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Open Jennings Diss Final.Pdf The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School College of the Liberal Arts HOUSEHOLD STRUCTURE, DYNAMICS, AND ECONOMICS IN A PREINDUSTRIAL FARMING POPULATION: THE NORTHERN ORKNEY ISLANDS, SCOTLAND, 1851-1901 A Dissertation in Anthropology and Demography by Julia Anne Jennings 2010 Julia Anne Jennings Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy December 2010 The dissertation of Julia A. Jennings was reviewed and approved* by the following: James W. Wood Professor of Anthropology and Demography Dissertation Advisor Chair of Committee Patricia L. Johnson Associate Professor of Anthropology, Demography, and Women‘s Studies Stephen A. Matthews Associate Professor of Sociology, Anthropology, Demography, and Geography Kenneth G. Hirth Professor of Anthropology Duane F. Alwin McCourtney Professor of Sociology and Demography Debashis Ghosh Associate Professor of Statistics Nina G. Jablonski Professor of Anthropology Head of the Department of Anthropology *Signatures are on file in the Graduate School iii ABSTRACT This dissertation examines the demography, economy, and structure of agricultural households in the Northern Orkney Islands, Scotland, in the last half of the nineteenth century (1851-1901). The household is used as the unit of social, demographic, and economic analysis throughout this thesis. Household structure in Orkney is described using both case studies and aggregate data. From this information, the compound household, which would go unnoticed if only documentary evidence were used, is defined, described, and integrated into existing systems of household classification. Patterns of household types found in Orkney are compared to published accounts of historical populations throughout Europe. Household dynamics are explored using event-history models of the transition between household types. Finally, the household as an economic unit is examined in a study of the hiring of life-cycle servants, both generally and with respect to the sex of the servant. Multiple sources of information, about both the physical farmsteads and the people who occupied them, show that households in Northern Orkney are more structurally and genealogically complex than has been previously reported for Northwest Europe in general. These findings could not have been made without the use of data sources (e.g. archaeological remains) that supplement documentary evidence such as census listings. It may be the case that the kinds of data commonly used by historical demographers have actually underestimated the degree of household complexity in the preindustrial past, as household complexity may actually be ―hidden‖ in these records. Event-history models of transitions between household types demonstrate that compound and extended households (characterized by the presence of multiple dwellings and non-nuclear kin, respectively) have rather different dynamic tendencies. Finally, analyses of the presence of life-cycle servants show that households are adaptive economic units iv that can respond to labor shortages (both general and sex-specific) through the hiring of life-cycle servants. v TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................... vii LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................. xi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................. xiv Chapter 1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 1 The Household as a Unit of Analysis .............................................................................. 2 Definition of Households ................................................................................................ 4 Data and Setting .............................................................................................................. 8 The Economy of Northern Orkney, 1851-1901: A Period of Change ............................ 12 Outline ............................................................................................................................. 14 Tables and Figures .......................................................................................................... 16 References ....................................................................................................................... 19 Chapter 2 Households in Northern Orkney, 1851-1901 .................................................... 23 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 23 Background ...................................................................................................................... 24 Household Histories using Multiple Data Sources: Case Studies .................................... 31 Households in Orkney: A Descriptive Overview ............................................................. 43 Discussion ........................................................................................................................ 48 Figures and Tables ........................................................................................................... 52 References ........................................................................................................................ 107 Chapter 3 Dissolution and Formation of Extended-Family and Compound Households in Northern Orkney, Scotland, 1851-1901 .............................................. 111 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 111 Background ...................................................................................................................... 112 Data and Methods ............................................................................................................ 125 Results .............................................................................................................................. 128 Discussion and Future Directions .................................................................................... 132 Tables and Figures ........................................................................................................... 134 References ........................................................................................................................ 143 Chapter 4 Household Predictors of the Presence of Life-cycle Servants in Northern Orkney, Scotland, 1851-1901 ........................................................................................ 149 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 149 Background ...................................................................................................................... 152 Data, Methods, and Results .............................................................................................. 169 Household-level Predictors of the Number of Life-cycle Servants: Methods ............ 171 Household-level Predictors of the Number of Life-cycle Servants: Results .............. 172 vi Household-level Predictors of the Number of Life-cycle Servants by Sex: Methods .................................................................................................................... 173 Household-level Predictors of the Number of Life-cycle Servants by Sex: Results ..................................................................................................................... 175 A Comparison of the Source and Sink Households of Life-cycle Servants ............... 176 Discussion ....................................................................................................................... 178 Tables and Figures ........................................................................................................... 183 References ........................................................................................................................ 196 Chapter 5 Discussion and Future Directions ...................................................................... 201 Discussion ....................................................................................................................... 202 Future Directions .............................................................................................................. 206 References ........................................................................................................................ 209 Appendix A Valuation and Acres of Arable and Pasture ................................................. 211 Appendix B Measuring Consumer-to-Producer Ratios: Do Weighting Systems Matter? ............................................................................................................................ 218 Appendix C A Contemporary Description of Servants and Hiring Fairs ....................... 237 Appendix D An Example Life History of a Farm Servant ................................................ 239 References ............................................................................................................................... 240 vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1-1: Satellite image showing the location of the Orkney Islands.
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