Reassessing the Frontiers Searching for the Impact of Translation among the Minorities in China by Ken Chan

here was a time when the monolingual tribal peoples of Latin America’s many rainforests could not communicate with outsiders at all. It was obvious that they needed the gospel in their own languag- es;T to reach them, Bible translation was essential. However, the globalization of the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries has led to questions about the continuing need for this sort of Bible translation. Whereas rural communi- ties were once isolated, increased ease in communication and transportation have shaped a different world. People are becoming increasingly multilingual. Minorities, in particular, face both internal and external pressures to integrate into the mainstream and speak the national or major trade languages. Accord- ing to Ethnologue: Languages of the World, a widely cited and annually updated reference work maintained by SIL International, roughly a third of the world’s 7,000 languages are now endangered.1

Historically, Bible translation has been an extensive, even at times protracted, process. Translation projects have traditionally included research (linguistic and anthropological); translations (oral and written); literacy (where implementation is viable); and scripture use (both teaching and discipling.) Is all this effort still necessary among minority peoples who are daily becoming more at home in the dominant trade languages? What, then, is the need for Bible translation now? Bible Translation and Closure Theology

I want to respond initially to this strategic question of Bible translation by Ken Chan has been a member of Wycliffe Bible Translators in East exploring closure theology, an orientation that suggests that church planting and Asia since 2002. He has been a trans- Bible translation be a high priority among ethnic and linguistic minorities. lator, led a Jesus Film project, chaired SIL East Asia, and assisted Wycliffe Ralph Winter’s plenary address at the 1974 Lausanne Congress on World Asia-Pacific in strategy. His PhD in Evangelization alerted the evangelical world to the imbalance of having too is from South African 2 Theological Seminary, and he is pres- many missionaries working with Christians and too few with non-Christians. ently a Research Fellow of the Biblical In particular, he highlighted the need for new efforts to cross geographical, Seminary of the Philippines. His new book on Victory Theology will be linguistic, sociological, and cultural barriers, the implication being that a mas- published in 2018. sive redeployment of missionaries to the unreached peoples was required.

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Frank Severn was a leading voice who Bible passages can be adduced to This is what motivated Paul to carry criticized Winter’s position. Severn support Reapsome’s view. The church the gospel far and wide (Rom. 15:20). suggested that an extensive redeploy- cannot predict or speed the second This is what should also motivate the ment would slow down the momen- coming of Jesus through worldwide church. It should have the heart of tum of progress made in countries evangelism. Only when the end comes Ps. 57:9–10; 67:1–5 as it fulfills God’s where Christianity had made inroads, will people know the eschaton has mandate to reach the world. but where many villages, and a great arrived (1 Thess. 5:2). And if the king- In this view, Bible translation is in- number of unsaved, unreached persons dom’s growth works like fermentation, dispensable to this push to reach and lived (of various classifications) who it happens invisibly (Matt. 13:33), so disciple the world. When Paul linked still needed to hear the gospel.3 The there is no point trying to predict or believing to hearing and preaching task of evangelization was not finished direct its course. (Rom. 10:14–15), it was also a call for in a country until all had had a chance 7 But Winter’s view is not heretical, the church to make sure that the word to hear. for he would agree with Reapsome’s of God—the very basis of that preach- The problem, as I see it, is that Severn orthodox view that no one can predict ing—be made available in the lan- misread Winter. In an early part of the precise timing of the end (Matt. guages of the world. Winter’s agenda his Lausanne address, Winter cited 24:36). What is unique about Closure to reach the least-reached is important Pakistan as a country with a national Theology is the biblical insight that we because it is high on God’s agenda.8 church where the job was not done, can actually see clues as Christ’s return And the need for Bible translation even though they had a substantial 3% nears (Matt. 24:3). In particular, the is just as important. Secular linguists Christian presence. The Muslims, who independently corroborate that “some comprised 97% of the country, still 4,000 of the world’s languages have needed the gospel. When Winter went never been described adequately.”9 on to say that “normal evangelism will The concern for the least-reached in the not do the job,” he was not neglecting Closure theology world began much earlier with William Severn’s point. But Winter was saying gave Bible translators Carey’s “An Enquiry . . .” (1792).10 Carey that the church should devote more was a brilliant English Baptist mission- resources to the tribes, castes or cul- in China ary who went to India and translated tures designated as unreached peo- the Bible into many Indian languages.11 ples,4 which in many cases are consid- the strength to suffer ered the minorities. Somebody must as they served. Closure theology back then, even in go in and ensure that the least-reached its embryonic form two centuries ago, have a better chance to hear the gospel was probably the backdrop that gave and receive the word of God. These Bible translators in China the strength large ethnic groupings (some of them to suffer as they served. They believed gospel has to be preached to all peoples numbering in the tens of millions) what they did was an essential chapter before he returns (Matt. 24:14). God is need cross-cultural missionaries from in the history of world missions. This building his church, which consists of the global church (not just the western was certainly the case with Robert all peoples, and this will include peoples church) to come with the gospel. Morrison, who arrived in China in living on the remotest islands or deserts 1807 and became one of the first Other missionaries have also opposed (Isa. 42:10–12). Hence, there will be Protestant translators of the Bible into Winter’s prioritization.5 I am unable representatives from all of these peoples a in that country. to locate a single article in Evangeli- in heaven (Rev. 7:9; 21:24). God’s cal Missions Quarterly which supports compassion for all, including the little Lesser known Bible translators made Winter’s perspective, and I suspect this peoples of the world, is foreshadowed just as much of a personal sacrifice. may have to do with the former editor, by Yahweh’s care for the widows and One of their number was Samuel Isaac Jim Reapsome.6 To him, it appears fu- orphans (Deut. 14:29; 16:14; 26:12; Ps. Joseph Schereschewsky, originally a tile to speed the coming of Jesus. Jesus 146:9; Isa. 10:2; Mal. 3:5; James 1:27). Lithuanian Orthodox Jew who studied will come again like a thief in the night The sheep in the parable of the lost are for the rabbinate in Germany before when people least expect it. And even the peoples of the world, and the hun- he became a believer and a missionary when every people group is reached, dredth sheep is the people group that translator in China. He finished the there are far more people yet within has not had any chance whatsoever to Beijing Version of the Chinese Bible in each people group who still need to be hear God’s word. This is the context for 1899. His translation was well received saved, discipled and sent out. the great commission (Matt. 28:19–20). not only because his knowledge of the

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is not ungrounded. Roads, water, elec- he growth of cities along with the accompanying tricity, and communications systems multi­lingualism appears to have made Bible are constantly improving, even down translations less necessary for minority languages. to the townships and villages. The T quality of education of rural primary Hebrew language was impressive but plenary speaker at that same venue, schools is going up. Because Mandarin also because he could speak Chinese Michael Green, was questioning its Chinese is the lingua franca of these fluently. After a stroke, practically value in his remarks. Green implicitly schools, minority youths are rapidly 18 paralyzed and also suffering from countered Winter’s position because integrating into the mainstream. It severe Parkinson’s, he toiled on until he he could not discern such a push for is a fact that many young people in finished his translation.12 “missions to the least-reached” in the minority communities are learning early church.15 Green’s perspective has and acquiring fluency in Mandarin Fast forward to today, when volunteers gained more traction over the past four Chinese. For some, Chinese may even are signing up to carry on that tradi- decades, and his general points still supersede their native tongue to be- tion for reaching the least-reached. This continue to ring true to many people. come their dominant language. Smart, closure theology is evidenced in the mis- Specifically, a counter-closure theol- enterprising young people are further- sion partnership called Table 71, ogy seems to have emerged based on ing their education and climbing the a loose association of Christian or- social ladder nationally. They want to ganizations committed to working (blurred) definitions, common prac- tices influenced by global and urban get ahead in life and not be despised together in partnership among the by others as inferior. Their success in remaining unreached people groups migration patterns, and the linguistic this direction should be applauded. in the world.13 dynamics we see in the book of Acts. First, in terms of blurred definitions, Some Chinese minorities will go to an Major partners include big names in extreme fostering this language shift. Protestant missions like the Interna- it is unclear what exactly constitutes a least-reached people group.16 This Parents and grandparents will some- tional Mission Board of the Southern times only speak the national language Baptist Convention, the Jesus Film, makes it hard to operationalize and execute a frontier missions strategy. (to the extent that they can speak it) and TransWorld Radio. Not surpris- with their children and demand the ingly, Bible translation associations like A comparison between the coding systems used by the partners of Table same from their children. Some mi- Wycliffe Bible Translators, and Seed norities will lie and deny their ethnic Company have also joined this alliance. 71 reveals discrepancies in how they classify the least-reached groups.17 On heritage to outsiders out of shame. Some Bible translation organizations go the language front, for example, intel- Perhaps the subsequent rise of bilin- a step further; they say that Bible transla- ligibility is one way to tell whether two gualism makes it expedient to elimi- tion is needed in every language of the language communities speak the same nate Bible translation for minority world that does not have it yet. The pas- language. But the definition of intel- languages. Many church leaders un- sion of Wycliffe Associates, for example, ligibility is itself contested. Another derstand this positively as God making is “equipping the local church to translate problem is that it is notoriously hard it possible for the minorities to hear God’s Word into every language by to obtain accurate information in 14 the gospel without having to wait for 2025.” But this momentum in closure remote places. long translation projects to finish. They theology is encountering resistance today, see this as God being creative. Since Second, globalization and the growth and a counter closure theology has arisen the presence of language barriers slows of great urban metropolises, along that grounds itself biblically and socio- down church growth, maybe God is with the accompanying rise of multi- logically as an alternative perspective. using globalization as a tool to speed lingualism, appear to have made Bible up the spread of the gospel before translations less necessary for smaller Counter-Closure Theology: Bible Christ’s second coming. Translation is Not Necessary for minority languages. Take China as an example: unpublished interviews show Evangelism can be done through Church Planting that church leaders in China are not Chinese dialects. There are older The drive for the closure of the church giving a high priority to the least- folks and uneducated (women) who age and the heralding of the return reached within the country. It is not are monolingual. But many minority of Christ is commendable because that they do not care about the mi- youths are going into cities to look for it springs from love. But as Winter norities, but they tend to believe that work. When they find jobs, they may was advocating his version of closure this problem will take care of itself as meet Christians and hear the gospel. theology at Lausanne in 1974, another urbanization increases. This thinking After becoming Christians, they are

35:1 Spring 2018 32 Searching for the Impact of Bible Translation among the Minorities in China discipled in Chinese. They then can As the church spread to Gentiles Macedonian vision (16:9), and when take the gospel back to their relatives abroad, Greek was relied on increas- the demon possessed girl at Philippi in the rural minority areas. This is not ingly for evangelism. Either Aramaic, yelled and Paul chided her for it merely wishful thinking, for reports of Hebrew or Greek was the medium of (16:17–18).20 this process are accumulating. communication when Paul talked to One of the reasons he chose Timothy the hellenized Jews and Greek God- The First Century Context to be his co-worker was because he fearers (Acts 18:4), and to the Jews at could speak Greek. Timothy’s mother I would like to treat at length a third Ephesus (19:1–7). Judas (Barsabbas) was a godly Jew (16:2), but his father point central to the emergence of and Silas from the church at Antioch was Greek. His bilingual background a counter-closure theology. There’s either spoke Greek to the Gentile would later help him to pastor his an assumption that goes something believers at Antioch (15:32), or they Gentile flock. like this: if Bible translation in every spoke in Hebrew which was translated language is required for church plant- into Greek for those who did not know Paul was a Roman citizen, and it ap- ing, it would have been the case in the Hebrew. This kind of bilingualism was pears that he may have even spoken early church. Yet, it seems quite the practiced by cosmopolitan Jews such Latin. His Latin helped him com- opposite was true in that first century as Aquila and Priscilla (18:2), who had municate in more officious settings. context. The book of Acts demon- lived in Rome and Corinth, and by In Acts 13:9, he probably talked to strates that God can reach all peoples Apollo, a Jewish scholar born in Alex- the Roman proconsul Sergius Paulus through trade languages as the gospel andria (18:24). When Paul and Silas Anthupato in Latin.21 Paul’s Latin moves naturally through multilingual helped him to get out of tough spots believers. Is this true? Let’s reflect on when he was persecuted by the Roman some of the linguistic dynamics we see authorities (e.g., 16:37). The book of in Luke’s narrative. Acts assumes, in the process of Paul’s trial from Jerusalem to Rome, that he Propagation of the gospel was not a faced no language barrier.22 problem when the church was just A beggar starting because other Hebrews (or on the streets of Lystra Smaller local languages and dialects people who could understand Hebrew) were not wiped out by Latin. Inscrip- were the recipients. Aramaic and could understand Paul tions that place Latin and other local liturgical Hebrew were probably the languages, such as Oscan (spoken in languages Peter and the other apostles preaching in Greek. south-central Italy), side by side still used to preach to the other Jews. These exist. Tomb markers in Anatolia into occurrences would have included: Pe- the second or third century ad show ter’s first major speech (Acts 2:14–36); the use of Phrygian alongside Greek. the preaching trip of Peter and John There is also good evidence for the survival of the Galatian tongue.23 in the villages of Samaria (8:14, 25); were praying and singing in prison Philip’s talk with the Ethiopian eu- (16:25), they might have been do- Again, according to counter-closure nuch after he had come to worship in ing that in any one of three languages theology, Paul did not need to pursue Jerusalem (8:27); and Peter’s conversa- (Aramaic, Hebrew, or Greek) so other a strategy to target the least-reached. tion with Cornelius (Acts 10). prisoners could understand them. The Nor did the existence of these small The book of Acts assumes that the prison guard who believed was a local local languages and dialects hamper employee of the Roman government. gospel could spread not only within the the spread of his ministry. Instead, But since he was living in a colony, he confines of Judaism but also through- he worked mostly in the larger cities probably spread the gospel to his family out the languages of the Roman and towns. His strategy was to plant in Greek (v. 32). The outcome of the empire. Rome had formed a political footholds in those places where people Jerusalem council was drawn up in a empire through arms and diplomacy, from diverse places came together, so formal letter (15:23–29). This was prob- but the Greek language and culture that the gospel could then go back out ably done in Greek, which explains why into the smaller places nearby. was ascendant across the Roman the Gentile believers were able to read empire.19 Peoples who crossed cultural Even at a smaller place like Lystra, a the letter straight off (v. 31). boundaries were able to talk to each beggar on the streets could understand other in koine Greek. The formation of Greek was the language medium Paul Paul’s preaching in Greek (14:9–10).24 local churches did not have to wait for used with Gentile nonbelievers. This In Acts 14:8–19, though Paul could tribal Bible translation to take place. was the case when Paul received the not understand the Lystra language

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Ken Chan 33 that they switched into (v. 11), he could still negotiate a theological ost efficiency is causing supporters to channel dispute with them in Greek. When he resources to other kinds of missions that have healed the lame and the locals thought the potential­ to create more immediate impact. he was a god, he explained he was not C Zeus but only human like them (v. everyone had those abilities, interna- devalues and questions the necessity 15). He then got across the idea that tional communication was still taking of a Bible translation in every lan- Zeus did not do the healing, and the place. Abraham was a prime example. guage. Churches and individuals that forces of nature they worshipped were He traveled extensively, and he could have traditionally been supportive are not the first principles. Rather, God communicate with people who spoke now wondering whether an expensive, created everything for the benefit of the various languages of that time. He multi-year translation project can ben- people (v. 17). These were complicated negotiated with Hittites to purchase efit a language community when the ideas that he was able to convey. the burial ground for Sarah (Gen. 23). gospel can spread in a globalized world At Malta, Paul did seem to be lost Examples abound in the many encoun- without such a translation program. The for words. In his brief stay there ters between Israel and the interna- concern for cost efficiency is causing (28:1–10), the narrator takes on an tional communities among whom they supporters to channel resources to other omniscient point of view and reports lived. By the time of Nebuchadnezzar’s kinds of missions that have the poten- in Greek what the locals said to each empire, international communication tial to create more immediate impact. was well codified (Dan. 3:4; 4:1). other in the local dialect (vv. 4, 6). While counter-closure theology appears This episode does not report what Finally, the case for planting and to show that God was able to grow the Paul said to them. Maybe he did not growing churches without pursuing early church without a concerted effort say anything back to them because he any intentional closure strategy for in Bible translation, this overlooks the did not know their dialect, and they the least-reached strengthens even very real impact of the LXX lived such isolated lives on that island more when one considers Acts 2:4–11. (Greek) which had been that they could not understand Greek There, we see a reversal of the tower translated from the Hebrew 300 years either. It appears that they dropped off of Babel. God’s power was at work earlier. With Greek being the language the pages of the , and to enable God-fearing Jews who had of education everywhere (except per- there is no indication Paul went back come to Jerusalem from diverse places, haps in Israel), it can be concluded that to reach them for Christ. from “every nation under heaven,” to most of the disciples in the early church hear in their own mother tongue the The movement of multilingual believ- did have intelligible scriptures available disciples—Galileans all—praising ers helped to bring the gospel across to them. Nevertheless, it does not follow God in multiple languages. This was cultural boundaries. How else was that doing further Bible translation is a fulfillment of the prophesy in Joel the great missionary church at An- not somehow helpful. If we widen our where God’s Spirit was promised to be tioch started? People from Cyprus perspective, the history of Bible transla- poured out unto all mankind, irrespec- and Cyrene who had believed (11:20) tive of race, gender, age, and social tion in China shows just how integral a came to Antioch and spoke to the class ( Joel 2:28–32). part of church growth it was. Greek-speaking people there. They in Scripture Use Was Key to turn commissioned Paul and Barnabas We can conclude that the church in Acts Discipleship in China for their famous missionary journeys. was propagated through the major trade One of the early believers from Cy- languages of the time, and by oral trans- One reason that the Chinese church prus, by the name of Mnason, was also lations (into mother tongue languages) began to grow, and kept on grow- instrumental in bringing the gospel to through the empowerment and superin- ing, was because local translators who Caesarea (21:16). tendence of the Holy Spirit. Why can’t worked on Bible translation were we expect that to happen now? themselves discipled through the pro- This biblical picture of a fluid move- cess. They were experiencing the effect ment of the gospel across language Spiritual Impact in the History of scripture use as they were translat- and cultural boundaries does not begin ing and in so doing, many of them with the New Testament, but we see of Bible Translation in China acquired the spiritual capacity to lead it even in the Old Testament. People While church members may not be the church. from various nations could still talk explicitly conscious of counter-closure to each other after Babel. This as- theology when they think along these Chinese translators fell in love with the sumes there were people who were lines, it is precisely these assumptions Bible early on. Two Christians from multilingual. While it does not mean that may account for the trend that Guangdong, Feng Ya Sheng (冯亚生)

35:1 Spring 2018 34 Searching for the Impact of Bible Translation among the Minorities in China and Feng Ya Xue (冯亚学), went to possible for a Chinese at the time—at was displeased when they sacrificed to Germany and became sinologists at the Chinese-Anglo College in Ma- idols, and they stopped. The spiritual Halle.25 They could have studied and lacca—the wife of his English teacher change went deeper yet. The China published on any topic; yet the project discriminated against him. Her bad Inland Mission reported that the Lisu they chose was to translate Mark and Christian witness could have turned were constantly led to pray for the Luke into a German-Chinese diglot Ho away from his newfound faith.28 Han Chinese in Yunnan and in other (bilingual book) in 1826. This danger was more acute because provinces who were faced with star- he was struggling to choose between vation because of famine or flood, The vibrancy of the Christian faith being a Confucian scholar or a Chris- even though they have themselves engendered in the lives of local 29 tian. But his work with suffered so much at their hands in translators was palpable in some cases. 32 and Medhurst on Bible translation gal- the past. One of those who worked on the vanized his resolve to follow Christ as Chinese Union Version was Wang The Promotion of Literacy Led to a disciple. As he confronted the issue Yuan De (王元德), who later became Scripture Use of whether he should marry the non- a professor at what is now Shandong Christian girl his father had arranged A second reason that churches in University (齐鲁大学). He became for him, he conceded in order to honor China grew was literacy. The minori- so enthralled with God’s word that he his father, but he refused to worship ties lived marginal lives and were not launched his own translation in 1931. idols during his wedding ceremony in literate in either Chinese or their own He was able to finish it quickly be- honor of Christ.30 His maturing faith tongues. But that changed for the cause he would get lost in the Word to Miao when Samuel Pollard sought to the point of forgetting to eat or sleep. bring about wholistic transformation. It was reported that he would read out He helped to bring about what is now his drafts 50–60 times to make sure called a people movement. they sounded fluent. Wang Yuan De The number of Methodist members Protestant Bible translation majored (王元德), became so recorded in Southwest China had on deepening the Bible knowledge of risen from three when Pollard ar- the local translators. They were not enthralled with God’s rived (all of them missionaries’ wives) to 5,458 when he died, with 12,000 low-level helpers, employed to brush more under instruction.33 up on the Chinese defects of the for- word that he launched 26 eign translators. Rather, those who his own translation That last phrase “under instruction” is were linguistically gifted were encour- in 1931. telling, because the immense growth aged to learn koine Greek and biblical was only possible when there was rep- Hebrew. As they delved into the lication. Believers could not rely solely original texts, they were forced to con- on oral instruction for edification, nor front Christian truths deeply. The local could they mature into church leaders that stemmed from Bible translating counterpart of Medhurst, Wang Tao that way. They had to have the Bible in 王韬 27 and reading eventually led his wife ( , 1828–97) for example, had print and be able to read it for person- to become a Christian, also. She was the liberty to propose any emendation al growth. And the Bible had to be in baptized at the Union Chapel in Hong to the translation committee. This was place for the community to grow to- Kong where he had become pastor. possible because his grasp of the Bible gether through corporate worship and was good enough to warrant that kind The link between an available, un- small group discussions. So, it was no of trust. His proficiency in turn was derstandable translation of the Bible, surprise that Pollard viewed the pro- driven by his love of the Bible. the reading of the Bible (scripture motion of literacy, together with Bible Some of these translators became use), and discipleship shone brightly translation, as vital components for key figures of the Protestant church for minorities in China. For them, it organizing this people movement into in China, not the least of whom was was not a job-creation program. They a network of local churches. This was Ho Tsun-Sheen (何进善). His story believed in God for God’s sake. Far made easy because the Miao wanted showed that it was Bible translation, from receiving handouts from the to learn how to read, and they asked in particular, that had the most impact missionaries, the Lisu, though poor, Pollard to teach them.34 Even women, on his spiritual development. Early on, would give lard, rice and fuel to the who had low status in that society, he had a negative reaction to foreign- traveling evangelists to advance the took to literacy readily and scored well ers. Though he was fortunate enough cause of Christ.31 Bible reading led on literacy tests.35 Literacy and church to receive the best western education to serious faith. They saw how God growth marched forward in lockstep.

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As schools (17 of them by 1915) were Liang Fa’s idea for mass literacy inspired primarily because of a closure theology, opening, the Miao were baptized in Li Duanfen (1833–1907) and Zheng but for two other reasons. droves. Morals began to change for Guanying (1842–1923) to propose a First, a strategy that relies solely on oral the better. The trysting places of young national school system for all children.41 translation is not conducive to disciple- people, which existed in every village, This massive literacy effort by the church ship. The assumption that Chinese mi- were burned down. coincided with the period when local nority Christians who are bilingual can churches sprang up all over China. By translate the gospel message spontane- This pattern was repeated among 1919, “only 106 (about 6 per cent) of ously into their native tongues underes- the Lisu. J. O. Fraser firmly believed China’s 1,704 xian (counties) were with- timates the difficulty. It is hard to find that planting a vibrant local church out some form of missionary presence.”42 equivalent words or concepts that can required literacy. He even taught older God grew his church through heroic 36 capture the original even after intention- people how to read the Fraser script. missionaries. But if literacy had not be- al study. In practice, oral translators often A Lisu scholar estimated that about come available for the rural churches, it is resort to inserting a phonetic translitera- 60,000–70,000 could read the Fraser doubtful the church in China could have tion of a phrase from the trade language script in an area that had a lot of Lisu grown the way it did. churches.37 Further south, Ola Hanson (e.g., Mandarin Chinese) to convey the planted the church among the Kachin Discipling through Bible key terms which are new. The target au- (known as the Jingpo in China). They dience typically has no idea what point were illiterate, and Hanson felt that Translation is being made and offers a blank stare was an impediment to church growth. As we reach the end of our biblical in response. Or the oral translator will One of the first things he did was to and historical discussion, two opposite paraphrase the meaning of a passage in publish a book in Kachin, using a ro- pictures come into mind as we consider a highly generalized way, such that the manized alphabet.38 Again, the church the need for Bible translation now. critical nuances are lost. grew as literacy grew.39 But it was among the Han where he assumption that bilingual Chinese Christians scripture use made the biggest impact. There is absolutely no doubt that China can translate the gospel message spontaneously into has had a long, and distinguished, literary their native tongues underestimates the difficulty. history. But the church played a cru- T cial role in furthering the penetration Wayne Dye’s seminal research in of literacy into society and the church The first picture tells us that doing scripture use listed the availability communities. From the beginning of Bible translation is not a necessity. of scripture in an appropriate lan- Protestant church history, Liang Fa (梁 The theology of Acts shows that God 发), guage as a key factor for impacting an who was the first ordained Prot- can grow his church his way. All the 44 language and cultural groups that he emerging church. While people can estant Chinese pastor, felt more work hear enough about Christ to make a had to be done in promoting literacy. wants to be represented in heaven will somehow find a way to know the decision to follow him, they need to Education was available, but it was not have the Bible to understand Christ in prevalent because it was expensive. Usu- gospel and be admitted to the king- dom. God may use Bible translation to sufficient depth to become disciples. ally, only those who had money or family Even when people understand the Bible connections were able to place their bring that about, but some trends in- ( dicate this might not be necessary. The in a second language, the truth often children in one of the learning centers loses its impact because hearers perceive 书院) Ethnologue shows about half of the . Up until 1907, there were only God as distant and Christian faith as of 923 quanxueso (a type of learning center), language communities in China are on little relevance to their daily lives. Good 1,621 lecture halls, and 262 education the path of making the switch from Christian living is about interpersonal re- 40 monolingualism to bi- (or) multi- associations in all of China. Seeing lations, about emotion, about the deep lingualism.43 The size and vitality of that the status quo prevented the masses springs of human life. Teaching that is many least-reached languages now is from knowing God through the Bible, all in the LWC [Language of Wider Com- shrinking and these least-reached lan- munication such as a trade language], he opened the first Protestant school for guages have less vitality today than the suggests that Christian living is only for boys in China. Not all the students came Chinese language had 150 years ago. one’s public persona, and internal spiri- from Christian homes or became Chris- tual growth is seriously hindered.45 tians, but the Protestant effort in making But this article wishes to draw an- literacy open to all made it possible for other picture of Bible translation. The In the history of Bible translation in more people to know God and the Bible. reason Bible translation is needed is not China, many of the principal local

35:1 Spring 2018 36 Searching for the Impact of Bible Translation among the Minorities in China translators could have lived their whole to say that urbanization in China will counter-closure theology, as I have Christian life reading only the English clear out its villages.46 Yes, the large outlined it, is the reason why people do Bible. But it was not so for the other cities in China are growing larger; but, not do Bible translation. Rather, other Christians in China, those who had there is now a trend where third or reasons inhibit the long and hard pro- less English. It was not reasonable for fourth tier cities are depopulating be- cess of Bible translation. People are not them to rely on oral translation only cause they offer few benefits and im- willing to sacrifice the time and suffer in their Christian growth. Because of pose a higher cost of living compared the costs. Laziness sets in and inertia Bible translation and literacy, they were to villages. Unskilled villagers who had grinds. Minorities who come from the discipled as they translated. This made gone there to look for seasonal work fringe of society typically have low self- it possible for them to become Chris- now make more money back in town- esteem and lack the confidence it takes tian teachers and leaders. This in turn ships as micro business owners. There to do a complex literary project. The made it possible for them to train the is a huge increase in ecotourism. Cake “King James Version syndrome” is also subsequent generation of teachers and shops, once a cosmopolitan marker, prevalent, where the minorities think leaders. This was true for the minorities are popping up in townships. As rural that God originally spoke the exact and the Han Chinese churches alike. land is being privatized in the second words encoded in the Chinese Union Version, and it only is sacrosanct. People prefer to worship God in decade of the twenty-first century, their native language. Language in more commercial opportunities will Bible translation is an act of discipling the religious domain and in poetics open up for the minorities of China in the church. As a standalone, this state- is more effective in one’s heart lan- their ancestral lands. ment sounds trite. But history shows guage. Discipleship is a process that the cost of not heeding this ad- requires the breaking down of existing vice—many translated at great traditions and the reconstructing of a financial and human cost are sitting new worldview. This reflects back on in warehouses gathering dust. Once the issue of Bible translation for the Because of a church planting movement reaches least-reached people groups: it is still Bible translation a certain stage, a church planter for best for them to have the Bible in their a minority language community heart languages because most of them and literacy, will realize that some form of Bible don’t know the trade language well translation needs to be done. Without enough to understand the finer points they were discipled as it, church growth slows. It is one thing of what God is saying to them. they translated. to evangelize a people or plant a small local church. It is another thing for the The great commission, the command to emerging church to take root, survive, go and make disciples, is not done until and become a house of praise for his the church is fully prepared as the bride fame and renown (Isa. 26:8). That is of Christ (2 Cor. 11:2). This requires Many of the minority autonomous the time when the church planter will Christians of all languages to reach a provinces, prefectures, cities, counties, reach out and ask Bible translation certain level of maturity in faith and townships, and villages in China were agencies to come in and help. This practice. Bible translation and literacy independent geopolitical entities a is the best time to start a translation are essential to the growing of God’s century ago. They have retained their project. The evangelist needs to make church. Conversion needs to take root language and culture to such a degree the request.47 When there is that felt and not remain one inch deep. that visitors would think they are in a need, translated portions will be used. The oft-made criticism of Bible trans- neighboring country. It’s obvious these The feedback gathered from the use lation is that it is not cost efficient, but places need Bible translation. of such scripture portions is fed back that’s not true in light of history. Had to the translators. This improves the Many languages make good candidates Robert Morrison and the subsequent translation quality and increases spiri- for Bible translation projects. So why translators not poured their lives into tual impact. has not more been done? The stretches these massive projects that only bore of Bible-less territories in the west and In this view of Bible translation, closure fruit slowly, one can imagine a greatly the northwest await brave souls who is harder to define because the last mis- diminished church in China now, two are technically equipped and called sion frontier is discovered only as church centuries later. to go. More has not been done up to planters find concrete needs for Bible Secondly, more areas need Bible trans- now because of severe restrictions and translation. Translation will take place lation than one thinks. It’s incorrect persecutions. It is highly unlikely that piece-meal, and how far it progresses

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Ken Chan 37 will depend on the number of people in Endnotes of the Heathens” (1792). For online access, see: https://www.wmcarey.edu/carey/en- a least-reached community, their demo- 1 Ethnologue: Languages of the World, quiry/anenquiry.pdf. graphic structure, and their level of inter- 20th ed., www.ethnologue.com, accessed 11 http://www.christianitytoday.com/his- November 22, 2016. Languages become en- est in having their vernacular scripture. tory/people/missionaries/william-carey.html. dangered for a variety of reasons. Language 12 A lot hinges on the church planter. shift, endangerment, and death are taken as Jost Oliver Zetzsche, The Bible in And the key question is: Are there facts by linguists. For an example, see David China: The History of the Union Version (originally Sankt Augustin: Monumenta enough of them? The answer circles Bradley and Maya Bradley, eds., Language Endangerment and Language Maintenance Serica Institute, 1999; trans. Daniel Choi; back to Winter’s original observation: : International Bible Society, (London: Routledge Curzon, 2002). No, there are far too few of them work- 2 2002), 138–39. Ralph Winter, “The Highest Priority: 13 See www.table71.org (Accessed on ing among the remaining least-reached Cross-cultural Evangelism” in Let the Earth November 8, 2016). peoples. Unless the global church Hear His Voice, ed. J. D. Douglas (Minneapo- 14 intentionally sends missionaries to lis: World Wide Publications, 1975), 213–41. See www.wycliffeassociates.org (Ac- 3 cessed on November 8, 2016). evangelize and disciple these peoples, He argues “mission should focus 15 “There does not seem to have been we must surrender to a counter-closure on reaching every sociolinguistic group of people where the church does not exist” anything very remarkable in the strategy theology. God could do it non-linearly, (Frank Severn, “Some Thoughts on the and tactics of the early Christian mission.” See his “Methods and Strategy in the mysteriously, and without Bible trans- Meaning of ‘All the Nations’,” Evangelical Evangelism of the Early Church” in Let lation. But the student of history can Missions Quarterly 33:4 (1997): 419. the Earth Hear His Voice, ed. J. D. Douglas see that God has called the church to 4 Winter, “The Highest Priority,” 213–14. 5 (Minneapolis: World Wide Publications, work alongside him in this endeavor. For a review of opposing views, see Mi- 19750), 165. chael A. Rynkiewich, “Corporate Metaphors 16 The technical expertise built up R. W. Lewis has addressed this issue and Strategic Thinking: ‘The 10/40 Window’ of definitions in her article in this issue of in the past century by translation in the American Evangelical Worldview,” the IJFM, “Losing Sight of the Frontier Mission Task: What’s Gone Wrong with the Demographics?” International Journal of lot hinges on the church planter. And the key Frontier Missiology 35:1, 2018: 5–19. 17 Alan Johnson also points out that question is: Are there enough of them? The “it has been hard to reach consensus on answer circles back to Winter. the precise indicators” (“Critical Analysis A of the Missiology of the Frontier Mis- sion Movement,” International Journal of Missiology: An International Review, Vol. 35, organizations is a “select arrow” in the Frontier Missions 18:3 [2001]: 122). Todd Lord’s quiver (Isa. 49:2). The Forum no. 2 (2007): 217–41. 6 M. Johnson also avers: “artificially airtight of Bible Agencies International, “an See his most clear apologetic against twentieth-century taxonomies of race and Winter’s closure theology in, “Why I don’t alliance of more than 25 leading language have been rightly deconstructed Believe in Closure,” Evangelical Missions international Bible Agencies and other by the academy” (“Globalization, Christian Quarterly 32, no. 3 (1996): 262–63. Identity, and Frontier Missions,” Interna- 7 mission organizations,” is “working Malcolm Hunter traced the major tional Journal of Frontier Missiology 27:4 together to maximize the worldwide points of Winter’s views in “The Omega [2010]: 167). 48 access and impact of God’s Word.” Connection,” International Journal of Fron- 18 The autonomous province of Tibet and Here Bible translation is not the end tier Missions 20:1, 2003: 20–24. But Hunter the northwest are exceptions. These language did not focus on the theological aspect of goal, but a means to disciple minority groups have retained their mother tongues due the discussion. to special historical and social factors. language communities. In particular, 8 McGavran was another leading 19 This was no doubt aided by the the connection between discipleship missiologist who was instrumental in this spread of Greek culture through the Alexan- and Bible translation is highlighted in “frontier mission movement.” See Alan drian library. Even Philo, the Jewish histo- the mission statements of the Wycliffe Johnson’s review of the history of this rian, wrote in Greek rather than in Hebrew. Global Alliance (the umbrella or- movement’s development in “The Frontier 20 The Jews, who were trying to Mission Movement’s Understanding of the ganization of the Wycliffe family of discredit Paul before the noble women and 49 50 Modern Mission Era,” International Journal the aristocrats of Pisidian Antioch (13:50) organizations), Seed Company, and of Frontier Missions 18:2, 2001: 82. 51 and at Iconium (14:2), probably also spoke Pioneer Bible Translators. 9 See Daniel Nettle and Suzanne Ro- in Greek. maine, The Extinction of the World’s Languages 21 This leads us to a final question: will Sergius’s position as a government (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 28. leader and the form of his name recorded leaders who shape missions in China lead 10 “An Enquiry Into the Obligations of here, Sergius Paulus Anthupato, (a Lati- the spiritual transformation of the least- Christians to Use Means for the Conversion nism), both suggest this conversation might reached through Bible translation? 52 IJFM have been in Latin.

35:1 Spring 2018 38 Searching for the Impact of Bible Translation among the Minorities in China

22 The mix of language use of Greek, what became the famous Delegates’ Ver- University Press, 1999), 69, quoting Albert Hebrew, and Aramaic is detailed in Ber- sion, the first Chinese Bible in a standard Feuerwerker, The Foreign Establishment nard Spolsky, The Languages of the Jews: A classical Chinese, and acceptable as Chinese in China in the Early Twentieth Century Sociolinguistic History (Cambridge: Cam- literature. Wang Tao was his co-translator (Michigan Papers in Chinese Studies 29; bridge University Press, 2014), esp. 30–32. who worked with him on the Delegates Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1976). The spoken language seems to have changed Version. For more information on them 43 This is counting languages that from Hebrew to Aramaic by the time of see: Hanan, Patrick,“The Bible as Chinese score 6b or above on the EGID scale. For a Jesus. Epigraphic evidence “such as marriage Literature: Medhurst, Wang Tao and the definition of this, see www.ethnologue.com and divorce papers were in Aramaic” (p. 43). Delegates’ Version” in the Harvard Journal (accessed November 9, 2016). Hebrew was still the language of religious of Asiatic Studies 63:1 (2003). http://www. 44 T. Wayne Dye, “Scripture in an Ac- teaching and liturgy. Greek was increasingly oalib.com/paper/1508932#.WmZEl6inE2w. cessible Form: The Most Common Avenue 28 adopted by the Jews. Even at Qumran, which See Lauren Pfister, “A Transmitter but to Increased Scripture Engagement,” Inter- paid the utmost attention to ritual purity, not a Creator: Ho Tsun-Sheen (1817–1871), national Journal of Frontier Missiology 26:3 “twenty-seven texts are in Greek,” beside the the First Modern Chinese Protestant Theo- (2009): 123–28. 750 Hebrew texts and 150 Aramaic (p. 48). logian,” eds. Irene Eber, Sze-kar Wan, and 45 T. Wayne Dye, “Eight Conditions of Latin was not forced on the non-Latins. But Knut Walf, Bible in Modern China, 139–44. Scripture Engagement: Social and Cultural 29 Latin inscriptions were put up as a sign of Ibid., 134, quoting SOAS Library, Factors Necessary for Vernacular Bible imperial rule: 190 of these have been discov- “Sketch of the Life of Ho Tsun-Sheen,” Translation to Achieve Maximum Effect, “ ered in Caesarea, and 530 “from the rest of CWM/South China/Personal/Legge/Box 7. International Journal of Frontier Missiology 30 Israel” (p. 59). Ibid., 147–50. 26:2 (2009): 90. 23 31 See James Clackson, “Language China’s Millions, London ed., Apr 46 It is common in China for people to maintenance and language shift in the 1932: 77; July 1932: 131. It was the policy of say that nobody is left in the villages except for Mediterranean world during the Roman the China Inland Mission for local Chris- a few elderlies and children who are not old Empire,” in Alex Mullen and Patrick James, tians “to secure their own preaching chapel” enough to enter school. In reality, many adults eds., Multilingualism in the Graeco-Roman and “to support their own preachers” (China’s live in the villages of the least-reached lan- Worlds, pp. 36–57 (Cambridge: Cambridge Millions, Australian ed., May 1, 1932: 73). guage communities. They cannot be spotted University Press, 2012), 41–46. “Inscrip- 32 Tien Ju Kang, Peaks of Faith: easily because they are working in the fields tional evidence for all ‘local languages’ Protestant Mission in Revolutionary China (that are widely scattered) in the daytime. (other than Greek in the south) disappears (Leiden: Brill, 1993), 53, quoting China’s 47 Offering money to start a transla- from the Italian peninsula by the end of Million, North American ed., 1907: 106. tion project is not a good strategy. It is the first century ” (p. 42). But as smaller 33 ad John Pritchard, Methodists and their often seen as a job creation program by the languages died off close to the heart of the Missionary Societies: 1900–1996 (Surrey: minorities. Little impact comes out of it. Roman empire, the rate of language survival Ashgate Publishing, 2014), 70. 48 increased with distance from it. Coptic in See www.ifoba.org (accessed on 34 Pritchard, 68–69. Egypt and Palmyra, in what is now Syria, November 8, 2016). 35 49 were examples of that principle (p. 48). China’s Millions, Aug 1933, 122. “We believe Bible translation is an 36 24 Lystra (of Pisidia) was not close to Isobel Miller Kuhn, By Searching essential component of the Church’s respon- Tarsus (of Cecilia) by ancient standard. It (London: Overseas Missionary Fellowship, sibility as they participate in God’s mission was unlikely that Paul would have known 1966), 55. to redeem and restore His creation. Access 37 the local language spoken there. Tien, 47. The subscription ofNuji - to and use of Scripture in a language and format that can be easily understood is essen- 25 Jost Oliver Zetzsche, The Bible in angbao, a newspaper printed in this script, tial to the spiritual formation and growth of China: The History of the Union Version had a circulation of 2,500. 38 individuals and of local bodies of believers.” (originally Sankt Augustin: Monumenta Up to recently, Tuanjiebao, a newspa- See www.wycliffe.net, “More about the Alli- Serica Institute, 1999; trans. Daniel Choi; per published in Jingpo, was “published only ance: Important Facts” (accessed November Hong Kong: International Bible Society, in the missionary script.” See Tien, 47 n. 24. 39 9, 2016). Wycliffe USA’s (www.wycliffe.org) 2002), 125–127. Hanson wrote: “several hundred boys 26 and girls have been educated in mission own vision statement, which does not pre- There were locals who were not as clude discipleship, is less clear on this issue. gifted and who did perform this function. and Government schools.” Ola Hanson, 50 See www.theseedcompany.org (ac- And it was short-sighted for people like The Kachins: Their Customs and Traditions cessed November 8, 2016). Its vision state- Thomas Hall Hudson (1800–76) to see the (Rangoon: American Baptist Mission Press, ment is: “God’s Word transforming lives in locals’ roles as nothing more than making 1913), 97. 40 See Paul J. Bailey, every language in this generation.” the foreigner’s translation sound more fluent Reform the People: 51 (see Zetzsche, 112–14). Changing Attitudes towards Popular Educa- See www.pioneerbible.org (accessed 27 tion in Early Twentieth-Century China November 8, 2016). was a 52 British Congregationalist missionary to (: Edinburgh University Press, This article was written in celebra- China and one of the earliest transla- 1990), 101. tion of the 30th anniversary of Wycliffe 41 tors of the Bible. In 1840, together with See Bailey, 20–21. Bible Translators (Hong Kong) in 2017. three other missionary colleagues (Charles 42 See Robert A. Bickers, Britain in Gutzlaff, E.C. Bridgman, and John R. China: Community Culture and Colonial- Morrison), Medhurst began translating ism, 1900-1949 (New York: Manchester

International Journal of Frontier Missiology