School teacher 3 3 1 2 Deeds writer 1 1 .. Grocer . 1 1

Total 14 1 15 7 2 4 2 ---_- III

PRACT~ING ART~AN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 77 Households having members with necessary skill and who are not practising the craft now but are considering to take up the craft as an occupation classified by sex, religion and caste/tribe/community of the head of the household

Religion, caste/tribe/community of the head of Sex of the Number of Number of Number of households having the household head of the households household members with necessary skill not r------~--'""'-.------~ house hold having no practiSing the craft now but are Religion Caste/tribe/community r--,"",--. member with r--~---'""'------. M F necessary skill Considering to Not considering to practice the take up the to take up the craft craft as an craft as an occupation occupation

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Hinduism Sankhabanik 9 1 10 4 6 Mahisya 3 2 2 1 Bairagi 2 3 1

Total. 14 1 15 7 8

TABLE NO. 78 Households having members with necessary skill and who arc not practising the craft now but are considering to take up the craft as an occupation classified by sex and educational level of the head of the household

Number of households having members Sex of the Number of with necessary skill not practising the Educational level of the head of the household head of the households craft now but are household r------~------~ r--'""'--. Considering to take Not considering to M F up the craft as an take up the craft as occupation an occupation

2 3 4 5 6

Illiterate

Literate without educationallavel 3 3 3

Primary or Junior B~ c 2 2 1 1

Middle 'i 5 5 2 3

Matriculation or Higher Secondary 4 4 4

Non-technical diploma or certificate not equal to degree

Technical diploma or certificate not equal to degree

Graduate and above

Total 14 1 15 7 8 112

PRAC'f1SING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 19

Households having members with necessary skill and who are not practising tfre eraft new but are eOMiderM!f te tate lip the eraft as an occupation classified by sex and oCC'tl\)ation of tire lead of the ~

Sex of the Number of Number of households having members head of the Number of households wifh necessary skill not practising the

Occupation of the head of the household households havillgno ~ ___ ~ ____craft nowA but______are -... household ~-... member with M F necessary skill Considering to Not considering to to practice the tako.e up the craft ub up the craft craft as an occupation as an occupation

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Non-worker 2 2 1 Cultivator 5 6 4 2 Fish seller 1 Schoolteacher 3 3 1 Deeds writer 3 Grocer 1 1 Oil cake (fry) seller 1

Total 14 15 7 8

TABLE NO. 80 Number of households disinterested in having their sons/daughters sticking to their traiditonal occupation but like to have them engageci in occupation of their liking classified by sex and present occupation of the bead of the household

Sex of the Number of households reported that their head of the Number of sons/daughters should not stick to the Occupation of the head of the household household households traditiollal occupation but should follow

r---"---... ~the ____ occupation----A- of their______liking due to ~ M F Reason Reason Reason to pressure traditional occpuatioo

1 2 3 4 5 1

Non-worker 2 2 2 Cultivator 5 6 6 Fish seller 1 Deeds writer 1 1 Oil cake (fry) seller 1 1 School teacher 3 3 3 Grocer 1

Total 14 IS IS 113

PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 81

Households reported reasons for prosperityfadversity of the craft in recent past and given suggestiom to develop the craft, c:lassified by religiOD, caste/tribefoommunity of the bead of tile housebold

Religion, casteftribefcommunity Sex of the No. of Number reporting reasons for prosperityf Number of households of the head of the household head of the house­ adversity of the craft suggested measures to r----~..... -. household holds r---~ ...... ---·---.._ develop the craft Religion casteftribefcommunity r-"""--. Reason for prosperity Reason for adversity r---...... ---., M F ... ---..... ---., r---"""---. Measure Measure Reason Reason Reason Reason (1) Proper sup- (1) High rate ply of raw of raw materials materials (2) Need finan- (2) Wants of cial help capital

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Hinduism Sankhabanik 9 10 10 10 Mahisya 3 3 3 3 Bairagi 2 2 2 2

Total 14 1 IS 15 15

TABLE NO. 82 Households reported reasous for prosperity/adversity of the craft in recent past and given suggestions to develop the craft. classified by present occupation of tbe bead of the bousehold

Occupation of the head of the Sex of the Number Number reporting reason for prosperity! Number of house­ household head of the of adversity of the craft hold suggested household house­ r --- measure to develop r--v'.-", hold Reason for prosperity Reason for adversity the craft M F r--- oA-__ --, r---- ..... - --...... r---v'.---"",\ Reason Reason Measure Measul't Reason Reason (1) High rate (1) Proper of raw supply material of raw (2) Wants of material capItal (2) Need financial help

1 2 3 4 s 6 7 8 9 10

Non-worker 2 2 2 2

Cultivator 5 1 6 ~ 6 Fish seller 1 1 Deeds writer 1 1 1 Oil cake (fry) seller 1 1 School teacher 3 3 3 3 Grocer 1 1 1

Total 14 1 15 15 15

10 Census/88-1S 114

PRACTISING ARTISAN HOUSEHOLDS TABLE NO. 83

HOllSehold~ reported reasons for prosperity/adversity of the craft in recent past and given suggestions to develop the craft, classified by edQcationallevel of the head of the household

Sex of the Number reporting reasons for prosperity/ Number of households head of the No. of adversity of the craft suggested measure to Educatiomllevel of the hOllsehold h()u,e­ r------0----_. ______, develop the craft head of the h()us~holC1 r--.A.--, hold Reason for prosperity Rea.~on for adversity r----""'--_o_-. M F r--'--.A.- ---, r-___,_;.A.. ___--, ~casure Measure Reason Reason Reason Reason (1) Proper (1) High rate supply of raw of raw material materials (2) Wants (2) Need of calJital financial help

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Illiterate 1 Literate without educational level 3 3 3 3 Primary or Junior basic 2 2 2 2 Middle 5 5 5 5 Matriculation or Higher Secondary 4 4 4 4 Non-technical diploma or certificate not equal to degree Technical diploma or certificate not equal to degree Graduate and above

Total 14 15 15 15

TABLE NO. 84 Households reported reasons for prosperity/adversity of the craft in recent past and given suggestions to develop the craft, classified bv broad age-group of the head of the household •

Number reporting reasons for Number of households Sex of the Number ,- - ______prosperity/adversity .A. ______of the craft , suggested meaSUres to Broad age-group of the head of the of house­ develop the craft head of the household household hold Reasons for prosperity Reason for adver~ily r-- - - 0.-___ , r--.A.--. r-- - - ,A, ---, r-----0.--- -. ~easure Measure M F Reason Reason Reason Reason (1) Need (1) High rate financial of raw help materiais (2) Proper (2) Wants supply of capital of raw materials

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

0-14

15-34 4 4 4 4

35-59 8 9 9 9 60+ 2 2 2 2

Total 14 15 15 15 APPENDIX-II

THE CHANK FISHERIES

BY

1\1. Thangaraju

Deputy Director of Census Operations Tamil Nadu, Madras

THE CHANK FISHERIES by M. Tbangaraju Deputy Director of Census Operations Tamil Nadu, Madras

1 INTRODUCTION first and second Tamil Sangams were flourishing, the Pandyas took to Madura. Thus it is believed that the 1.1 Tamil Nadu ranks first in the order of im­ Tamil country once covered larger tracts of land than portance on the availability of Chank Fisheries in now and these tracts were taken by the sea in violent India. The Chank Fisheries are available all along irruption. the coastal areas of Tamil Nadu, but the Chanks are abundant in the Chankbeds in the sea off Chidam­ 2 BRIEF HISTORY baranar district (formed in 1986 from erstwhile dis­ trict of Tirunelveli), in the Gulf of Mannar and in 2.1 Literature of Sangam age throws some light the Palk Bay region off Ramanathapuram district. In on the ancient history of this rich Fishery. The clas­ addition to Tamil Nadu, the Chank Fisheries are avail­ sics make it clear that this Fishery was exploited under able in India only at Travancore in Kerala and Kathia­ Pandyan rulers as early as 1800 years age. About war in Gujarat. the 6th Century A.D. Cosmos Indico-Pleustes (530- 550 AD.) an Egyptian traveller, makes reference 1.2 The Chank Fishery in Tamil Nadu is a in his accounts to the chank and pearl market at monopoly of the Government of Tamil Nadu. Since Marallow, which has been identified with the chank Chank Fishery is controlled by Government of Tamil and pearl fisheries of the Ramanathapuram coast. Nadu, no private organisation is involved in such A,_bout the middle of the 9th Century, the Arabs came operations. The Chank Fishery is conducted by the into contact with the pearl and chank industries of State Fisheries Department in the district of Chidam­ Ramanathapuram coast. Two of the Arab writers baranar by providing necessary Departmental offices ~ulaiman and Abu Zayid have recorded that chank and and Chank godowns. The Chanks at other places are pearl were the greatest treasures of Indian Kings. either bought at fixed rate or leased out to a rentier for a definite period. The sale of chanks is done by 2.2 Cosmos, an Egyptian monk, who travelled Government of Tamil Nadu to the Government of in I!ldia in the sixth century A.D. and the Arab Abu West Bengal. Zayid who wrote in 851 A.D. refer to the production and the export of the chank shells from the Tamil 1.3 The pearl and the chank fisheries originated coast to Bengal. Barbosa who was in India in about long ago. Topographically speaking, it is told that 1500 A.D. speaks about the trade carried at Kayal. man made his appearance first in a tropical climate. From him it is learnt that Kayal was then still an Once the regions covered by the Indian Ocean be­ important seaport where many ships from the various tween Madagascar Island near Africa and South India parts of India including Bengal resorted every year are said to be lands above the sea and the first man to trade with the wealthy Hindu and Moorish mer­ made his appearance there. Leading evidence to this chants living there, a definite statement which goes are the accounts given in the Tamil and the Buddhist to show that there was, even then, no difficulty in literature. 'Silappadikaram' speaks of the lands beyond forwarding the supply of the chanks direct by sea the Cape of Comorin, called in Tamil 'Kumari' being to the Dacca workshops. Garcia de Orta, in 1563, taken by the sea many centuries before that time. 11 and BOccaro, in 1644, speak of the trade in the chank is stated in Tamil literature that the people of that shells with Bengal where they were made into bangles time (Circa First Century AD.) had heard from their for the arms. In 1700, Father Martin says that the ancestors that in former days the land had extended Dutch derived a considerable profit from the trade further south and that a mountain called 'Kumari· in ehanks. The shells were bought for a trifle by kkodu' and a large tract of land watered by the river the Dutch, and then despatched to Bengal where they Paharuli had existed South of Cape Kumari, and in were sold at a great profit. The British also derived the time not very long before, in the region of the much profit from the trade in the chanks and even Pandyan King J ayamakirth alias Nilantharuthiruvir now the ehanks are exported to Bengal. Pandya, the sea had torn through the land destroying 2.3 The following paragraphs detail the proprie­ the mountain 'Kumarikkodu' and submerging the whole tary powers that fishery enjoyed in the past and the of the country through which the river Paharuli flowed. method adopted in getting the revenue therefrom. The tradition of this part of South India especially of Madura, point to the fact that the Pandyas had their THE CHIDAMBARANAR CHANK FISHERY capital first at Kapatapuram referred in the Ramayana of Valmiki. It is further said that when the sea claim­ 2.4 The Muslim rulers were controlling the ed the lands round and about Kapatapuram where the Fishery for about 200 years till 1525 AD. The right 118

then passed on to the hands of the Portuguese. seems to have remained under the Zamindari as one Unfortunately no information as to the importance of the items of revenue for assessment of annual of the Chank Fishery during Portuguese supremacy peishensh during the Permanent Settlement of Zamin­ is available because when the Dutch took possession dari in 1803. The Fishery remained under two in 1658, they had purposively destroyed all records Zamins, viz., the Ramanathapuram and the Sivaganga. of their predecessors. Under the Dutch, from 1658, In the beginning of the 19th Century Ramanatha­ the Fishery was leased out regularly to renters, fetch­ puram coast was a famous Chank Fishery. The ing considerable revenue. The Dutch seemed to have chanks of Ramathapuram were classified into three, managed to retain the whole of the profit from based on the places where they are fished, namely, Chanks by force inspite of the interventions of the ( 1) off the main land north and south of Kilakkarai, Nayak of Madura and Sethupathi of Ramanatha­ (2) between the north at Rameswaram Island and puram, till 1785. The British on behalf of the Kachchetivu and (3) midway to the J affna to the N awab of Carnatic and the Dutch were disputing north of Mandapam. The first and second types of about the privilege of controlling the Fishery exclu­ shells were of very rare quality and were sold for sively for themselves till 1788, when a treaty was very high prices. The third one was inferrior in size, made by the N awab with the Dutch agreeing to divide shape and colour. the proceeds equality. From 1801, the Sovereignty of the Carantic passed from the Nawab to the East 2.6 In order to regulate the market for chanks India Company. The Company exercised absolute in Bengal, to prohibit indiscriminate fishing of under­ control over the Fishery till the British Government sized Chanks, resulting in the depletion of the fishery took over the rule. When the Fishery coast passed and to check possible theft and smuggling of ehanks on to the British, the chank industry was very pros­ in the Chidambaranar and other waters managed by perous. The Fishery was continued to be rented till Departments, the Sivaganga Chank Fishery was taken 1876 and thereafter it was managed by Government over by Government on lease for 15 years from 1914 Department. In 1909, the management of the to 1928 and from 1946 to 1951 at a rental of Chidambaranar Fishery as also those of the Carnatic Rs. 1201- per year. In the middle of the term of and Northern districts was transferred to the Fisheries the last lease the Sivaganga fishery was taken over Department and these were managed by the Superin­ permanently on 7th September, 1949, when the tendent of Pearl and Chank Fisheries. This change Estates of Ramanathapuram were taken over by the has gone a long way to improve the management Government under the Madras Estates (Abolition and standards and revolutionized the disposal methods so Conversion into Ryotwari), Aet of 1948. The as to be of the best possible advantage and thus Ramanathapuram Chank Fishery was also transferred prevented degradation of the fisheries by indiscrimi­ to the Fisheries Department with effect from 1st July, nate fishing or immature undersized shells. The 1951 (G. O. Ms. No. 1660, Development, dated 12th Chidambaranar Fishery continues to be managcd by April, 1951). The Ramanathapuram Chank Fishery Government Department only. was also taken over on lease for the same reasons in 1899 and 1900, 1913-14 to 1927-28 and again in 2.5 The Chidambaranar chank fishery is the 1941-46 and operated Departmentally. only one that is now carried on systematically and with a definite organisation. Tuticorin chanks are 2.8 The Madras Legislature passed "The Madras noted for their solidity, weight and hardness. The Estates" (Abolition and Conversion into Ryotwari) season's catch is advertised and sold yearly by tender Act. of 1948 and accordingly the Ramanathapuram system to the highest bidder. Here the chank beds Estate was taken over by the Government with effect are classified into two categories viz., Pired and from 7th August, 1949. As the Raja of Ramanatha­ Chankunilam. Piral is fine sands admixed with a puram had already leased the Ramanathapuram certain amount of mud and Chankunilam is chank­ Fishery for a period of 10 years from 1st July, breeding places. Usually the Pirals yield large 1946, the possession of fishery could not be taken catches of the shells as the chanks appeared to con­ immediately due to prolonged litigation and finally gregate there to feed upon the tube worms which give the Government having entered into a compromise the Piral sands the name puchimanal or worm-sands. with the lessee, granted the lease upto June, 1956. Since 1977 the Ramanathapuram Fishery is also THE RAMANATHAPURAM CHANK FISHERY operated Departmentally by the Government of Tamil INCLUDING SIVAGANGA Nadu.

2.6 From time immemorial the Ramathapuram THE CARNATIC COAST FISHERY, THANJAVUR Fishery had remained the sale monopoly of the DISTRICT Setupathi Raja of Ramanad who held it as feudatories, first of the Pandyan Kings and later of the Nayaks 2.9 The fishery off the coast of Thanjavur is of Madura and the Nawabs of the Carnatic. When ~nothcr v~ry ancient right of the Sovereign Power hold­ the Sethupathi ceased to occupy the status of feuda­ ~ng ThanJav_ur. Prior to the annexation of Thanjavur tories, the district was formed into a Zamindari and III 1800, thIS fishery was one of the items of revenue thence it passed to the Sovereign power as represented enjoyed by the Rajahs of Thanjavur. When Thanja­ by the East India Company (1792) as the successor vur ~as ceded to the British, the right to the Fishery of the Nawab. The Chank Fishery alone, however, contmued to be sold to the highest bidder annually 119 till 1823-24 and subsequently for terms of several 4 THE SCOPE OF THE CHANK FISHERY years varying from two to five years. From 1946 a portion of the coast i.e., from point Calimere in 4.1 The Sea provides the natural fishery wealth the North to Muthukuda in the South in Thanjavur in many forms such as fish, pearl oysters, chanks, district was operated Departmentally while the remain­ corals, etc., apart from salt and other minerals. The ing northern coast was leased out alongwith the pearl and chank Fisheries of the State yield a very Fisheries of South Arcot and Chengalpattu districts good revenue. To get a continuous and good revenue till 1977. judicio11s exploitation is necessary lest the Chank beds are indiscriminately fished. To achieve this SOUTH ARCOT, CHENGALPATTU AND object, the Department operates certain Chank beds MADRAS FISHERY Departmentally and leases out other regions and close­ ly watches the exploitation. The aim of collecting 2.10 The Chank Fisheries of South Arcot, the maximum number of chanks from the clIank beds Chengalpattu and Madras districts are only leased without any adverse effect on the Fishery is to supply out and never operated Departmentally till 1977. The to the Chank artisans in Bengal for the bangle indus­ Tamil Nadu Government which took these fisheries try and to obtain a decent revenue by sale of chanks. in 1909 are trying to replenish the potentiality of the Chank beds to get a better revenue and the sale is 5 THE CHANK INDUSTRY always conducted for all the four districts of Thanja­ vur, South Arcot, Chengalpattu and Madras. From 5.1 The Chank Industry, as per literature avail­ 1977 Chank Fisheries in the above districts are also able, had been flourshing in the Pandyan Kingdom in operated Departmentally by the Government of Tamil the South, till about the invasion of Mohammedans. Nadu. Except from the very meagre information available in the Sangam literature and archaeological findings there THE TRAVANCORE FISHERY, KANNIYAKUMARI is no other proof of such an industry existing in South DISTRICT COAST India. The Conchs hell called the sacred chank is a product of Indian Seas. Though the chanks are fished 2.11 The Fishery of Kanniyakumari Coast was all along the Sea beds in the coastal areas of Tamil under the Rajah of Travancore till the State was Nadu it is astonishing to note that there is no conch­ included under by the Union Government. The dis­ shell industry which produces conchshell products. It trict of Kanniyakumari was formed and merged with is also not known as to how, when and why the seat Tamil Nadu during the States Reorganisation in Nov­ of Chank bangle cutting industry became transferred ember, 1956. The Fishery was neither leased nor or limited to Bengal. Now the industry is however operated Departmentally. Instead a royalty was levied at its best only in Bengal where the chanks are cut on all Chanks collected and removed. After the mer­ and bangles and other ornaments are made. ger of the Kanniyakumari district with Tamil Nadu, the Chank .Fishery of thi.s district was ope!._ated Depart­ 5.2 The people at the llldustry segregate and mentall>, tIll 14th April, 1960. From 15th April, group the Chanks according to the size of the Chanks 1960 till 1977 the Fishery has been leased out to and cut them to make bangles mostly and other orna­ private parties. ments such as rings, slides, cufflinks, buttons, pen­ dants etc. Dacca was the chief centre for their manu­ 3 THE CHANK FISHERY-A GOVERNMENT facture and Calcutta was the emporium from where MONOPOLY the raw materials gathered from the different Chank Fisheries of South India and Ceylon were distributed 3.1 From the history of Chank Fisheries of this to Dacca and local centres throughout Bengal. State, briefly described above, it would be evident that the Pearl and Chank Fisheries were a monopoly of 5.3 Though the Chank Industry is being intro~ Government. _This right was again and again reite­ duced on a small scale at a few Chank centres in rated in the Madras Government Notifications No. 577 Ramanathapuram district by the Tamil Nadu Gov­ dated 18th December, 1913, No. 218 dated 22nd ernment by initiating and granting certain amenities September, 1914, No. 192 dated 22nd May, 1931 for the revival of the Chank industry in the South and Notifications No. SRO A-1307 of 1959 dated 4th India the local people have not shown much interest March, 1959. According to the rules published in in learning the art in the Chank Industry. the last two of these notifications under powers con­ ferred by sub-sections (l), and (5) of Section 6 of 6 THE CHANK AND ITS VARIETIES the Indian Fisheries Act, 1897 (Central Act. IV of 1897) to the Governor of Madras, no person shall 6.1 The Chanks or conches zoologically known fish or dive for pearl oysters or Chanks except under as Turbinolla Pyrum or Turbinolla rapa are roughly a lease or licence granted by the local Government. divided into three varieties; the shell fished off Tuti­ Thus, Chank Fishery in Tamil N adu is a monopoly carin, Kilakkarai and Rameswaram are the best be­ ?f the State Gover!lme~t of Tamil N adu. The Fishery ing properly shaped and also thicker and heavier in IS conducted by FIshenes Department in Ramanatha­ quality. The apex and the columella are propor­ puram and Chidambaranar districts. tionately elongated to the girth of the shell. The 120 regular and gradual increase in the size of the whorls etc. Besides, there are casually paid persons as men­ enables this fDrm of shell to. be cut to the greatest tioned below : advantage and gives a maximum number of sections. ( 1) Parmandadi: The guide who conducts the The shell is of a perfect opalescent whiteness and of canoes and boats with the divers to the pearl great hardness and cvencss of texture which render banks and chank beds; it susceptible of a high polish. Hence these shells are considered to be superior over the other shells. (2) Diver: The person who dives for collecting This highest quality of Chank is called the Jadhi oysters, chanks etc. from the bottom of the because of its shape, size and whiteness. The Chanks sea; fished off the coast of Travancore, Idinthakkari in Chidambaranar district and all those fished off the (3) Sammatti: The man who owns the canoes districts of Ramanathapuram (excepting Kilakkarai or boats which carry the divers to the area and Rameswaram mentioned above), Thanjavur, South for diving. Arcot, Chengalpattu and Madras are inferior in qua­ lity as they are thin shelled and soft and they are 7.2 The rates of payment to these casual persons called Patti shells. The Travancore shells in parti­ during Chank Fishery are as fixed by the Fisheries cular are also called the Pathala shells. The coasts Department from time to time. Df Athankarai and Irumeni villages. (In Ramanatha­ puram district) on the Palk Strait have a variety Df S METHODS OF DISPOSAL OF THE FISHERY shells which are neither superior like the Jadhi nDr inferior like the Patti. These shells are called Jrupi­ 8.1 There are three methods of disposal of the ravi. fishery, viz., ( 1) by leasing the fishery to private Chank merchants, (2) by Departmentally collecting the Chanks from the sea bottom by engaging divers 6.2 In trade the Chanks are segregated and and then disposing of the collections, and (3) by grouped according to quality and size viz., size No.. 0 purchasing the Chanks from the fishermen who fish to 9, size No. 0 being the largest, and No.. 9 the the Chanks along with fish in their nets and then smallest. disposing of the chanks. 8.2 Leasing the Fishery-Unlike the fishery of THE VALAMPURT CHANK (SINISTRAL CHANK) the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Strait, definite Chank beds do not exist off the other districts. Even in the Palk Bay (the Sivaganga and Ramanathapuram 6.3 The Valampuri Chank or right handed Chank Fishery) the beds are not closely situated but Chank otherwise called Dhakshnamoorthy Sangu is a are scattered and situated in depths ranging from 5 sacred Chank to the Hindus. It is a rare variety and to 12 fathoms making it difficult for an organised Dbtained only one amDng several lakhs Df ordinary Departmental diving operation. The exploitation of variety of Chanks fished from the sea. The right­ this fishery is also not a regular and concerted k 1- whorled chank has its opening frDm the left to the ture. While there is scope for diving operation in right whereas the ordinary or Edampuri Chanks have broken seasons from area to area in the Ramanatha­ its opening from the right to the left. The Valampuri puram coast, the fishery is being leased to private chanks are highly priced. They are kept in rich parties for a spell of three to five years at a time. temples most1y to. perfDrm abishekams to the deities. Likewise Chank Fisheries of Chengalpattu, South These are mostly offered to temples by people as a Arcot and the northern portion of Thanjavur and present, after acquiring the chank, paying high prices. Kanniyakumari districts are leased out to chank merchants under the tender system. By this proce­ dure the revenue is realised promptly every year. 7 ORGANISATTONlAL SET-UP 8.3 The lessees organised collection of chanks 7.1 The Director of Fisheries, Tamil Nadu. by engaging divers and moving the venue of opera­ Madras is the head of the Department and overall tion from place to place in the Palk Bay or purchase administrative in-charge of the Fishery. Besides, there the chanks from the fishermen who gather them in are two Regional Deputy Directoirs of Fisheries, one their Thuri Valai (Boat seine nets). After leasing at Madras and the other at Tuticorin. The super­ the fishery the Government helps the lessee by giving visory and administrative control of these two Regio­ pUblicity to the effect that for aU purposes the lessee nal offices in respect of Chank Fisheries are vested is the agent of the Government of Tamil Nadu in with the Deputy Directors (Regional). The Southern so far as collection or purchase of chanks from the maritime districts are controlled by Regional Assistant fishermen of the area under lease is concerned. The Director of Fisheries in each district. The Regional Chank being a State monopoly the removal or sale Deputy Directors arc assisted by Assistant Director, of chank by any other person is unlawful and is Inspector of Fisheries (Chanks), Sub~Inspector of -therefore prohibited under Indian Fisheries Act (I. Fisheries (Chanks), the Chank Fishery Overseer, gau­ F. A. 1897) amended from time to time and the ging Supervisors, gauging Class IV officials, Cashier Tamil Nadu Chank Fishery Rules, 1981. 121

8.4 SALE OF CHANKS mence diving. The diving operation for Chank is similar to the diving operation for pearls. The divers The Chanks thus collected and stored in godowns dive from canoes with the aid of a rope tethered to are sold according to the orders issued by the Govern­ the boat at one end with a sink stone at the other ment of Tamil Nadu from time to time. The chanks end for descending rapidly. As soon as the diver are mainly sold to the West Bengal Handicrafts reaches the bottom the rope is released and hauled Development Corporation by negotiation and by seal­ up by the Thodai. The diver moves or swims slowly ed tender system. over the bottom looking for chanks. They follow the faintest of spoors and tracts made by the animals and many shells are obtaincd this way. The diver 9 DEPARTMENTAL OPERATIONS then puts the shells in the bag tethered to his waist or hung from his neck and comes up on his own accord 9.1 Chank fisheries in the Chidambaranar and helped by the buoyancy of water. Under favourable a portion of Thanjavur district are operated Depart­ conditions each diver descends about 25 times-a-day mentally. Diving operations are conducted on a major and each stay under the water does not exceed usu­ scale only in the Chidambaranar Fishery, and in the ally two minutes. If the sea becomes rough and other places, only small-scale diving operations are the water· becomes turbid the divers cannot collect conducted apart from procurement of Chanks from good number or chanks. The diving method adopted fishermen. Divers are recruited and given licences is the same old method of the days of Marco Polo. to dive fqr chanks and the chanks thus collected by Even in the present day the divers do not use arti­ the divers are paid for at a specified rate approved ficial appliance of any kind like Scaphander, Japa­ by Govt. from time to time. nesemask or Aqualung to enable them to stay under water for longer periods. The divers are accustomed to primitive and crude diving almost from their boy­ 10 THE ACTUAL FISHING OPERATION hood and consequently they ?o it easily and well.

] 0.] A ~ood size of population of Chidambara­ nar and Tirunelveli Kattabomman' districts earn their 10.6 By about three O'clock in the evening the divers return ashore on their sail or towed by the livelihood solely by diving for Chanks in the season and by fishing in the off -season. As a large number vessel. Each diver likes to reach shore quickly be­ of divers is however required to conduct a full scale fore his co-divers in order to complete gauging of operation, the divers from Ramanathapuram, Kanniya­ his chanks early and get the payment from Depart­ kumari and Kerala State are invited to conduct the ment. fishery. After paying the appropriate cost to the divers 10.2 The collection of Chanks from Chank beds the chanks are stored in chank godowns. The De­ depends upon the good season. The season is from partmental chank godowns are available at Tuticorin the month of October-May. On an appointed day, in Chidambaranar district and at Rameswaram, as decided by the Assistant Director of Fisheries, in Devipattinam and Thirupalaikudi in Ramanathapuram consultation with the divers, all the divers shall be district. invited at a particular hour to the office premises or a common place and pansupari (Betel leaf and are­ 10.7 At the chan_k godown there are several canut) and fruits are distributed to them and the platforms with gauging peons and gauging supervisor, day to start the actual fishery is decided and announc­ to whom the divers are directed. The chanks are ed. Licenses are issued to the Chank divers for gauged and the full sized and wormed chanks are collecting the Chanks from the Chank beds. paid for by the Cashier at the rates approved by GO'Vernment from time to time. Undersized shells 10.3 The Parmandadi or the rock-pilot who (Below 2!" in diameter) are confiscated from the guides the divers to the Chank beds or oearl bank., divers and if the animal inside the chank is alive, they is a line fisherman with extensive knowledge of all are returned alive to the sea. the fishing grounds in the Gulf of Mannar and lo,cates the beds by popular bearings and sounding. 10.8 The gauge board for gauging the chank shall be made of square or round plan measuring 1t" lOA A motor fishing vessel or launch will be thick about 6" in diameter or 6" in length and provided by the Department to tow the canoe to the breadth as the case may be and having in the centre fishing area in the early hours of the momin!!. The a circular aperture of 21-" in diameter with brass vessel shall also tow the canoes back to the shore in rings fitted on both the sides. These boards shall the evening after the fishery for the day is over. be kept or fixed on a tripod stand made of iron-suffi­ ciently high to allow the chank to fall from the ]0.5 In the earlv morning hours the canoes are gauge to the ground. The undersized shells in let out to the sea. As <;oon as the canoes reach the which the animal is alive is sorted separately and Chank bed they release themselves and the divers com­ returned alive to the sea. to Census/R8-16 122

11 COMMUNITY ASSOCIATED WITH THE 2 Patti Variety COLLECTING OF CHANKS FS I Rs. 1.30 The divers who are engaged in the chank fishing belong to the fishermen community and their occu­ FS II Rs. 1.10 pation as divers is traditional. Wormed Re. 0.10 Diving is the means of their livelihood. In rare cases divers belong to communities other than the 3 Chevayan Fishermen Community. They are followers of Hindu, Christian and Muslim religions. As diving is a risky FS I Rs. 1.10 venture special prayers are offered respectively at their FS II Re. 0.75 temple, church or mosque before commencement of the fishing operation. 12.1 The Chank Fishery was leased out to 12 MARKET PRICE OF CHANKS private parties prior to the year 1971. Between 1972-76 the Departmental operation of issuing The rates paid for the various varieties of the licence to divers continued and from 1977 onwards conchshel1 is as follows : the Government of Tamil Nadu has taken over the monopoly on Chank Fisheries and Seasonal Chank 1 Jadhi Variety Fisheries operations are conducted by the Fisheries FS I 75 mm and above Rs. 7/­ Department in Tirunelveli district at Tuticorin and in FS II 64 mm and above Rs. 5/­ Kannirajapuram and Rameswaram at Ramanatha­ Wormed Re. 1/- puram district.

12.2 ANNUAL COLLECTION OF CONCHSHELL

Details of chank~ procured during 1983·8"

Category of Chanks Collected from Collectiol' Confiscated Total divers of netted ahanks

------_--- -~~~----- 2 3 4 5

Full Sized I 152,395 2,142 5,098 159,635 Full Sized II 278,849 8,060 1,326 788,235 WormCl::l 27,493 3,429 197 31,119 Undersized 21,546 980 36 27,562 Live u'ldersized returned to sea for further growth 2,602 2,602

A total expenditure of R~. 1,338,910.90 was inc'Irred towards the procurem;:nts of ch:mks from diver anl netted chank'l upto 13.3.84

De'ails of chank stock as on 31-3-84

Y,;l.f FS I FS II Wormed Undersized ------Tirllne/veli Jadhi chank stock 1930·81 285 3,014 1931-82 116,528 397,786 17,578 44,511 1982·83 350,726 639,.114 97,559 56,040 1983·84 165,587 309,175 43,348 26,269

Total 632,841 1,346,175 158,770 179,834 123

net ails of chank stock as an 31-3-84-contd.

Year FS I FS II Wormed Undersized ----- Patti "hanks stock Thanjavllr

1976-77 2,34~ 247 1981-82 59 4,251 920 1.132 1982-83 229 2,460 1,420 2,495 Cuddalore 1981-82 30 211 1,114 2,874 1982-83 3 187 623 Madurai (confiscdted) 1982-83 4,185 ------Total 318 6,925 5,984 11,556

Details of sale proceed~ of chanks ------_------Jadhi Patti Total Sale Proceeds of chanks Full sized I 345,077 101 Full sized II 582,911 102 ~ Rs. 6,944,965.20 p. Wormed. 93,172 211J Undersized 50,101 947

1984-85 Chank fishery : during the period 31st October 1984 to 30th April 1985 total number of 360,023 chanks in Tuticorin chank fishery and from 27th December 1984 to 12th April 1985 a total number of 80,907 chanks in Ramanathapuram chank fishery have been procured.

Details of Chank fishery during 1985-86

District/Division Category of cbanks Jadhi Patti

Tutioorin Division Full sized I 40,443 Full sized II 71,003 Wormed 27,137 Undersized 10,935 Rantanathapuram Full sized I 1,125 396 Full sized II 7,700 582 Wormed 406 90 Undersized 1,891 206 124

Details of chank fishery during 1985-86

District/Division Category of chanks Jodhi Patti

Thanjavur Divl~ioo Full Sized I 68 Full Sized II 3,019 Wormed 427 Undersized 186 Confiscated during 1985-86 Tuticorio . Full Sized I 391 Full Sized II 204 Wormeo 5 Undersized 16 Thanjavur Full Sized I 17 Full Sized II 215 Wormed 1 335 Undersized 65

Disposal or chanks

Tuticorin r-___~_~_.A.~ ______, During July During Decem- Total 1985 ber 1985

FS I 228,759 223,783 452,542

FS II 432,523 171,035 603,558

Wormed 35,937 38,622 74,559

Undersized 51,778 12,103 63,881

Total 748,997 445,543 1,194,540

Sale procees of chanks

Jul) 1985 December 1985 Total

----~- Rs. P. Rs. P. Rs. p.

Cost 01 chl.nk Rs. 5 per chank . 3,744,985.00 2,227,715.00 5,972,700.00

Sale Tax at the rate of 5 per cent. 187,149.25 111,385.75 298,635.00

Surcharge 5 per cent 9,362.45 5,569.30 14,931.75

Total 3,941,596.70 2,344,670.05 6,:786,266.75 125

13 tHE USE OF CHANK IN TAMIL NADU Tamil country also. There are chank bangle work­ shops at Korkai and North Ceylon at the begining 13.1 The Chank has been in use long before of the Christian era. Maduralkanchi describes the the Christian era. There is a wide use of the chank Parawas as a people who dived for the pearls and the in India and it is found that there are frequent refer­ chanks. It further says that the city of Korkai was ences to it in the ancient Indian literature. The chank the chief town of Parawas and the seat of the pearl is used. in the. religious and social life of the people fishery with a population consisting of pearl divers of India and it has bccn considered sacred by the and chank cutters. Indians from time immemorial. 13.6 No Parawas are now engaged in the chank 13.2 References to the chank and its uses occur bangle industry though they still fish for the chanks. to a limited extent in the Vedic literature and the In the early days, betore 500 A.D., the Tamil country Ramayana, whereas in the Maha,bharata there are would have sent the chanks cut into bangles to the other parts of India. But after that period, they sent ~any references to it. Its use consisted mainly in Its employment at battIe signal. For example, in the only the raw chanks. The reasons for this might have !3haguvud Gila there are many references to the blow­ been the little or no demand for the chank bangles mg of the chanks. Every warrior of note had a chank in South India. It is not known why the use of the with which he blew. As Krishna's chank was called chank bangles began to disappear in South India. It Panchajanya from the name of the demon Panchajana seems probable that the introduction of glass bangles whom he killed. The chanks of the other warriors dealt a heavy blow to the employment of chank were also called by special names. The chank of bangles as a teminine ornament since the glass bangles Arjuna was called Devadattam, Poundram was were put on sale at a fraction of the cost of the com­ Bhlma's chank. The chank of Yudhishthira was paratively expensive chank ones which required the called Anantavijayam and those of Nakula and expenditure of much labour and time to render them Sahadeva were respectively called Sughosham and attractive. Manipushpakam. Like the five brothers, other warriors too had their chanks. With the Pandavas 13.7 There have been many finds of chank cut blowing their chanks and the hundred brothers res­ mto cores from various parts of India to show that ponding to it, there was a great noise in the battle­ the chank bangle industry existed at many places. held of Kurukshetra. They are Tirunelveli, Kathiawar and Southern Deccan. The Tirunelveli chank bangle industry had its own fishery in the Gulf of Manner. The chank shells for 13.3 There are many stories as to how the chank the Deccan bangle workshop might have come from is associated with God Vishnu. One story says that the Tanjore coast, this being the nearest source of when once this God was pursued by a sea-demon he supply. This fishery of the Carnatic Coast appears did himself in a chank. This story has its origi~ in io have been fairly lucrative down to the middle of the Greek and Latin Writers of the early period. the nineteenth century when economic changes caused Another story says that Lord Krishna, an incarnation a collapse of the industry. The disappearance of the of God Vishnu, killed a marine demon called Pancha­ chank bangle industry from the Deccan should be jana., who did himself in a chank, and Krishna took ~ooked for in the constant strife which kept India the chank as a trophy of Victory. Vishnu derives m a welter of blood through the six centuries of the name Chankapani from His association with the Muslim dominance in the land. chank. Nemi or Neminath, the twenty-second Thirthankar of the Jains, has a chank in one of his arms. These go to show that the Indians of all the 13.8 The chanks are sounded at the time of the religions revered the chank as to identify it with God. pooja and aradhana in the temples. The mendicant beggars and desaris of the Vaishnavite religion use the chank to announce their arrival. 13.4 The chank is sacred to the Saivaites too. Lc:rd Siva is said to be blowing the chank and dancing WIth the demons. The Saivaites who do pooja at 13 .9 The chanks arc used in the social functions their homes also blow the chanks. In the Hindu of the Indians also. The chank has important but temples, the chank is blown when the abhishekam variab.le functions to perform at the weddings among and aradhana take place. Some Muslims also have all Hmdu non-Brahmin castes in the South Indian the chanks in their houses since they share the belief districts where the chank is blown by the barber that th~ possession of the chank of the right-whorled particularly at or immediately after the tying of the type will do good to the possessor and his family. tali on the bride's neck. In Bengal this custom of the chank blowing is even more general than in South India. In the Madras Province only Vellalas and 13.5 The finds of the chank cut into cores at Idayas _use. the chank bangles. In the early times the Arikamedu, near Pondicherry, point to it as having chank is dIrectly connected with the tali in the Tamil been a fiourising emporium of Indo-Roman trade in Land. Chankutali is common among four castes the first and second centuries A.D. and the evidences widely separated both geographically and in status found in the Tamil Literature of the Sangam Age and civilisation. They are the chankutali Vellalas, reveal that the chank bangles are widely used in the Idayas of Tamil Nadu who immigrated into Travancore~ 126

Thandan Pulayas of South Malabar and the Parawas 13.13 The chanks were used as the currency of the Tirunelveli coast. Though the Parawas had by the semi-civilised and uncivilised tribes of. India become Christian, long ago, they still persist in and especially of Assam. In the currenCies o~ calling their marriages chankutali marriages. Travancore and Cochin the chank of the Valampurl type is found depicted on the side of the coin. ~en 13.10 The chank is sounded when a dead body the Maharajah of Travancore celebrates a coronatlOn is taken to the funeral pyre or burial ground. In ceremony called Thulabaram wherein he weights himself in scales against gold, special gold coins, called Tibet also the chank is sounded when the dead body of a monk or nun is taken to the cremation ground. thulabarakasu are issued. On the one side of the As .in India the chank has been invariablY used for COin, a figure of a chank appears and on the other all purposes in Tibet. It is blown as a signal of the legend of Sri Padmanabha in Malayalam charac­ ters. These coins are distributed among the Brahmins battle, as an invitation to attend the religious rites and sacrifices and so on. after the ceremony. 13.14 In the coastal districts of Tamil Nadu 13.11 The chank has a wide use as an amulet and in those localities in Bengal where the bangle against the evil eyes. Animals are protected from factories exist, the chank is put to a minor use, to the evil views by a small chank shell tied round their calcine in kilns. The lime so produced is esteemed neck. Finger-rings are made of the chanks and they as of the best quality obtained in India fully equal are used in Tamil Nadu, Malabar and Cochin as an to if not better than, that obtained by burning the amulet against the evil spirits. The Muslims also pearl oyster shells. When new-built temples, shrines observe this custom. Even the Roman Catholic and fine houses have to be white-washed, chank-lime Parawas are great believers of these chank amulets. is greatly sought after in the Tamil districts. The The chank-bead necklaces are used by the children chanks are used to prepare medicines. The chank of the poor Chettic and Vanians. Korawans use ointment is used and the chank powder is taken in chank-beads, chank bangles and rings. The trade in for certain diseases. Powdered chank-shell is one of the chank-rings is of considerable dimensions. While the Ayurvedic cures for tuberculosis. a festival is going on in a town, one may see these rings and other ornaments made of the cnank, selling for hundreds of rupees. SOURCE:

13.12 Discs cut from the chank shells to The Tamil Nadu Fisheries Manual Part II, Vo],uNe 1/ Chapters on Pearl and Clrank Fisheries by Govt. of ornament caps and head-dresses are mentioned by Tamil Nadu, 1973. Tavernier in his "Travels in India". In Dacca, Tavernier saw Bhutan merchants buying large quan­ 2 Director of Fisheries Department, Govt. of Tam.iU tities of round and square pieces of the shell. A Nadu, Madras. majority of Indian females suspend small pieces of the chank shells from their hair or ears, chanks are 3 Ga7..etters ot Ramana1hapuram d:istrict. alw suspended from one side of chain holding key 4 The History of the pearl fishery of Tamil coast by bunch. Chanks are also used as name plates, incense S. Arunachalam. AnnamalLai University Historical stick-holders, etc. Series No.8. Ann<1malai Nagar, 1952. APPENDIX-Ill

A NOTE ON CONCHSHELL CRAFT IN SOME SELECTED POCKETS OF WEST BENGAL

By

Kalyan Kumar Dey Director

Assisted By

Kali Sankar Bhattacbarjee Investigator

Office of the Development Commissioner (Handicrafts), Epstern Regional Office_, Calcutta

A NOTE ON CONCHSHELL CRAFT IN SOME SELECTED POCKETS OF WEST BENGAL by Kalyan Kumar Dey, Director Office of the Development Commissioner, (Hand'icrafts)

FOREWORD OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY Conchshell product in various forms was found The objectives of the study may be classified into to be used in day-to-day life since time immemorial. the following: Conchshell products such as conch, conch ?angles, rings had found wide applications even dunng the (a) To find out the concentration of persons period of the Mahavarata. The name Panchayany.a in different districts of West Bengal. was synonymous with that of Shri Krishna. ThIS mode of blowing conchshell to forewarn people or (b) To evaluate the castewise concentration. declare war was a common practice adopted in (c) To depict a picture of the articles of conch­ modern times. During early part of the century when the nationalist movement gained momentum, shell products with designs. the village belles used to warn their households (d) Besides, the study will give some informa­ and the neighbours about the advance of the adver­ tion on the organisation, wage structure and saries by blowing conch. In rural Bengal conchshell marketing system of the craftsmen. is used on auspicious occasions and also used to signal danger. During festivals and day to day work GUIDELINE in field or with advent of night, blowing of conch­ shell is a ritual and is done in almost all Hindu house­ The Directorate of Census Operations, West Bengal holds in the rural areas. This particular craft found selected six sample villages in six districts of West its best expression in the skill of the artisans in Bengal for conducting the study. erstwhile East Pakistan, presently BangIa Desh, parti­ cularly at Dacca where this conchs hell makers or TOOLS OF THE STUDY Shankharis formed a guild and a powerful community even before independence. They depended mostly A schedule has been prepared for this purpose by on imported conchshells for their skill and craftsman­ the Census Deptt. to collect the information on inter­ ship and they also worked on other shells of sea origin. view basis from the crafts persons of the sample A few articles of their craftsmanship on trochus, villages. The analysis has been made from the turbo, mother of pearl were unparalleled. Name of filled-in questions. Shri Charan Das Munsi was a noted artisan of the recent past. However, most of the craftsmen migra­ TIME LIMIT ted to this part of the country after Partition and From the canvassing of schedules to complete successive wars and riots and settled mostly in and report including field investigation, checking and cross around Calcutta and 24-Parganas. Some of them checking, compilation, analysis, the conducting deptt. have given up their craft and their affluence found has taken a time of 2t months (i.e. July '86-Sept. other ways and means to earn their livelihood other­ 15th 1986). wise. Hence, once upon a time and even today a good quality conch product is compared to a Daccai LIMITATION Sankha. The present study, concerned only with a few selected pockets of West Bengal, will give a As the field investigation was done only in six cursory glance of the craft in these districts. sample villages in six districts it may not depict the complete picture of West Bengal as a whole. Fur­ ther the study wiII not be able to find out the total concentration of the crafts persons in the selected districts even. INTRODUCTION ABOUT THE CRAFT To evaluate the present condition of the conch­ This is a craft based on sea product named coneh­ shell craft and the crafts-persons of West Bengal, the shell. After collecting the primary raw material it study was undertaken by the Office of the Develop­ is processed to make different articles which from ment Commissioner (Handicrafts), Eastern Region, remote past are regarded as a compulsory ornament to supplement the monograph to be published in for Hindu married women. Further, the shell, as t 981 Census by the Office of the Director or Census having a quality to create sound, is used during WOl;­ Operations, West Bengal. ship. Besides, in the remote and recent past, thIS 10 Census/88-17 130 shell served as a war signal against enemies to the khali in Nadia, at the time of field investigation, a patriots, when the village w~mel_1 took their part in considerable number of young persons expressed their helping them for the emancIpation of the co_untry. eagerness to learn the craft so that they could practise So it is clear that this craft has a deep root 10 the it and take it up as their profession. But this is only so~ial and religious culture of the Hindus, Muslims an exception. In all other cases, the new generation and other residents of rural Bengal. of the existing craftspersons has declined to practise the craft. Now, from the collected raw material up to finish­ ed product, there are several stages of processing to ARTICLES WITH DESIGN reach the final stage. The craftsperson has to under­ take a lot of laborious and intricate operations to make Conch and Sankha are the two main articles which it attractive. Among the Hindus, the persons belong are made by almost all the pactising craftspersons of ing to 'Vaishya' caste practise the craft. Further. the all districts. Besides, there are some other articles craft is pursued by members of 'Kumbhakar' commu­ such as rings, tuklis, paper weights, ashtrays, vermi­ nity with the title 'Pal', and locally known as 'Rudra­ Ion pots, incense stick-holders etc. which are manu· pal'. In addition, the Sankharis with the surnames factured though not largely. The articles vary in of 'Bhadra' and 'Das' pursue the traditional occupa­ designs. Sankha can be classified into three broad tion and prefer to be called Sankhabanik. Although sections, e.g. Bracelet, Bauti and Chikan which differ at prescnt, somc persons belonging to other castes in design and in width. Likewise, conch also has (even Brahmans) also pursue this craft. separate names' for separate designs namely, Padma, Billipatra etc. One thing is to be noted that all the ABOUT THE CRAFTSPERSONS designs bear religious and sacred symbols. In Sankha the basic design is made by sacred Alpana which is It is revealed that at present there are 725 crafts­ a mark of worship. The design varies very little persons in the six village of six districts (Table lA) from the tradition. There is hardly any motive to of whom 649 are males and 76 females, the sex ratio change the designs according to modern taste and being 117 females per thousand males among the choice. It is clear that conch will never loose its artisans. Further, Murshidabad and Raora districts utility as an item of worship. So the variation in take the li!:m's share of the craftspersons having 75 design will help the conch to be rich only in quality and 55 families respectively out of 204 families in without adding much to its utility factor. As such, the six districts (Table 2). So about 66 per cent no effort has been taken to make such designs which of the total families are covered by these two dis­ can cope with the modern taste. tricts of West Bengal. In Srigopalpur of Barddhaman almost an equal number of families is now detached There is no such indication for sankha to be used from their traditional job. The picture of Chilakhali as a purely decorative ornamcnt. It is a must for in Nadia and Gopalpur in 24-Parganas is also the the married Bengali womenfolk. A purely seasonal same. In Yogiber in Medinipore the situation is item, Sankha is used mainly during Hindu marriages. better. Next, let us deal with Murshidabad and Raora. In Murshidabad 75 families with 200 craftspersons Other articles such as common ornaments of pursue the craft with an average of about three arti­ women and men, decora.tive items and consumer sans per family whereas in Raora 55 families with articles which are nOw prepared have already gained 293 craftsperson show an average of five craftsmen a lot of appreciation in the market. To keep a tradi· per family. The average craftspersons per family for tional craft alive, diversification of articles should all other districts fall within the range of three to be developed in designs in accordance with the pea· five. It is evident that some people are still pIes's tastes and choice. alive to stick to their hereditary occupations inspite of difficulties because of attachment to the handicraft. It is found that only in Nadia 100 per cent of the practising crafts persons have adopted no variation and 17 per cent of craftspersons in Medinipur are linked This is a pure traditional craft of the Sankhabaniks with other decorative items. The other districts do though other castes pursue it. In Murshidabad and not show a different picture in this respect. The Nadia the Rudrapals or Kumbhakars have shifted to dilema is that the articles with sufficient scope are this craft which ultimately has became their tradi­ not produced widely. So, the craftsmen are either tional occupation. Again, the craftpersons of Medini­ not skilled enough to produce these articles or not at pur, 24-Parganas, Barddhaman and Raora have the all acquainted with its marketing prospects. What~ surname of Das, Nandy, Bhadra or Dutta. The ever the case may be, a special drive from Govt. craftspersons of practising artisan family do not want authorities (both State and Central) is to be taken to transfer their skill to other castes which at the to resolve the issue once for all. An adjustment same time also are not much interested in learning a between traditional and modern concepts has to be new skill for a livelihood. In the sample village the mad~ s() that the producers, and the consumer may conchslwll craftspersons are predominant, At Chila- gain, 1MW MATERIAL Actually starting from sizing to grinding, one has to undertake several manual operations with a special The basic raw material of conch shell was earlier type of rainbow-like hand-saw, very heavy to handle brought from Ceylon. Most of the conches and with two hands. Tp,e conch is sized into pieces with diving areas were around J affna. The raw material the pressure of two feet of the artisan on the hand­ was imported in bulk during earlier years via Talai­ saw. And in the next stage, a stone slab, chisels, mannar. A number of Co-operative Societies of files, hammers and chalks are used for thei l work. fishermen came up to enter into deals. But after As the entire process is too laborious, a general trend the imposition of import restrictions nothing much of nonparticipation in this craft set in some 20 years could be done in importing shells from Ceylon. The back, when modernisation of the old methodology alternate source is the sea coast of Tamil Nadu. Of took place. A machine saw now performs the sizing, all the conches now processed, Tutikorin variety is mazar, rec-cutting operations and grinding machine considered best, next being Rameswaram and the polishes the inside and outside surface. The manu­ third one being Debipattanam. There are some facturing work is now partly manual and partly areas which also produce (conchshells but not in bulk mechanical thus saving both time and labour. and of good) quality also. They are Islands of Andaman, coasts of Orissa (Paradip area). Since the machines are electrically operated, the villages without power are deprived of the facility. At present, entire conch of Madras coast is pro­ Only in Murshidabad and Haora there are arrange­ cured by Fisheries Department of Tamil Nadu and ments of machines, while the other four districts have sold to the Govt. of West Bengal which supply the to depend on them. It is feared that a tendency of material to the craftsmen. Materials of all varieties monopoly may grow among the machine-owners. are mixed, but the price is at a flat rate per piece. Secondly, it is purely a seasonal craft and the skill is Some of the intermediaries make assortments to fetch mostly manual. So, a machine is not fully utilised better price for the products. This is how things are throughout the year. On the other hand, when it is done by private traders. They bag the conch accord­ utilised, it operates under tremendous pressure of work ing of its quality and for a quality 'A' bag one must which compells the craftspersons to pay according to have to purchase a bag of Debi variety which ultimately the dictates of the machine-owner. As a result, the is of no use excepting the sale of wastage. Further price of the product increases. Thirdly, if these all the conches of a bag irrespective of quality are not machines are set up largely and the crafts persons wish useable. About 40 per cent of the conches are of to utilise the machines to their optimum capacity, no use. So a bag containing 100 conches actually the production will increase but not in tune with the is reduced to only 60 useable conches. demand. So, there is a posibility of the products. being glutted, with the investment of the craftspersons In West Bengal, the raw material is available at becoming unremunerative. Burabazar (Private Sector) and through West Bengal Handicrafts Development Corporation and to some From a discussion with the artisans in Haora it Zilla Parishads through West Bengal Handicrafts has been ascertained that Sarbashree Radharaman Development Corporation. Besides, there is a centre Das and Gostha Karmakar are the two craftspersons at Jitpur, Murshidabad where the raw material is whO actually introduced this special type of machine available through clandestine deals. saw about 20 years ago. The top quality conch is sold at Rs. 13.00 p. per MARKETING OF THE PRODUCTS piece and the next quality is sold at Rs. 8.50 p. each It is a matter of great regret that not a single whereas the third quality is sold at Rs. 5.50 p. each. co-operative sales society is found to function in any The number of conches contained in a bag is 200. district. Of course, there are two co-operative And one has to purchase two bags at a time. Although societies each at Haora and Murshidabad dealing only some bags of 50 and 100 conches are sold through with distribution of raw material through State Govern­ Zilla Parishads but they are so insignificant in number ment. Medinipur had a co-operative society but now and irregular in supply that they may be ignored. it is defunct. The other three districts (24-Parganas, Without financial capability the craftspersons can­ Nadia and Barddhaman) never tried to make any not purchase the raw material in adequate quantity. attempt in this regard. Now the marketing is done in three ways: PROCESSING (a) Through Paikar or Mahajan who takes After the raw material IS collected, it is cleared away the finished products from artisans of inside worms and dried and cut into sizes known for sale. as Major and Rek cutting. The next operation is (b) Trader-cum-craftsperson who has got a shop inside and outside grinding, followed by design-making in the local market for sale of the products. and final polishing. The product becomes ready for (c) Simple hawking from door to door by the sale. crafts persons. 132

JOB SECURITY To get a comprehensive idea the organisational structure is classified as follows: (a) Craftspersons having the capacity to buy This craft is not practised throughout the year. raw material. Nor the eraftspersons are engaged in other occupa­ (b) Craftspersons working as daily labourers to tions. For nearly eight months in a year (February other craftspersons as design-makers. to May and from September to December) they are (e) Crafts persons working as daily labourers on engaged but they are not utilised throughout the month cutting machines. even during this period when they hardly get work (d) Craftspersons dealing in the serap raw for twenty days a month. material. (A) The craftspersons belonging to this group buy the raw material from West Bengal Handicrafts Deve­ lopment Corporation or Zilla Parishad and sometimes ORGANISATION AND WAGE STRUCTURE through private traders. The raw materials are taken to a cutting machine followed by design-making where All the districts are not served by the same organi­ they employ some artisans and the final product is ultimately sold by them. sational structure. As a result, the wage structure of the craftspersons also differs. The statement below will give an idea about the wage structure.

STATEMENT-!

INCOME EXPENDITURE -_------Raw Materials Rs. Raw Materials Rs.

Sale of waste materials-l 00 pes. Quality 'A'-l bag 200 pes. @ Re. 1/- each 100.00 @ Rs. 13/- per bag 2,600.00 Paper weight-50 pes. @ Rs. 3/- each 150.00 Quality 'B' 2-1 bag 200 pes. @ Rs. 8.50/- per bag 1,700.00 Conch with sound-25 pes. @ Rs. 10/- each 250.00 Debi-l bag 200 pes. Mantasha-25 pairs @ Rs. 5.50/- per bag 1,100.00 @ Rs. 60/- per pair 1,500.00 Bauti-125 pairs 8 % Sales Tax on total amount of @ Rs. 18/- per pair 2,250.00 Rs. 5,400/- 432.00 Sankha (large)-200 pairs @ Rs. 15/- per pair 3,000.00 Total Rs. 5,832.00 Sankha (medium)-150 pairs @ Rs. 10/- per pair 1,500.00 Carrying cost Rs. 150.00 Sankha (smaIl)-100 pairs @ Rs. 6/- per pair 600.00 Cutting to finishing Rs. 1,500.00

Total Rs. 9,350.00 Total Rs. 7,482.(){)

The above statement shows that there is a net cutting to finishing the wages of dependant crafts per­ profit of Rs. 1,868.00 to a craftsperson. Now one sons of the family is excluded. So the income above lot of raw material takes nearly one month to be con­ relates to the monthly income of a family belonging verted to finished product. So, the above income can to group 'A'. be treated as the monthly income of the craftsperson belonging to Group 'A'. But still there arc some (B) The daily rate of wages on particular items along points to note. Each family of the practising craft has with daily rate of production will give an idea about the three to five craftspersons and from the cost from earnings of this group. 13~

STATEMENT-2 STATEMENT-4

-----~ Daily rate of Income Expenditure Daily rate of wages production 50 pairs of Sankha 300 conch (scrap) at an average with charge of con- Paper weight Re. 1/- per pc. 25 pieces rate of Rs. 6/- veyance 32.00 Conch without sound Rs. 2/- per pc. 15 pieces per pair= Lakha (300 grammes) 24.00 Conch with sound Rs. 3/- per pc. 10 pieces Rs. 300.00 Wire (200 grammes) 1.60 Gala (400 grammes) 40.00 Mantasha @ Rs. 6/- per pair 5 pairs Bracelet @ Rs. 3/- per pair 10 pairs .Hingul (200 grammes) 10.00 5.40 Bauti @ Re. 1/- per pair 20 pairs Harital (12 grammes) Polishing @ Rs. 25/- per 100 pairs Rajan (200 grammes) 10.00 100 pairs Wood charcoal 12.00

Rs. 300/- Total Rs. 135.00 The daily income of a craftsperson of this group lies within the range of Rs. 20/- to Rs. 30/- giving a monthly income to Rs. 400/- to Rs. 600/- (effective Actually these craftspersolls work for 15 ~ays in mandays are taken as 20 days a month). Again, the a month and in the next 15 days they sell theIr pro­ rate of daily production mentioned above is the opti­ ducts themselves as hawkers. Now if the total pro­ mum production level for a highly skilled craftsperson. duction of 15 days (50 pairs on an average) is sold So after consideration of the average production f01 by that month, they can expect a monthly income of all classes of crafts persons (skilled and half skilled), Rs. 165.00 only. Of course, the other factors the average income will fall down. Since the craft is (seasonal variations and non-availibility of raw mate­ practised seasonally, in the dull season the artisans rial) remain the same. are to depend on the income of seasonal months. Ultimately, the estimated monthly average income will INTER-RELATION BETWEEN THE ORGANISATIONAL be lower than that shows above. STRUCTURES

(C) Here, the daily rate of wage and the daily produc­ A clear relation between the different organisations tion are indicated below. is evident. Groups 'B' and 'C' exclusively depend on Group 'A' artisans who are again helpless without (a) supply of raw material (b) shortage of hard cash. STATEMENT-3 Group 'D' has also an indirect dependence on Group 'A' as the scrap is ultimately obtained from the original raw material.

Daily rate of INFERENCE WITH COMMENTS Daily rate of wages production On the basis of field investigation the following comments are offered. Sizing-Rs. 30/- per 100 pes. 100 pcs. (1) The supply of raw material is not smooth. Mazar-20/- per 100 pcs. 150 pcs. (2) When supplied, a sizeable amount of money Rek-cutting-Rs. 15/- per 100 pes. 300 pes. is needed to purchase one lot of 100 pes. Grinding inside & outside--Rs. 25/- per and/or above. 200 pieces 200 pcs. (3) A portion of each lot becomes unfit for use as it contains conch of bad quality (wormed, undersized etc.). (4) No co-operative movement has developed Again, the statement represents the optimum to take care of the common interest of the capacity where the daily income of craftsperson falls crafts-persons regarding purchase of raw within the range of Rs. 30/- to Rs. 45/-. It is material and marketing. revealed during field investigation that these crafts­ (5) A sense of frustration is developing among persons hardly get work for 15 days in a !llonth. the craftspcrsons of young generation. ( 6) Those who are diversifying their craft on (D) The craftspersons belonging to this group buy other items (keeping the traditional art the scrap raw materials after cutting. They produce alive) are in a better condition. mainly red conch which are used by women at the time (7) The craftspersons belonging to Group 'D' of their marriage. The following is the estimate of are highly distressed and need special their monthly income and expenditure. attention. 134

TABLE No.-l Number of persons employed in production of condlsbell products

No. of persons enmp!oyed ,A.______-, District Police Station Name of Village Total Male Female

1 2 3 4 5 6

Murshidabad Domkal Lakshinathpur 200 200

Nadia Tehatta Chilakhali S5 6 49

Barddhaman Ketugram Srigopaipur 31 31

Haora Bagnan, Balul 293 52 241

Medinipur Panshkura Yogiber 88 10 78

24-Parganas Swarupnagar Gopalpur 58 8 50

Total 725 76 649

TABLE No.-2 Distribution of artisans

No. of artisans

District Police Station Village Caste No. of r---~---oA.------, families Total Male Female

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Murshidabad Domkol Lakshinathpur Kumbakar 7S 200 200 (Rudrapal) S Nadia Tehatta Chilakhali Kumbakar 14 5S 6 49 (Rudrapal) Barddhaman Ketugram Srigopalpur Sankhabanik 18 31 31

Haora Bagnan Batul Sankhabanik 35 194 33 161 Bauri 20 99 19 80

Medinipur Panshakura Yogiber Sankhabanik 15 57 10 47 Bauri 7 31 31

24-Parganas Swaraupnagar Gopalpur Mahisya 20 58 8 50

Total 204 725 76 649 1.35

TABLE No."!,3 Distribution of articles

Raw Materials Serial Name of No. of r------..... ------, Place No. article persons Main Subsidiary Source engaged

2 3 4 5 6 7

Village : Lakshinathpur Conch 85 Paraffin, Acid, Zinc Govt. (State), Oxide, Gala, Hingul, Local Market Police Station Domkol 2 Sankha 200 Conch Hari/al, Rajan, Wood Charcoal Distt. Murshidabad 3 Ring 3

Village : Chilakhali Sankha 55 Jitpur, Murshi- dabad, Local Police Station : Tehatta 2 Conch 12 market Conch Ditto Distt. : Nadia 3 Ring 5S 4 Tukli 55

Village : Srigopalpur Red Sankha 31 Rejected Jitpur, Murshi- dabad, Local Police Station Ketugram 2 White Sankha 15 White Ditto market District Barddhaman Conch

Village Batul Paper weight 200 State Govt. Merchant Police Station Bagnan 2 Conch (for sac- 200 dealers, red demonstration) Local market District : Haora 3 Conch (with 40 Conch Ditto sound) 200 4 Sankha

-Village : Yogiber Sankha 88 Police Station : Panskura 2 Vermilon pot 1 I Zilla Parishad District : Medioipur 3 Incense stick I Merchant dealers, holder I Local market } 15 4 Ashtray I Conch Ditto I 5 Locket t I 6 Ring 1 7 Conch 40 .--_._--_. ------

Village Gopalpur Red Sankha 501 Calcutta ?- Conch Ditto Local market Police Station SwarupnagaI 2 White Sankha SO] District' 24-Parganas

---~-- 136

TABLE No.--4 Design and marketing ------

Source Marketing , -. , __,.J--_-, Place Name of Name of Traditional Self Middleman Agency article design

2 3 4 5 6 7

Village Lakshinathpur Conch Padma Yes Self-hawking Police- Station Domkol Sankha Sankhpata Middle-man District Murshidabad Bracelet Yes Bauti Yes Chur Mini

Village Chilakhali Conch Padma Yes Police-Station Tehatta Sankha Bracelet Self-hawking Dif.trict : Nadia Bauti Yes Chikan Yes

Village Srigopalpur Sankha khara Yes Police-Station Ketugram Bunk; Self District Barddhaman Chaka

Village Batul Cnoch Sakhapata Yes Middle-man Billipatra Police-Station Bagnan Sankha Padma District Haora Bracelet Sankhagola ") } Yes !Yes .Tarigolap J Bauti Yes Mantasha ------Village Yogiber Conch Padma Yes Police-Station Panshkura Sankha Billipatra District : Medinipur Mantasha Middle-man Bracelet Yes Bauti Yes Saru (Chikan) ------Village Gopalpur Sankha Chaka Yes Self-hawking Police-Station Swarupnagar Bunki District : 24-Parganas PHOTOGRAPHS

Residential pattern of artisans in Sankbaripara in Raibagbini

Locality of the artisan.., in Sha~hpur Artisans live here in Kamarsol

Articles of the present lamp,tand to the left being a rare production Intact conchshells out of lhe bag

• ..J Sized concbsbel1s known as Cbbat or Chbali-tbe basic raw material for tbe ring Chhat after further sizing

Polishing the inner portion of tbe white bangle on a Dara (mandrel) POLISHING INNER PORTION OF A BANGLE ON A MANDREL

Polishing the outer portion of white bangle on a Sil (Slab of sand stones) ' .

POLISHING OUTER SURFACE OF A BANGLE ON A SANDSTONE Repairing tbe ~r !lcks i:lnd filling the pores of a wbite bangle

Desi~njn~ l)f ~ white :bangle with tlte help of Choupal (square-shaped file) 10 Census/8:! ~ 19 DESIGNING

Bleaching white bangles in acid solution POLISHING IN ACID SOLUTION

From an intact conchshell to the ·finished white bangle Join.ing fragments to form a round coloured bangle

Binding tbe fragmen.t with the belp of a thin metallic wire Colouring the bangle with a Jau-kathi (lac stick)

L

oloured bangle in different stages of processing Bindh-making of an intact conchsbell to prepare a shell-horn

HAMMERING INTACT CONCH SHELLS Evolution of a shell-horn througll different £tage. of processing

"'- 1;1

i J I

Drilling boles on tbe body of a ring with the help of a Bhramar (hand-drill) Designing a ring with the help of a Batali (chisel)

Poli.~bing a ring on a power-driven polishing machine Blea<:bing of rings in acid-solution, tbe child on the left is not a orke

fem.tie artisan at work in the n.sidcnce-cum-worksbop '- 10 Cenm1/ 88 - 2!l - A male artisan at work in his worksbop

A workshop with an electrical polisbing machine Artisan female members of a household together at work in tbe residence-cum-workshop

Temple of Agastya Muni in Raibaghiui Chariot of Ravan-Kata Rath under the shed of a garage in Raibaghini

,$.,~::--, . \ >. oN

~.- . ;,.. ~

.... 1 .zc.J

A li ar of Agasiya Muni in Shashlmr Tools and equipments together in a workshop '.

4

5 6 3

2 \> 1. A. MA.NDREL 2. A SHARP EDGED HAMMER 3. A FLAT t:DGED '1 HAMMER 4. PEN FOR COLOURING 5. PEN FOR COLOURING (with colour) 6. L.AC STICK

Tools required for producing conchsbell articles j....--_.- .

:: Ii 1111) ., I I : 'tll .1\ "

2 3 4

1. A FLAT FILE 2. A SQUARE riLE 3. A ROUND FILE 4. A HALF -ROUND FILE

Tools for designing A STAND FOR ENGRAVING OF DESIGNS

An equip,"~JJ( required durin!: designing AN OVEN

A WOODEN DISC WITH STAND

Some equipmeuts required for processing of articles 10 Census/88 - 21 CONCH SHELL PRODUCTS

LOTUS SUNFLOWER

Shell-horns with designs OESIGNS

1 ~~CD :{I1:: C!)~tm ·

2 ll7i'sJ;I!{§/0::~ ()J:{I):(() ~1Ir~ Yd"m&?U t

5 ~§»2X~»K JZ 2:CO:( J( )«®~~ KX«<~

6 ?"-»F»>>>">i1U );):oo:c< UK«««<<<<0

7 :::::::::~:;!!::::;;:J II ~:QO::::g: 1I1::!:::::;:(~:ggg::

8 2?I JI[ J~C: JU~ :CO: «]II[VJ~JC$r JI( lK

9 ~»<<:~II»:OO:<

10 ~~III »:00:« fll~ 11_:00=_

12 ~tEf~rgmIK«:QD:>bfl({ID~*l~

1. PHUL PATA 7, KANKAN PHUL 2. SANKH PHUL 8. MATAR PHUL

3. PHUL 9. KATHAL, CHHAT 4. PHUL 10. PATA

5. PHUL PATA 11 GAGORI

6. OHANER SISH 12. PATA NAKSA

i>esigns used DESIGNS

43 l(~,eI?£m®J~&~11 [»:00:«1 IG~2~@¥lj~

1,4 SE3E~:: J:thJ:[:3;)?£ }5}:F}<>"3iF;)

15 ~\72~~C::*:~::~~~:;~~~g-:('t:8 ~::;~~<~~~::;~;z~;:~~)r~;~~~

16

17

13. PATA PHUL 16. BANSGIT ~4 . KHEJUR CHHARI "17 . MATAR DANA

15. JALTARANGA 18. MOTIOANA

Designs used

A joint family of a Sankhabanik master craftsman Sri Shyama pada Nandi in · Raibaghiui ! i

I t·_;

A Brahman artisan family in Kamarsol Sm. Rajlaksbmi Bbadra, a master artisan of Sbasbpur Sri Rabi Das, another master craftsman of Kamarsol A Sankhabanik artisan of Raibaghini QD way to 'the market

A shop of conchshell products in Kotulpur owned by an artisan of Raibaghini 33

Fitting Ii bangle on ~ he wrist

IO/Census 88-21 tonchsbell products-Sbellhorrt, white '!J angles, coloured bangles add rings