USSR ACADENIY A quarlerLq of lhe Section OF SCIENCES of lha Social Sciences, USSR Academy of Sciences. Philosophy Founded in 1970. Published in Moscoa in Englislt, History urtd aLso in F'rench, Sciences Sociales; in German, Gesselschaftsu,'issenschaftcn: Economics soc r in SpanislL, Ciencias Sociales; Politics ond in Portuguese, Ci6ncias Sociais Sociology s

The journal is published by agreement: Larv irr Bengali, Philology Sannj Bijnan (Bingsha Shatabdi Publishers, Vol. X, No. I r97 I Calcutta, India): Psychology in Japanese, Shahai Kagaku (Shakai Kagaku Co. Ethnography Tokyo, Japan) Archaeology in Greek. Kinonikes c pistemes (Planet Publishers, Athens,

Grecce) ; in Arabic, CONTENTS Al Ulum aL-ljtima'iga (Dar al-Farabi Publishers, Ileirut, Lebanon); irr Portuguese ("Avante!" Publishers, Lisbon, put out To the Reader the edition for circulation in Portugal). P. Fedoseyev Constitution of the USSFI and the Social- lhe Spanish edition is reprinied in Colombia ist Way of Life 8 by Centro de Estudios e Investigaciones Sociales (CEIS) Publishers, Bogota. P. Zhilin Heroic Pages of History 24 * Systems Theory: Topica! Aspects V. Afanasyev Since '1976 fhe Editorial Board has been Systems Approach in Social Cognition 29 publishing lhe journal Obshchesivennie nauki V. Kuzrnin Systems Foundations and Structures in (Social six times a year. Sciences) in Russian. lt appears Marx's Methodology 45 l. Blauberg System and Wholeness Concepts 65 N. Lapin Social lndicators in Global Models 80 For subscriptions apply V. Sadovsky The Methodology of Science and Sys- to national distributors dealing with tems Approach 93 V/O "Mezhdunarodnaya Kniga" that are listed at the end of this issue. G.Sorokin The Historical Experience of the Soviet Five-Year Plans 111 @ Social Sciences, 1979 E. Yudln, Scientific Knowledge and Labour 125 Reprinis authorised with writlen permission from lhe Edilorial Board. B. Yudin Yu. Desheriev The Development of Sociolinguistics in "social Sciences" Editorial Oftice, 33/12 Arbat, Moscow l2lfl)2, USSR. Conditions of the Scientific and Tech- nological Revolution 137 A. Bykhovsky, V. l.Vernadsky, Reflections of a Natural- E. Kovalev From the History of the Chinese Com- munist Movement V. Los lst; V.LVernadsky, Scientlfic Thought as a Planetary Fhenomenon 275 DeveloPlng Gountrles: V. Kalryan The Culture of Develojled Socialist Soci- New Researches ety (A Review) 274 K. Brutents lmperialism and thE Llberated Gountries 108 A. Sldorov V.M.Polevoy, The Art of Greece 283 S.Tlkhvlnsky US Policy in Asia Drscussrofvs 284 Unemployment in the Capitalist World 176 BIBLIOGRAPHY COAUET{I CR|T\CAL STUDI/ES AND New Books on Africa 287 Vl.Alenasyev The Fetishist Basis of Contemporary "Problems of the Contemporary World" t".-'r!!--'-- 193 uieltern Political Economy series 291 * r MAN AND NATURE Contributors to This lssue 293 E, Fyodorov Relations with Nature Optimised Our Glossary 295 VIEWS AND OPINIONS Our Mailbag 299 Developed F.Kuznetgov Spiritual and MoTal Values.of List of Distributors 300 Socialism SCIENTIFIC LIFE Birthday Anniversaries of Soviet Scientists in 1978 229 D. Llkhachov The "Literary Monuments" Series 237 l. Krugllkova Soviet-Afg han Archaeolog ical Expedition 242 Congresses o Conferences t Symposiums

S. AgaYev The 130th Anniversary ol lhe Communist Manifesto 246 K. Abulkhanova- Forum of Psychologists of Socialist Slavskaya, Countries 248 E. Faraponova Chronicle 251 BOOK BEVIEWS V. Fomlchev Vladimir llyich Lenin. Blographical Chronicle. 1870-1924, Vol. 7. 266 E.Obmlnsky M. M. Maximova, Ihe USSB and lnterna- tional Economic CooPeratlon 269 G. Khozln Problems of Environment in the World Economy end lntemational Relations 271 V. Kelle A. F. Dashdamirov, The Natlon and the lndlvidual 273 EDITORIAL COUNCIL

FedoseyevP.N., Academician, Chairman Grigulevichl.R., D. Sc. (Hist.), Deputy Chairman MaslovaN. I., Executive Secretary

Members

AfanasyevV.G., Corresponding Member, USSR Academy of Sciences; ArbatovG.A., Academician; BogomolovO.T., Corresponding Member, USSR Academy of Sciences; BromleyYu.V., Academician; Frolovl.T., To the Reader Corresponding Member, USSR dcademy of Sciences; GapochkaM.P., Cand. Sc. (Philos.); GromykoAn.A., D. Sc. (Hist.); GtrryevI.E., Cand. Sc. (Econ.); GvishianiJ.M., Corresponding Member, USSR Academy of Sciences; InozemtsevN.N., Academician; KapustinE.I., Corresponding Both meetings Member, USSR Academy of Sciences; KhachaturovT.S., Academician; at and in their letters to us our read,ers show a heen interest the problems Khrapchenko M. B., Academician; Komkov G. D., D. Sc. (Hist.); Kostyush- in socialist way of life, to the of war and peace, and in koI. I", D. Sc. (Hist.); KovalB.f., D. Sc. (Hist.); Kovalchenkof.D., how legal scuence has becn further dcaeloped in the new Constitution of the USSR. We therefore open this issue qn Acadernician Corresponding Member, USSR Academy of Sciences; KrivtsovV.A., D. Sc. with article by P. Fedoseyev, joumal. (Hist.); KumanevV.A., D. Sc. (Hist.); KuznetsovD.V., Cand. Sc. (Hist.); Chairman of the Editorial Cauncil of our He notes that MarkovD.F., Corresponding Mernber, USSR Academy of Sciences; it is in the sociali,st way of life, the affirmation of which is inseparable MchedlovM.P., D. Sc. (Philos.); MomdjanKh.N., D. Sc. (Philos.); from thc implementation of the proposi,tions of the Constitution of the LISSR Narochnitsky A.Lu Academician; OkladnikovA.P., Academician; Piot- in eaeryday li,fe that the interconnection between the socio-econorni,c and rovskyB.B., Academician; PrimakovE.M., Corresponding Member, political achievements and the changes in eueryday life and in the USSR Academy of Sciences; SemyonovV.S., D.Sc.(Philos.); Shaposh- consciousness of people in the course of buikli.ng the new society manifests nikovV.S.; ShiryaevYu.S., D.Sc. (Econ.); SobolevA.I., D.Sc.(Philos.); itself rnost ai,uidly. We also publish an abridgecl text of the speech rnade by TikhvinskyS.L., Corresponding Member, USSR Academy of Sciences; P. Zhilin, Correspond,i,ng Mernber of the USSR Acad,eml of Sciences, TimofeyevT.T., Corresponding Member, USSR Academy of Sciences; during a discwssi,on of L. I.Brezhnea's &oofu I-ittle Land and, Rebirth af TrukhanovsklV.G., Corresponding Member, USSR Academy of Sci- the Diaisi,on of History, USSR Academy of Sciences. ences; \finogradovV.A., Corresponding Member, USSR Academy of Sciences; VolskyV.V., D. Sc. (Econ.); ZhilinP.A., Corresponding Member, USSR Academy of Sciences; ZhukovE.M., Academician. Systems Theory V. Afanasyev, Cowesponding Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences, d,escribes uarious aspects of the systems appraach ta the phenomtna and processes of social life. Y.Kuzrrrim summarises his studies of the role and signifi,cance of the systems principle in works by Marx. L.Blauberg ernphasises that the methodalogical foundations of the concept of wholeness should be studied. in close connection with the elaboration of the systems approach. N" Lapin discusses interdisciplinary aspects of a specific growp of large systems-global modals. V.Sadovsky analyses the expediency of using system idaas for the further deuelopmmt and irnproaement of current concepts of the methodology of scicnce. rf rl. * Philosophy In the second half and interconnection of of 1978 o B. anil E.Yudins deal with the interaction editions in Portuguese. In por oarious spheres of the life scicnce as a major prod,uctiue force with _of the "Avantel" Publishers (57, es that a whole' and of tie the second edition circulated life the socialism hos Put in the firms tn the by t with hds griwing sPi Kniga". dialectics of his relations with society. sue, we are introducing some your changes in the layout of our journal. comments and i.rggestions ,,o'iir u. Economics welcomed.

, In our G. Sorokin analyses tke of the souiet fiae-year plans that t the comme haue always been blased on economic theory and cgnsftytly- Since cnriched fi. Vt.Afanasyev some Westem aiews in the field of then i'n the Portuguese politica nt the changes !?ki?g.place iroduct the STR as rad,ical changes in the posed. fresh problems. soc00-ec In this to mark the forthcoming lOth anniversary e intend to publish in the Zlosing issue of this History aire in the h'ope that o.r. ,.aa.rs, Contemporary replies to it to further improve the journal. the wide E. Kovalev researches material showing We wish our read,ers strata in China in the reaolutionary eaents in Russi A Happy and Peaceful year! response of the Chinese liberal press to the Great New Reaolution. The Editors Developing Countries K. Brutents writes about the faiture of imperialism's neocolonialist policy, i,mpelting i,ts archi,tects lo rnahe changes tn the strategy and tactics of this policy.

Linguistics dy of language in all its dizterse ,n current social deueloPnnent, the sc and the Progress of tke natural sc istics'

Interdisciplinary Research {Jnemployment as one of the economic, socio-political and sPi analysed, in the article "UnemPloY society's actiaity has reached' such 'become has irgentty necessary to protect nature i,n order to preuent irreoersible and untlesirable changes of the enaironment' sources of wealth, by some strange weird spell, are turned into sources of want. The victories of art seem bought by the loss of character. At the same pace that mankind masters nature, man seems td become enslaved to other men or to his own infamy. Constitution of the USSR and the Socialist WaY of l-ife

PYOTR FEDOSEYEV sion of the joint activities of people into an alien force dominating them. Socialist society refracts the key gains of social progress in the activities of each individual, in his way of life. The new Constitution of the USSR, which came into force on Elements of the socialist way of life have been developing and the blY called the gaining strength ever since the victory of the socialist revolution. Fun t the Present They took root in proportion qo the break-up of the former stag one may say' socio-economic system, in the struggle against the traditions and thJ exPressed in way of life of bourgeois society, in the offensive against capitalist fundamental laws. elements, their ideolog/, policy, and norms of behaviour. The nationwide discussion of the draft of the new constitution As in the entire rnatter of society's revolutionary remoulding and its adoption, combined with the celebration of the 60th on the principles of socialism, the leading roie in forrning the anniversary of tne Great October Socialist Revolution, still further socialist way of life was played by the working class. Its accentuated the features of the life, thought, and behaviour of revolutionary and labour traditions, and its scientific, Marxist- Soviet citizens characterising the socialist way of life that has taken Leninist ideology were the foundation for the formation of the shape in the USSR. socialist way of life, the education of the new man, and the The Constitution of the USSR and Leonid Brezhnev's speeches assertion of communist morals. The leading role played by the working class in socialist society is embodied by its vanguard, the Communist Party. Through the Party the working class exercises the determining influence on the development of the political consciousness and scientific world outlook of all working people. With the final establishment of socialism the new, socialist way of life becomes the main element of the vital activity of all social groups, of all nations and nationalities: its principles and norms increasingly perrneate all aspects of the work and life of people. The socialist way of life brings into prominence the relation- ship of socio-economic and political achievements with the uninterrupted beneficial changes in the life and thinking of people in the course of the building of the new society. The socialist way

8 each and conccrn of each for the welfare of all is the law of life in developed socialist society. Through their awareness of civic duty people feel their link not also with the arity. Friend- tion between the ideal of life without war, the ideal of unbreakable world Peacer are a salient feature of the socialist world outlook and the socialist way of life. In the Soviet Union internationalisrn is implemented in day-to-day life Soviet people. It is noteworthy in every rePublic, region, town, ce, institute, and collective-farm live and work in harmony and help each other to move to new achievements in the building of communism. One of the basic civic duties recorded in the Soviet Constitution is formulated in Art. 64, which states: "It is the duty of every citizen of the USSR to respect the national dignity of other citizens, and to strengthen frierldship of the nations and nationalities of the multinational Soviet state." The socialist way of life is a way of life of the working person, of the maker of materiai and cultural values. The Constitution of the USSR defines the fundamental role of labour under socialism and shows the character of Soviet society as a society of working people. .Art. 14 states: "The source of the growth of social wealth and of the well-being of the people, and of each individual, is the labour, free from exploitation, of Soviet people." This underscores the specific feature of socialism: it has emancipated and human- ised labour, tl'anscended its capitalist alienation, abolished private property in ttre means of production, Put an tation of man by man, and created ever broader for the realisation of the strength and abilities of Under socialism social production is itself steadily subordinated to the need for satisfying the growing requirements of all members of society as fully as possible. At its 25th Congress the CFSU adopted a programme for social development and raising the living standard. The central provision of this programme declares: "On the basis of economic growth and greater efficiency of social production, it is to be ensured that the people's growing material

1t l0 essence of socialism, by the democracy implicit in it. The reason and intellectual needs be met more fully, that the socialist way 9t that soviet society's social socialist democracy is seen as democracy of a higher type, as rir. u. consistently developed, _and democracy not in words but in deed, is that it rests on the activity imProved"" structure be further and political consciousness of the masses, on their unfailing and Growing growing participation in all areas of life and state administration. acquired by The increasing public activity of the people is one of the socialist accompanied system's greatest achievements. The most vivid evidence of socialist also of the democracy's creative potentiality is its main document, the rema themselves, develoP and Constitution the USSR, product collective wisdom, which forces and new notions, of of production, creadn! new absorbed the finest ideas and thought of the people when they requirements.6 As Marx lssociation,' and tl* discussed it. "\rVe," Leonid Brezhnev noted addressing the production sheds its socialism material Poverty .a Supreme Soviet of the USSR on October 4, 1977, "can say with and the free develoPrnent of the individ character, confidence and pride that dt is the whole Souiet people who haae i,n on and-the growth of labour productivity become the trwe creators of tke Fundamental Law their state."'e leisure time, thereby facilitating the fact of more Soviet Constitution enshrines democracy of ailrotrnd development of individuals' The the true hort, developed socialist society, political system ensures the question the words: Man does not the that Today hardly anybody will effective administration increasing the vital activities of rnan do not boil of all public affairs, the live by #ead al6ne.'Indeed, participation of the people in the life of the state, and the means of subsistence, to "deter- Jo*.r'to obtaining the _labour combination of the real rights and freedoms of citizens with their and mundane considerations".T Other factors ."i".a by ,r..errit! duties and responsibility to society. way life are the socio-political and intellectual underlying a of A remarkable feature of the new man and of the socialist way activities of peoPle. of life is their inexhaustible social optimism" This is due chiefly to aracterised bY a high level of the socialist social system was shaped and established as a whole, of all social the fact that i societY most revolutionary istinction between rnanual and by the advanced, class-the proletariat. Our i way life sprang from the most progressive social system, ed; the intellectual element of the of namely, the socialist system. Hence the optimistic world outlook of mainly in manual labour is growing activities the builders of communism. Pessimism, the desperation, Lenin steadily.lygivenacreativecontentinparallel wrote, implicit classes perish,r0 is alien them. ,The Uectual level of the masses' The in that to with the int revolutionary optimism the class was tempered the dencY, which leads to radical of working in struggle against capitalism, against the capitalist way of life. The '[:,X""TL: ji unshakable belief of the working class that historical justice is on :?':-.?#",i'.'Hf its side and that its cause is invincible is manifested with redoubled es of the socialist system, which strength and asserted in socialist society. accelerates science's fusion with production' nA Also an important characteristic of the world outlook of the ois new man and of his way of life is that there is no discrepancy between his convictions and deeds. A person's thoughts and eer feelings are manifested in his practical deeds, in his public activity. tis Under the socialist way of life, communist ideals are linked not accidental that word cornbinations such as "worker- and "\r'orker- indivisibly with communist deeds in all fields of the vital activity of intellectual", "non-professional intellectual", citizen new society. This harmonious combination of literature- and^ belles the of the researcher" have appeared in sociological ideological guidelines, the moral rnake-up and the activities of Lerrns social thought feels for the trertres. With the heif of these people is an essential element of the formation and development in labour activities and which that are taking place today the new man and his way life. The close unity of the "hurrg., mental and manual labour in of of clear"the ground for i'he fusion of scientific, Marxist-Leninist world outlook, comrnunist norms of the c

12 in the Programme and Rules of the former years, the paganda and of bourgeois notions of a communism formulated -moral way of life worth with its ingenuous motto: "I buy (or The basic. principles of the code determine the cpsu- of have, or can buy I livi." J"y--,*a"y moral .iqrrire'ments made of man in the building The fact that life in the bourgeois world outlook has co of socialism and t so accomPanied bY the th coordination of all L.frrrrorrt, and activity of people' However, it would be--naive to ;;;;-;;, i" .Jity t't is ttirmbt y is achieved automatically in the and society as a Not only vidualisrn. life of individuals, collectives, -whole' reduced level of incomes rv. certain contradictions and dis- In its consumer interpretation, human life is to the ts, behaviour, and activitY of ivitY is not reinforced bY the . Often there is discrePancY t ideals and the actual behaviour SuPreme Soviet of Session of the frame of mind is linked the cult of brutality and violence. The consumer way of w the attention of all state and life stimulates the spread of alcoholism, drug addiction, sexual license, and crime. orsanisations to the need for "a stronger drive-against The bourgeoisie fosters a consurner attitude in order to divert the people frorn oublic feeling I"*ri rr*l t breaches of labour discipline, drunkenness political activity, suppress intellectual requirements, and stir uP mercenary -;ih;; "uit"at which cut across the very bourgeois society ii itill able to eipand material production and increase material I;d anti_social phenomena consuhptionconsumption for part of the population,popu but it increasingly suPpresses intellectual -substance of our socialist way of liie'" " consumptionconsumDtion and increasingly shovshbws its hostility for reason, morals, and progressive it. dialectics of life are such that in a socialist society culture. e is asserted in a Persevering the and ofl

bourgeois way of life are not ousted automatically by the new I*i;r;;-;.;;i"g forces. Exponents of the old norms and habits .orrtirirr."to inflience the petple around them' This underlies the contradiction between the col,ossal achievements of socialism and thebackwardelementsthatslowdownsociety'sdevelopment. surmounting these C"*t"""itt society cannot be built without he market mechanism without preservation of private property, cap negative phenomena or, to quote Leonid Brezhnev' of the eco.romy. The ideas about the ety and a "new qu_ality abotishing these social sores. of life" are thus usually barren, for th ugly capitalist reality. The present stage of d boirr- geois ideology, is marked s whose outward criticism of the anti conceals their attacks on real socialism, which serves as an example and beacon for the work- inginq people,neonle- for developingdevelooins nations that have adoptedadooted the socialist orientation. In addition.addition, the old.old, tested weapon of bourgeois ideology and propaganda- individualism nourished by proprietary psychology and morals-is used against the between soc countries. The competition socialist countries, againsi the socialist'wiy of life.'The society of proprietors; Lenin indicators; it als technical and economic wrote, is "based on the principle: rob or be robbed.'. Naturally, people brought up the way of life. in such a society assimilate with their mother's milk, one might say, the psychology, - has been raging in recenr years precisely in this A; acute ideological struggle concept which says: you ,rre either a slave-owner, a petty emPloyee, a and-propaganda services seek.to make the habit, the in which the 6o,-,rg.oir'Ia.ologues petty or an intellectual-in short, a manrrwho is concerned only with "r.", ihZ alignment-of forces ot thJinternational scene in favour _official,_ cood of the change of does not care a rap for anybody else." :ru;t';;Jill; ii"? imp".i"tism has lost the historical initiative' As in himself, and t5 t4 individuality of each person is displayed in society, in association Capitalismgiveseverypossibleencoura8ementtoindividualisticfeeling,which It gives with other people, in collective labour. Moreover, the formation of h.d b;;; cultivited Uy tnL l"ii"f"xploiting"class.in nre-caoitalist societies' full rein to unbridled ;ffi,,,o Bo,r'rg.ois. individualism is the new man presupposes his all-sided development as an " ""5--iiaitia"rlis*llatter's sense of civic duty, cripples man independent individual. As was foreseen by Marx, it is precisely in io.rfli.t o,, a socialist society that man is able "to assert his true individuality", individual- for each must be "given social scope for the vital manifestation of gives their his being".t5 rgeoisie declares that to negate private Far from being erased, individuality, i.e., the manifestation of n-cled on it means to negate individual the personal qualities, interests, tastes, and creativity of the justice of Marx's words that "free the increasing is not for individuals""" individual, is given scope under socialism. It and characterised intellectual been cultivated for centuries on by a high level of maturity, which presupposes identity and the consciousness civic An socialism even after Private of duty. er inalienable feature of the man with a communist make-up is not has been replaced by public property' Crinres such a's Droperty iteerins:t?r-3:Tllff hardened egoism but a striving to place his skills and talents in the #f.;;i;;;t,Lriu.,y,prof i.:H,i;:Tl service of others. have the same source' The problem of individuality and individualism has yet another aspect. Marx iouslv convincingly showed that capitalist rule means the "total abolition of any individual in a viduilisrn fiourishes; even freedom and the total enslavement of individuality to social conditlons that acquire themselves the form of material forces and even super-pciwerful things".l6 A paradoiical rights and reality of modern bourgeois society, which proclaims false "equal opportunities" tem rejects for all its competing members is such that while fostering the ideology of unfounded individualism it exercises a destructive influence on genuine individuality, individualism, the claimr; nf egois steadfastly narroiving and restricting the sphere of its free manifestation. Lenin orivileses,t"il?ii;;;a.i to a special status. showed the illusory character of the individualistic slogans and vital recifes for the it ur, in cornmenting on the draft constitution of "small man" trying to "make his way in the world" under state-monopoly the capitalism: "As a matter of fact, however, capitalism long ago replaced small, ttre USSR, some bourgeois pr :ss orBans savagely- attacked duties of Soviet citizens' independent commodity production, under which competition could develop provisions on the righti, free mt, uid enterprise, energy and bold initiative to any considerable extent, by large- and very i'Thi.," Leonid Brezhnev said large-scale factory production... syndicates and other monopolies. Under szcll capitalism, competition means the incredible brutal suppression of the enterprise, energ'y and bold initiative of the mass of the population, of its overwhelming majority, of ninety-nine out of every hundred toilers; it also means that competition is replaced by financial fraud, nepotism, servility on the upper rungs of the social ladder." r/ They however, have found themselves in an unenviable. position' The constant and unabated pressure of the mammoth production and ;t.;pe the iact that our draft Constitution defines the bureaucratic machine of state-monopoly capitalism on man is supplemented with ;;";; the deliberate fabrication and dissemination of so-called mass culture, which ;.trl, economic, anJ pottical ri1 f,:t*T::Til:,;: :i:;,rt,;: Xl$ depersonalises both its creators and consumers, levels down and standardises the 14 intellectual life of people. Naturally, this impoverishment and depersonalisation of .tt human life is strongly opposed by the democratic movement and by exponents of aliege that socialist societY advanced culture. idual. But bY individual theY Against this background the "historical advantages of socialism xistence and of the Privileges as a mode of production and way of life, its genuine humane bourgeois individual' -- a systel thint

:T'i"'.T,:J":?':ie modern epoch, the artistic form (both on the scale of world tire range- of measures within the framework of aimed at asserting and history and Iist. way the law of the birth, growth, and triu of life, at the relevant restructuri"ng of the inevitable death of the obsolet f vital activity-from work to family, everyday principle, expressing the Party spirit in c fossilised does hi"l..ii.t thai the old and when we single out the main orientation for the assertion and own will, and that the new is asserted i unremitting and at times bitter struggle

erature of socialist realism' With the establishment of socialism in a number of countries' the socialist way of Underscoring its h Leonid Brezhnev w

had fought."23 The socialist mutable. It develoPs and is behaviour of thinking and Peo Work is the principal element of the education of the new man values, and bY new new cultural and the formation of his way of life. In this area, too, the 25th

20 2t was accomplished-for raising the well-being of the masses, extending socialist democracy, and furthering the harmonious development of the individual."?{ The socialist way of life develops on the material and socio-political foundation of mature socialism, in the course of the fulfilment of the epochal tasks set by the Communist Party. It provides the criterion of Soviet society's advance towards commun- ism and of the norms of behaviour of each citizen. This way of life embodies the vast intellectual and moral potential of communism accumulated by Soviet society during rhe past sixty years of the new era ushered in by the Great October Revolution. The establishrnent of the socialist way of life clears the way to the mode of life that will take shape during the transition to communism. NOl'F:S

K.Mn.* ancl F.Engels, Selected, Worhs, Moscow, 1969, Vol. l, p. 500. !' V. I.Le.i., Collected Wor[s, Moscow, Vol. 31, p. 50. e L. I.Brezhnev,Rcportof theCPSUCentralConmitteeandthelmmed.iateTashsof the Party in Home and Foreign Policy. 25th Congress of thc CPSU, Moscow, 1976, p. '| K.Mu.* and F.Engels, Works, Yol.3, p.75 (in Russian). t' (;uidrlinu for the Deuelopment of the National Economy of the USSR for 1976-1g80, Mrrscow, 1976, p. 79. tt K. Mu.* and F. Engels, Worfu, Vol, 46, Part I, pp. 483-484 (in Russian). 7 K.Mo"*, Capirat, Vol. III, Moscow, 1971, p" 820. 8 L. L Brezhnev, "A Historic Stage on the Road to Communism ," World Marxist -Reuie{,, No. 12, December 1.977, p. 5. n ,v, On the Corctitution of the USSR, Moscow, 1978, p. (in r0 33 Russian). Collected, Worirs, Vol. 16, p. 332. 'r I Luw of the Sociali.st State of tke Whole People, Nl.oscow, 1978, pp.

rB L. I.Brezhnev, "A Historic Stage on the Road to Communism", Worttl Marxist -Rsudazr, No. 12, 1977, p. 4.

2a L. I.Brerhr,ev, The Greot October Revolution and, Manhinil\ Progress, Moscd$g 1977, p. 10.

22 Leonid Brezhnev enjoyed the warm regard and confidence of the soldiers bearing side by side with them all the hardships of the war. His warm personality, sincerity and ready sympathy in large measure explained the immense prestige of the Eighteenth Army's political department of which he was the chief. The path covered by this army, more than five thousand kilometres, was one of hard-fought battles. But the main content of the book is devoted to events that took place on Little Land and near Novorossiisk in the winter, spring, summer and autumn of 1943. Here, on a narrow strip of the coast, running six kilometres in length and four and a half kilometres in depth, and crisscrossed with trenches and communication passages, a crucial strategic issue was HistorY being decided in the course of more than two hundred days of heavy Heroic Pages of fighting: if the men of the Eighteenth Army succeeded in holding this important beach-head then the capture of Novorossiisk, the key PAVEL ZHILIN position to the Taman Peninsula, would be ensured; if the enemy succeeded in taking possession of Little Land then the struggle would assume a protracted, exhausting character. In this desperate The appearance of L' I' Brez struggle the Soviet troops stood their ground and defeated the is a momentous event in Politica enemy. right away acquirt'd enormous soc The value of Little Land f.r>r studying the history of the Great also abroad. This is not surprislng Patriotic War Iies in its concrete character. It enriches the reader with history of the Soviet state, of the new factual material and corrects some views that have become antiquated. le Land, and Rebirth are seParated Both books consider and come to grips with important funda- mental issues. Of the questions connected with the histo'y of the :l,t"x.'""'"tT;;'3;l3JI# Great Patriotic War three should be noted. of the Soviet PeoPle in the Great The first. On the assessment of the prewar situation. patrioric war (1941-1945) and their labour exploits in the rehabilita- It is well known what efforts were made by the CPSU and the eve of the Second World War to block the way to tion--- of the war-devastated national economy' Government on the tt *. consider the main content of the two books what should be fascist aggression. But when it became clear that the Western Powers noted above all is t of had no intention of establishing an anti-Hitler coalition and that they devotion to their ce were pursuing a policy of instigating Hitler to start a war against the ideals and their h tu USSR, the Soviet Government was compelled to conclude a the outbreak a massive ok non-aggression pact with Germany and thus stave off country's "rr.r*aain Washington and in Bonn, in Ankara of war and secure the time needed to strengthen the and and in Lisbon is evidence of the enormo defence potential. This act of the Soviet Union is portrayed the Soviet Union and in the personality assessed in the West in different ways and frequently in a distorted the CC CPSU, Chairman of the Presid manner. Sorrio-"",standini p"tti."t figure and statesman of the Land The Soviet people too tvere troubled by this question. This is how of soviets' Leonid Brezhnev replied to the question asked at a conference of difficult periods in the lecturers in 1940: It reveals with historical "'Comrade Brezhnev, we have to explain the non-aggression riod, the militarY art of pact: that it is in earn is engagtng rn mense value of the book provocative talk. But h faith in it. So we?' as a true chronicle of the war' what are we to do? S 25 24 "It was a rather awkward moment; four hundred people were postwar competition between the two systems, applies a comparative sitting in the hall awaiting my repl;, and there just wasn't time to method of research. He writes: "Comparisons are inevitable: the ponder the rnatter. "'Yes, rve must explain it,' I said.'And we'll go on explaining, comrades, until fascist Germany is razed to the ground!"" Brezhnev's reply reflected the essence of the policy and strategy of our Party, which took account of the real aim clf the aggressive emphasis those economic plans of the Hitler fascists. our ideological opponents, place on not yet yielded its The second question: on building up the country's defence indicators in which ihe biggest capitalist state has potential in the conditions of expanding fascist aggression. Some historians and for that matter some authors of memoirs as well sometimes claimed that the Soviet Union did not prepare thoroughly for a military confrontation with fascism. I-eonid Brezhnev who at the time was secretary of the Dniepropetrovsk Regional Party Comrnittee responsible for the defence industry incisively refutes such an erroneous assertion. FIe writes: 5 had to attend to guite a few important and urgent matters practically from scratch"" "I - drawn by Leonid connected with organising and coordinating a powerful defence These and other fundamental conclusions study of the history of complex such as the south of the Ukraine was at that time and, in Brezhnev are a valuable contribution to the particular, the area along the Dnieper. the Great Patriotic War and furnish a scientific methodological basis "Plants producing purely peace-tirne goods were switching over for its further research. Rebirth not only the recollections to war production; our metallurgists were learning to make special The books Little Laniland are the and postwar grades of steel; I had to keep in touch with several ministries, to fly to and reflections of an active participant in war historical works in Moscow and to travel endlessly all over the region. There were no rehabilitation of the national economy. They are solid factual material, has such things as days off."2 which their author, basing himself on are We know frorn documents published and from memoirs that drawn broad theoretical and philosophical conclusions that of rnuch was done in the country to prepare it to repulse the aggressor', tremendous interest for contemporaneity. That is why it was able in the end, despite temporary reverses, to tilt Little Land and Rebi,rlh enabie the reader to see, through the the balance in our favour. specific, what was characteristic of the whole country. They are The third question: on the popular character of the Great written in a straightforward, clear style easily understood by a wide Patriotic War" Leonid Brezhnev considers the armed struggle not readership. separately but in the indissoluble unity of the front and t-he rear, as a Liltle Land contains not only valuable rnilitary experience relating war of the whole people in which each rnade his contribution to the to the defence of the socialist state, but also the Communist Party's victory over the enemy. This is an important methodological organising experience in mobilising the country's forces and means question. The front as the main and decisive sphere of military for its defence in armed struggle. action was linked by a thoursand threads with the rear and was Here I would like to note that much is being done, through the armed provided rvith everything needed to wage a successful efforts of Soviet historians and with active participation of military struggie and to achieve Victory. leaders, to generaiise the rich experience of the war years' The Leonid Brezhnev shows the character of war in nrodern times Institute of Military History, for instance, prepared and published in when a whole country is under stress and strain, when all man-power a cornparatively short period (12 years) 140 scientific works in .Rebirrft im and material resources are drawn upon. In the hro

VICTOR AFANASYEV

forget it, but so that it may never be repeated." s Perhaps no terms in modern science in general and in That is why the reader finds Leonid Brezhnev's words in the sociology in particular are spread more widely than the terrys closing part of his book Little Landso moving: "If I were asked today "system", "structure", "systems method", etc. In the West, one what is the main conclusion I drew from the war which I went can hear and see more and more frequently that the systems through from beginning to end, I would say: There must be no more approach represents a new methodology, a new world outlook, war. Never again must there be any war."5 which is, supposedly, the only one that corresponds to the spirit of our time, the requirements of modern science and technology. As NOTES early as 1950, a book was published in Vienna, The Wholenex i,n I Philosophy and Science, where it is stated unequivocally that the L. I. Brezhnev, Little LondoMoscow, 1978. pp. l4-lb. principle systems 2 Ibid.*. of property, of wholeness represents a special 3 philosophy, the methodological basis of scienCe, that it iJ that L. I. Brezhnev, Rebirtl; Moscow, 1978, pp. 58-89. { "magical key which can open the door to the whole totality of the L. I. Brezhnev, Following Lenin's Course. Speeches ond Arrictzs Vol. 2, Moscow, 1970, p. l0 (in Russian). riches of reality".I 5 In recent years such views have become especially widespread. L, I. Brezhnev, Our Courw: Peoce and Socialism,Moscow, 1974, p. 15. 6 "Structuralism", L. I. Bre"hrrev, Littb Larul, p. 15. "functionalism" and other trends in modern Western philosophy and sociology that are often founded on various idealistic, anti-dialectical speculations on "systems method", "systems approach" are being intensively developed and propagandised. As a matter of fact, these speculations represent different versions of peculiar "systems" positivism, the rejection of solving purely philosophical problems, substitution of special approaches in their place, attaching general methodological significance to certain interdisciplinary principles, above all those of mathematics and logic that are not significant in the general philosophical, world-outlook sense. Similar trends are typical also for the interpretations of systems approach in the West. As a rule, they are characterised by a clear class orientation: to substantiate the stability, to pur contact itself, the interaction between workers "begets in most eternity and italisi so industries an emulation and a stimulation of the animal spirits that the ways and at least heighten the efficiency of each individual workman".4 contradiction On the basis of the above, a system should be defined as a set of objects, the interaction betrareen which caus€s the appearance of new, integratioe quali,ties that o,re nat typi,cal of i.ndi,uidual com- ponents tkat fornt the system. The relation between these components is so close and essential that the variation of one of them causes the variation of others, and frequently of the system as a whole. It is the presence of so intense interaction, organi,c connection between compone.nts that is responsible for the fact that in its interaction application to the analysis of capitalist production. Such an with the medium a system always appears as something single, is one of the.irnportant methodological requirements of ]pproach possessing a qualitative definiteness. A system represents such a Marxist-Leninist dialectics, one of the forrnJ of contretisation of formation in which the internal connections between its cornpo- nents are domineering with respect to both the internal motion of these components and the external actions on them. A systern actiaely acts on its components, transforms them according to its own nature. As a result, the initiatr components unclergo substantial changes, i.e., they lose certain properties which they had before their entering the system, and acquire new **{. pnrperties. When a system is forrned, new cornponents that were abscnt previously are often formed. 'Ihe above staternents concerning systelns, systems property, become expressed most vividly and, if one may say so, most completely in systems which constitute an object of social knowledge. The Marxist dialectico-materiaiist view on society and the Marxist sociology of necessity express the systems approach to its study. Society, social systems are not a mechanical conglomerate, not an arbitrarily created formation but an objeccively existing totality of closely interconnected social phenomena. Marx end Engels frequently stressed the need to investigate the connections and interactions between social phenomena as they exist in reality. The task of the researcher is not arbitrarily to construct one or the word, a sysaem is a wholeness.characterised formation that another systems unity out of elements of thought and to impose it possesses new quaiitative characteristics which are not present in society the systems property society itself and the components forming on but to find in it. correctly reflect it in thinking. Marx spoke many tirnes against the method of cornbining c()ncepts irrespective of the objective reality, of a certain socio- economic system. He aptly described this idealistically speculative method by the well-known dictum frorn Goethe's Fawst:

"With words a dispute can be won, With words a system can be spun".s 30 3l In social we find cornponents . -systems of a material, procedural, spiritual and human nature. Thj,ySs . gs cqn-tlo1tmE 9f " social system are bodies, objects d,rawn into the orb-it of public li,fe. These are mainly objects of the so-called second nature: instruments and means of libour, and means of consumption created by man out of things of nature on the basis of applying- the laws of its developmenr,lnd used by him in the prog:s.s of his production, socio-political and spirituil activity. Things as social phenomena cannot be understood in th.rrr_ selves, outside human activity. They are products of concrete labour, use-values, and as such z re natural in origin. At the same time, things perform a certain social function is they are the me.al.ls of satisfying one's needs. t is only in connection with men's activity, that they become components of the social sy g their natural qualities, amount and measure a unity of the natural and the social in a thing, th_e-natural manifesting itself in the material the thing is made of, while the social-in thi fact that it is drawn into sociaf relations., .satisfying some or other needs of men. A thing serves the system -social by its natural quality which is, h"owerer, insufficient for it to be useful to men, to the social system. It is important that things be,produced in the necessary amounts and proportions and-possess the quality corresponding to requirements of the fystem. The natural material here ij remo-ved, as'it were, is covered with social significance, with the value of the thine. "main Depending on the nature rf the social system, the material substance, the means of production,'while being the property of one, o-r another class or a group of classes, perfoin an important social function: serves as the basis of sociil relations, **rF determines the place of one or another class in the sociai organisation of labour, as well Tl. approach . - :ISjeTs conditioned by the requirements of means of subsistence. Under soc Marxist dialectics is, in turn, also characteiised by iystems property, objects of social (state or collecti since it has several aspects, the unity and mutual conneitio'n of relations of friendship and mutu whichgivesao."r";;pd"::e'1fl JJi'J,11Xfr"il"i_.?H:'jl.T,:j are free from exploitation, the u199" capiralisrn,-they are oljects of private capitarist property, which serve as the basis of the relations of domination and subordination, the unjust distribution of the means of subsistence.g It should be noted that man also possesses material natural art, a component of the social

All social processes are in the although they are performed according to objective laws, certain unity, wholeness and causing the appearance of new qualities The third group of components is of a spiri,tual nature. These are not inherent in any of thern. Of especially great importance for social ideas which exist not by themselves but again in men, in their preserving a system is the relatiae i,nd,epend,ence, stability of structure. minds. Behind ideas are always certain interests, men's needs; they Structure does not immediately, directly and automatically follows correspond to the requirements of the social system (society, class, the change in a system"s components but remains constant within etc.) to which these men belong. Socialist ideas, for instance, express certain limits, thus preserving the system as a whole. A system would the scientifically realised interests of the revolutionary working class, have ceased to exist as a given concrete whole without stable reflect the being of the people of the socialist society, their interests connections and interaction between its components. As the most and goals. Their content and social functions qualitatively differ stable characteristic of a system, structure resists, as it were, constant from the content and social functions of bourgeois and petty- changes in its cornponents, keeps these changes within the limits of a bourgeois ideas. certain quality. The . presence of structure is a condition for Man as a socialbeingalways appears as the main component of any accurnulating quantitative changes within a system, which are a sine social system. Man is the last, in a'sense, the final elernentary vehicle qua non of its subsequent development and transforrnation. of the social systems qdality. At the sarne time, being a component of As far as society is concerned, structure appears as the internal any social system, an embodiment of its essence, man is only a part of organisation of society or i,ts i,ndi,aid,ual elements. The structure of society the social system. He is not a kind of absolute social atom, eternal and is a totality of social relations. Structure is inherent in society as a indivisible. Only when included in a definite social system, man whole and in any concrete subsystem within its framework. Every acquires his social essence" In a social system of any complexity, of concrete social system within the framework of a "global" whole, any level of organisation man is the principal cornponent, always a society has its own specific structure, organisation which is a socially organised and conscious being setting himself definite aims concretisation of a more general structure-the structure prevailing and striving to attain them. in society. It should be pointed out that it is by no means always possible in a The structure of any social system is determined by relationi society to draw a boundary between the rnaterial, procedural, between men, prod,uction relations aboue oll. People act in the various spiritual and human components, since any cornponent of a social spheres of public life (economic, socio-political, spiritual, family- system always appears as a relation too. However, in order to cognise domestic). Hence specific structures for the concrete spheres of an and control society as a system and also any subsystern within its integral society: econornic structure, socio-political structure, the framework, it is important to disclose their composition, the set of structure of spiritual life, the structure of everyday and family life. their components, ta elucidate their substantial nature, since all the Each of thern possesses specific features of its own, which bear the other characteristics of the system in large measure depend on its starnp of the qualitative natur€ of society and are deterrnined above composition. all by the forms of property prevalent in it. The most general feature B. The Systems-Structural Aspect. Of immense importance for of the structure of socialist society consists in the relations of determining the qualitative specificity, characteristic features and friendship and mutual assistance of free labourers. properties of a system is its structure, the internal form of the system, The structure of a social system appears not only as relations urhich represents a way of interconnection and interaction between tha between people. Relations between the various spheres of public componmts that form it. life-the economic and the socio-political, the economic and the The concept of a system's structure is very close to the concept of spiritual spheres, relations between other social spheres-all are form but is not identical to it. It covers only one aspect of the concept elements of structure. of forrn: the internal organisation of content. As is known, in When we say that the structure of a social system is multiform and addition to this aspect, form is also a manifestation, an expression manifests itself in various connections and relations, we must always of content (exchange value as a form of manifestation of value), and bear in mind that, no matter what components are connected in a a characteristic of the external appearance of an object (external social whole and in what form the strucrure appears, it is in the end form), and so on. of necessity manifested in the activity of people. Any structure. The specificity of structure depends above all on the nature of the any relation in society is made up of people's activity. Of course, components of a system. At the same time, since it follows from the these relations are not always realised, comprehended by people but nature of parts, structure plays an important role in the system: it people are always behind them. It was not accidental that Lenin connects the components, transforrns them, imparting to them wrote: "The materialist sociologist, taking the definite social

g ,5 relations of people as the object of his inquiry, by that very fac[ also instrurnents of labour, their functions; it is on them that the studies the real ind,iaid,uals from whose actions these relations are functional specifics of all the other elements, and moreover, the formed."'o Mrq as a social being is always behind the structure of a econornic epoch as a whole depend. According to Marx, "it is not the society. articles made, btrt how they are made, and by what instruments, that C. The Systems-Functional Aspect. Every social system is active, enables us to distinguish different economic epochs. Instruments of which is manifested in the functions of the system. The functions of a labour not only supply a standard of the degree of development to system are, in turn, an integrated result of the functioning of its which human labour has attained, but they are also indicators of the comPonents. social conditions under which that labour is carried on." rr There is a functional dependence between the individual A change in instruments of labour leads to a change in labour components of a given system, between the components and the itself, in the labour functions of people, requiring certain qualifica- system as a whole, between the system as a whole and another, tion and skills from them. In view of the fact that with the broader systern a component of which it itself is. What is more, some development of implements of labour, the worker passes over to components function simultaneously, side by side with each other, machines an ever greater part of his functions connected with the while others function in succession, one after another. To put it processing of the object of labour, his functions depend on. the differently, the functions of components are coordinated in space nature of the implements, on which of his functions and to what and time. extent can be "taken over" by the machine. A change in implements With respect to the system, the functions of components are of a of Iabour is accompanied by a change in the object of labour, since purposeful natu,re, otherwise a component falls out of the system, with the improvement of implements an ever wider range of more becomes a foreign body for it. It is important to stress that the and more diversified articles, and in every article an ever greater functions are "tied" to the components and are performed within varietv of its aspects become objects of processing. the framework of the structure, internal organisation inherent in the Marxist dialectics does not absolutise functional relations; it sees system. Therefore, changes in the nature of the components, in the causal relatioru behind them. Meanwhile, functional connections are character of their interaction (i.e., in the structure) of necessity cause not always causal. The main point in the study of systems is the corresponding changes in the functions of both the components elucidation of their social determinacy, causal conditionality. A themselves and the system as a whole. thorough analysis of functional connections with a view to finding One should distinguish between coordination and subordination cause-and-effect relations between them is an indispensable require- of functions. Coordination of the functions of a systern's components ment of Marxns systems approach tg social phenomena. takes place hori,zontally. For instance, the members of individual Each of the social systems has a complex nexus, an interlacing of working groups, of the teams in a shop, of the shops in a factory causal relations and interactions. Some components of such systems coordinate their activity. Subordination of. functions proceeds oerticu- are directly connected with the system through a causal relation, they lly, with the functions of some components being subordinated to are more or less immediately "responsible" for ,some or other those of others and the functions of all components without characteristics of the system. Others are "responsible" for the exception being subordinated to those of the system as a whole. properties of the system in an indirect, mediated fashion, and still Subordination of functions points, first, to the special, specific others may in gt neral have the character of a side effect. place and the unequal importance of each of the components in Nevertheless, the functions of all components, all parts of the system, performing the funttions of a system; second, to the fact that every the whole are coordinated with it. In Lenin's words, "the part must given system, while integrating the functions of its components, itself conform to the whole, and not vice versa".l2 performs a certain functional role in another, broader and more It follows from the foregoing that social systems represent a complex system of which it is a component. queer tangle of functional and causal relations. In this connection Marx considered, for example, the labour process from the point the task of sociology is not to limit itself to an analysis of the structure of view of the functional subordination of the components of an or functions of a system but to use scientific methods to disentangle integral system. The components of labour are: labour itself as the most complex mass of causal relations and patterns of labour power expenditure, the object of labour, i.e., the object functioning and development of a system, which is inherent in every towards which human labour is directed, and the instruments of social system. labour, the implements through w\ich man acts upon the object of D. The Systems-Integratiae Aspect. One of the fundamental aspects labour. The most important elements in the labour process are the of the systems approach is the question of systems factors, of those t6 mechanisms that guarantee the preservation of the qualitative system represents the averaged resuit of collision, intertwining and tems, their functionin t. intercrossing of various, often contradictory forces, of a great unity of the world" nciples of number of casual individual acts. This action makes its way as a and motion which are but which gener"al tendency in a mass of chance events; it is automatic in nature and requires no interference on the part of peopie. dn example of this is the rnarket, the main regulator of the capitalist economy" Along with spontaneous, non-programmed factors, operative in society at ar,y stage of its development are consciousf.actors of control connected with the goal-oriented activity of people. Here one witnesses the gradual formation of specific social institutes, subjects of improvement and developrnent. control, in orher words, the systems of agencies and organisations Control is the indispensable, inherent proPerty of society at every consciously acting on the system with a view to achieving definite stage of its development. rsal characterand results. follows from the systems social, collective Being an indispensable property of any society, conscious control, labour of people, from t n the process of i.e., ensuring of orcier by people themselves, regulation of produc- Iabour and life, to ex r material and tion, and of public life as a whole, is an irnportant manifestation of intellectual work. man's activity, a necessary form of strengthening one or another Labour was, is and will always be social in nature. From the very society, its preservation and improvement" According to Marx, "such beginning o people had to work together, to unite regulation and order are thernselves indispensable elements of any into groups, t more successfully the powerful forces mode of production, if it is to assume social stability and of nature. in labour is inconceivable withoutr independence frorn mere chance and arbitrariness".14 organisation, order and division of labour, determination of man's One can see that the purpose of conscious control is to resist place in the collective and of his functions. Division of labour, spontaneous, automatic factors of control. The point in question is estabhshmentestablishment of certarncertain proportronsions between the vanousvarious sPneresspheres o!of relative independence, since society cannot attain absolute freedom public life, between branches of production, and material and from the controlling force of chance, regardless of its stage of intellectual activity are necessary in every society, alrhough under development. different historical conditions they assume a different character. "All It is irnportant 8o note that the degree of independence of any combined labour on a large scale," wrote Marx, "require$, more or concrete society frorn the $pontaneous effect of chance, the force less,ad rderto and the efficiency of its resiseanc€ to spontaneous factors are not the working ies, and same. They depend on the rnaturity of a sociery, on the regularities functions in the and trends intrerent in it, on the extent to which these regularities organism e action and trends create conditions for human activity, perrnit the ControlL;ontrol isls exercisedexerclseo not only over productionprooucrlon butout over thetrle socials()clal interference of man and social instituti.ons in social processes. life of people as well. It is well known that rnan is a social Thus, the conscious control of society assumes a concrately- historical character. The boundaries of c

40 it into its own component, and so on. Internal connections and external interactions inherent in a For the scientific cognition of any social system it is necessary to x changes in the process of development. know how a given appeared, one -system what major stages it passed ar, the existing ones differentiate; through in its developmenr, what it is now and whatlts hislorical another or assimilates it; the existing prospects are. components or relations regrouP and undergo restructure, etc' _ N.ry social systems form in different ways" One socio-economic formation replaces another as a result of a social revolution. Radicar qualitative changes take place in various subsystqms within the lirnits of a formation. within framework of the state, new administrative units are created, new cities, townships and settlements built, businesses opened, new work collectives set up, etc.

birth to the new, the progressive" ove-rtaken by it; interest and comrnercial profit, rent, rnoney, etc. trn * !i< ,1. addition, it created components of its own, for instance, labour- power as comrnercial profit, etc., to the becarne co nomic system only when ity and they were of the'production and rnto a accumulati Motion, development is also inherent in a social system al- It stands to reason that one of the aspects or a combination ready established: its functions develop and become richer; there is a thereof can be (and a constant c and their interconnec- tion of social systems. tions and as a whole and of its the efficient practiaal individual nt; some cornponents by the combined app

42 43 . The systems a_pproach to cognition and control is especially Systems Theory: lmportantimportant inrn developedcleveloped socialist society which is capable of iolvinisolving Topical Aspects the most complex comprehensive problems requiring close coordil nation and interaction of the various spheres, the-economy and public life. As was noted by 24th Congress of CPSU, "the comprehensive-a and the adoption of major national-economic d greater lmportance.im TheI'he very nature of the tasks before us is such that their fulfilment, as a rule, calls for concerted efforts by many branches and economic areas, and includes implementation of i, whole system of diverse measures." l? T!" sy_stems approach, _ comprehended from the -cognisingpoint of view of Marxist dialectics, is a powerful instrument of and Systems Foundations transforming society along progressive, socialist and comitunist Iines. and Structures in Marx's Methodology

NOTES VSEVOLOD KUZMIN

' Vienna, 1950, p. 52. t' ork, 1960, p. 148. 308. A study of the role and significance of the systems principle in Marx's theory and methodology has prompted the following b- G*thr', Fauf, New York, 1961, p, 203. general conclusions: 6 V. I.Lenin, Collzcted Worfr$ Moscow, Vol. l, p. 189. l. The assertion of the materialistic understanding of history (Marx, Engels) in the l9th century and the discovery ' l,y"o and F.Engels, Schcted Worlsin three volumes, Vol. l, Moscow, 1969, p. of the laws 160. of the evolution of living nature (Darwin) was ar the same time a 8 ,,second,, For the dual nature of the quality of things belonging to the nature, see discovery of the species-generic or the macrosystems regularities of V. P. Kuzmin, The Categcry of Meosure in Maaist Dialectics Moscow, 1g66, objective reality. These theories contained such basic parameters pp. l3l-166 (in R,r.rssian). of systems knowledge as the distinguishing between the forms of p. 710 (in Russian). 06.

486.

ing of reality. Figuratively speaking, it appeared now before man 94. not as a "world of objects" but as a "world of systems", and besides, of developing ones. All this was of great philosophical oscow, 1971, p. 81, significance, became an important component of the dialectico- materialistic picture of the world. 2. Comparative analysis of the understanding of the forms and stages of theoretical cognition by Marx and Hegel demonstrates convincingly the advantages of materialistic epistemology, makes it possible to formulate an idea of the meaningful difference between the subject, systems and metasystems knowledge. By taking into account the specificity of various forms of theoretical cognition and by singling out systems knowledge as one of its formations, of the basis and the superstructure, of ,value, and of the dual nature of labour contained in a commodity-these are only some of the most striking manifestations of Marx's successful application of the systems method. The systems principle appears on the whole as one of the facets of the dialectico-materialistic outlook, of the Marxist-I-eninist theory and methodology.t In order to further disclose the content of these conclusions, I shall attempt in ttre present paper to analyse still another important aspect of Marx's conceptions of systems nature, namely, the question of systems foundations and structures of the social "organism". The study of systems foundations considered from the general rnethodological point of view is closely related to the problem of systems qualities and develops it further.2 At present, however, another aspect of this problem is considered, in the sense that the central place belongs to the identification of methodological principles that ensure the construction of multi- quality, multi-system, multiJevel theoretical conceptions concern- ing thc complex objects of reality. The complexity of objects studied by rnodern science appears now as the focal point of the methodological issues that arise in it. In scientific cognitlon the last hundred years (from the middle of the i9th century to the present time) were a revolutionary epoch. Science, passing from the study of individual objects to that of their sets, complexes and systems, to a more extensive analysis of the processes of development and function- ing, of internal and external interactions, discovered a new world of complexity: the universal dialectics and the universal connection between phenomena, the special regularities of the macro- and micro-systems, and real continuums of interacting factors, the specific forms of causality, qualities, foundations, regularities, etc. The epoch-making achievements of 19th-20th century science made it possible to present the world surrounding us as a multi-system one. It has this property both as far as its structure and its genetic history are concerned. Moreover, its individual parts, spheres, and components are multi-system. As a result it seems as if any phenomenon of this world is a polynomial of. various real systems and it behaves in each of them in accordance with the laws of the given system. One of the important methodological means of beginning a scientific study in such a cognitive situation is the analysis of the foundations of an object and, in particular, of the multiplicity of found,ations. The Ladder of Systenrs Foundations. When one identifies the specificity of concrete phenomena, it is necessary to consider the ohjects under study not as a whole but as a combination of sonne "layers", levels, spheres. In most cases such identification is based on the principie of identification of the specific way of material

47 46 Iso some but not progress

The existence of the "foundation ladder" means ,ir", ..ut

on each other. It is quite obvious that one cannot regard this influence only as "upward" or "downward". There are different types of relations between the foundations of different orders, in and interdependence, coordi- nse Hegel was right when he stage represents power over

social, biologtcal, ancr cnemrcal' usuar- real phenomenon: ^Physrcal lvly, however,h'.r*ever. we abstract ourse:lves from these foundations, take tiiem for a ,.constant condition", in particular, also because,their temporal variations are simply incommensurable in scale with the ;;;d; *ni.f, is hisher on'the evolution ladder' There is a ftii".."." of several" orders of magnitude between the temporal scales of the existence and development of the cosmogonlc Of ,-..tt.tprocesses and those of inorganic livingli nature and society'societY. Of

48 49 the complex polysystems regularities of the world (physical and chemical, biophysical, geopolitical, psychophysiological, social and economic, social and cultural, social and psychological, etc.). The above considerations regarding the multisystems nature and f Proc e for o whic n multiplicity and mutual replacement of foundations"

The System with an Expandi,ng Foundation and, Replaceable Structures Human society represents systems i.g (expanding) foundation and r characteristics constitute the specific of social systems, and both of them are based on a fundamentally new property, the ability of human society to purposefully accumulate advantages of its species. Marx saw in this one of the basic differences between the evolution of nature and the history of society. In his words, "animals are unable to combine the

5t 50 animal is also characterised by elementary "thinkingn', it also "produces" and acts; all this, however, does not go beyond the boundaries of the biological way of life and adaptation to the environment.T The animal perceives its environment through a biological "prism" which provides it not so much with knowledge of the world by itself as with knowledge of various factors, harmful and useful, dangerous and safe, necessary and indifferent for life.8 A qualitative change of cognition occurs in society. From a li- mited form of adaptation to the environment and its specifically biological perception cognition turns into a powerful means of the study of objects and phenomena of the objective world by themselves, mastering them in practical activity. These changes are based on the radicai changes of the mode of existence and activity (the transition to active, social forms of life) and on the enormous expansion of the means of cognition through the second signal system-language and human thinking. The great Russian physiologist I. Favlov, noting the role of the appearance and development of the second signal system in man, said this constitutes the human proper "addition" and "increase" of the social with respect to the biological.e Naturally the problem cannot be reduced to this on the broader plane: the object of human cognition becomes universal and the latter, overcoming the narrow character of "biological knowledge", acquires also special features which make it social knowledge proper. Social knowledge, as also "biological knowledge", is centred around the problems of life, the latter appearing now not in its biological hypostasis but in all its social wealth and diversity. It is not only in the sphere of consciousness, however, that the human "addition" emerges; it is rooted in the radical change in the basis of progress. This is quite obvious even in a most general comparison of biological and social evolution, especially a com- parative analysis of the nature of human and animal activity. An essential element of the qualitative evolution of human society is the fact, which constitutes the basic difference between social and biological evolution, that the mode of human activity is defined as actcue and purposeful, as the mastering of the natural and social condi'tions of man's exr,stence. By contrast with this, the life of the leplaceable structures in the Histori,cal Deuelopment of social animal is always only adaptation to the given conditions of Productiae Forces existence and the consumption of the already available products of nature. The shaping of superbiological production, cognition, thinking, the means of social communication and the acquirement of human universality by them are based on their overcoming their direct subordination to biological needs. Our ancestors realised the advantages and the necessity of hunting together, of defending

52 the main basis of social production Marxist literature. The other trend of research which tion of needs, analysed in humanity entered a new p_hase of connected with the.disclosure of the endogenous history of the history when is living labour in its purely human ominant. development of the productive forces was not-expounded by Marx The cha with the rising systematically and exists only in the form of individual fragments "purpose-level of dev the fact that and statements. We shall make an attempt to give a brief analybis ful, of Marx's views on this question in this section of the form and basis'of iocial Paper' pro nsition from appropriating In his Capital and in the preparatory notes Marx frequently an economy to a producing economy. In this procesJ ifre- spoke of the necessity to study social production by itself, "in its anima] forms of the satisfaction of needs are replaced 6y the one-sided aspect", on the basis of an analysis of the development sociar forms. Labour's natural unity and close asiociati

but a means to widen, to enrich, to promote the existence of the Iabourer." 16 At the same time, under the conditions of any socio-economic exchange, the world market, and therefore also the totality of activitiei, social communication, needs, etc., which constitute exchange become the universal basis of all spheres of produc- tion." re ransformation of all products and activities int s implies the breaking down of both stable (hi of personal dependence in the sphere of

others." 20 In all socio-econonnic formations that are based on the exploitation and suppression of the working masses, the minority wh-ich constitutes its ruling, privileged part, plays this role because it owns the basic means of social production. It is absolutely clear

into large, specialised machines with power installations, and into systerns' of machines, plants, factories, etc. A number of other important phenomena also appear in the mode of production in connection with this radical change. A new (with reipect to the degree of its development) form of

57 56 ,, accumulatiorl, productive accumulation, emerges. A new quality of that they correspond to a different social tlme the socialisation of labour takes shape, the degree of its it uo,irg.ois iystem reveals not only- .,^'d specialisation, cooperation and integration increases considerably, .orrt.uai.,'ions" in its development but al th the forces as the force used in production becomes the mass force for the most nhiiriiit progress of the devel tive part. New relations between the workers and the owners of the and hum resards- -"Til their social conditions and means of production are formed, hired labour ,ru,rr.. of the change of one factor (free from property) becomes the universal type labour. A new ttention' As of "dominating over productiSn" by ' relationship in the production of the means of consumption and is evident fiom all studies of Marx, such rejection means only that means production arises, relative the given stage of the the of the proportion of ini ijfiiu"q social prodrr-ction .at a . . latter increases considerably. The nature of the output of social J.ra,iirt"."t'of"t the productive- forces is determined m-ainly by the production changes: from production based on natural produc- this is the general structure of the whole 2' Jo*i.rlnt factor, foi tion, using, as Marx said, the "natural machine" and producing svstem of social production. ttr-is marks, however' only- the chiefly natural products it turns into production that produces ;i;;;r; .r-in. roi.., acting in production and the role of the mainly artificial products. As a result of these changes in the mode leading no means minimises the independent of production living, direct labour ceases to be the dominant signifila al factors,, of social prod-uction (natural unified element in production 22 and materialised labour becomes conditio the means of production, knowledge' i'e'' the dominant element. science social conditions) for its functioning' Capital tries to preserve this state (advantageous for it) when it Mo..ou.r, there is an absolute growth of their role in connection appropriates all the forces of labour, science and the accumulated withthecontinuousandallr-oundhistoricaldevelopme.ntof social wealth, i.e., all the forces of the social systern. However, it is material and intellectual production' And the change of factors beyond its power. This state is historically transient, and it is i,r.lf o...rrs according to the laws of dialectical negation' i'e'' destroyed by that very progress of the productive forces which is removal and preservation at the same time' stimulated by capitalist production. Marx saw in this the immanent Let us return to the analysis of the conditions and structures contradiction of capital, the contradiction between the bourgeois dominarrt in production that replace each other' The state form of domination over production and the progress of the Jescribed abovi characterises th : siluation that existed during the productive forces of society. ore than a hundred Years have Thus, it was obvious to Marx already in the fifties of the last mankind has entered a new century that direct "isolated labour as such is in general no longer uction, a Phase marked bY the productive", that under new historical conditions it becomes procluctive "only within the limits of the joint labour of many", 4!-rat "production was turning from a simple process of iabour into combining a scientific process which subordinates the forces of labour and 23 technologY makes them serve human needs..." Marx showed that the the presen production of surplus value, which is the absolute law of the against the bourgeois mode of production, is most adequately tied to direct world. (living) labour and its quantity, for the source of surplus value is W" are living at the beginning of this Period, that is in that the living labour, unpaid living labour. transitional .poJh, when lab6ur, rn-aterialised in fixed capital,in At the same time, the development of capitalist production rneans of miss production, still remains.the predominant condi- leads inevitably to the increase of fixed capital and the decrease of ,i.""r_socialp^roduction.Butitisobvioustodayalreadythat the portion of living labour, to the domination of materialised irt"ot p..aictions are coming ttue: science is becoming the basis of may labour, to the application of science in production, etc. All this, tt . *"'.t revolutionary changes in social production'.-science We facto Marx said, makes living labour "a secondary factor with respect to assume that it will nol be loig now when will de universal scientific labour-".24 UL.o-" the dorninant or, at th-e rninimum, one of the dominant As a result, we arrive at the conclusi6n that the productive orereouisites and conditio forces called into being by capitalist production require for their i'ole p'layeci by science in broad and complete development a different socio-economic trasis, from that of living labour

58 59 represent professional scientific activity. The effectiveness of the application the direct factors of material -influenceproduction, whereas science is its ideal component. Science's on social of science in production as a whole no longer requires proof. The production can even be decisive (in the sense of acting as scientific and tlesign preparation of industrial production has stimulators of the progress of social production), but it still turned into an independent production sphere, the scale and the remains mediated. value of which frequently exceeds the dimensions of the corres- When science is not sufficiently developed, when scientific ponding material production. Research and development firms discoveries are rare and production is still- at a low level and and associations, and institutes that serve individual branches and disciplines, the whole system of academic, educational and applied scientific organisations now cover not only material production but practically all spheres of social life. Thus science is moving towards its apogee, to a state which Marx defined as the "dominant factor that covers the whole of social production". Today science indeed acts as the rnost revolutionary element of the development of the productive forces, but alongside it the "natural gift of social labour", the maximal realisation of which determines, to a great extent, the advantages of the socialist economy, remains the most important factor of social economics. Thus, we have traced the way in which these "eternal" factors and conditions of social production-natural conditions, living labour, materialised labour accumulated in the means of produc- tion and, finally, science-developed one after another and under certain historical conditions became the leading factors, the "predominant" ones over production. The most interesting methodological aspect is that every ascent of one or another factor to its apogee and its subsequent "submergence into the founda- tion" leads to the expansi,on and enritchment of the general foundation itself. While the "eternal" factors remain eternal, the history of their "flowering" and replacement discloses an impor- tant chapter on the structure and general laws of the social sys- tems, gives us a graphic example of "replaceable structures". At the same time, this analysis undoubtedly leads to the conclusion that society exists in a certain sense not only as a given historical reality but as a general historical reality that summarises and combines within itself all the real achievements of historical development. The stage of development reached by a society (the socio-economic formation) is at the same time the carrier of progress of social production" In this way, through a series of certain accumulated qualities and properties of civilisation as a mediations, science becomes a systems factor which dominates over whole. production. In order to obtain a complete general picture, it is necessary The sp evelopment of the now to consider how the soci,al factor (social conditions) which is productive scienie acts as not also one of the "eternal", constant conditions of the functioning the only d in association with and progress of social production achieves its highest development the factors al conditions',. and at a certain historical stage becomes the dominant condition of In accordance with the new needs and new possibilities of the ascending movement of the productive forces. social- production science is developing rapidly, an-d today there In all historical epochs people represent the main productive are already millions of people in the world who are engaged in force. Only the socialist, communist society, however, which uses

60 all the achievements of labour and knowledge for the benefit of replace each other or, in the more narrow sense, of dominant man, his allround development, and which formulates as its major structures replacing each other in the development of the goal the development of iuman forces.26 realises the emancipation productive forces clearly brings out a very peculiar phenomenon 5f l"borrr, removes its fundamental social contradiction' transforms which we have denoted as the factor of "variable structures". Such labour from an arduous duty and the source of the means of phenomena constitute an exception in inorganic and even in existence into creative work, into a means of the highest organic nature. And in society they form one of the most typical feitures of the dialectics of social development. It should be stressed that it is the systems principle that helps identify certain characteristic features of such phenomena. It is the fact that every real social s),stem rests on its specific initial basis (type of production) or the leading factor (the dominant condition) of development which determines the place and the relative role of all othir phenomena and relations of the system, modifies them from the point of view of the general systems whole' To put it differently, every historically concrete social structure reflects the dominant relations of the given system, the general nature and .ietei'rrrination of the processes occurring in it. At the same time it is transient and the action of the forces of historical progress can trunsform it into a new integral wholeness in the framework of which its "general" systems quality becomes firmly established. Herein lies the essence of the phenomenon of variable structul'es: society develops qualitatively, changing its internal structure. Secondly, the systems principle enables the researcher to reveal the fact that social development is governed also by the laws of the expansion and accuniulation of the foundations of human become the forces of socialism, the forces that serve the new social civilisation. Therefore, a socio-historical analysis which records the system of socialism. It is only natural that only under socialism and social structures replacing each other is intended to note not only c'ommunism does the role of the social factor, of social conditions the historical necessity of the replacement of the lower developed stages of the socio-economic organs by higher ones but their continuity as well, in accordance with which each stage of the development of society makes a certain contribution to the development of the productive forces, the socio-historical experi- ence of humanity, the evolution of culture and scientific know- ledge. Thus, in accentuating these aspects of the dialectics of social development, the systems principle thereby helps the researcher to disclose their regular and typical character, and in the final analysis, to achieve an integral combination of the so-called "statics" and "dynamics", of structural analysiq and the concrete historical approach, to recreate more vividly and accurately the pattern of the phenomena and processes under study in ali the wealth of their manifestations and theoretical descriptions.

NOTES I V. P. Kuzmin . The Systems Principle in Marx's Tfuory and. Methodotogy, Moscow, 1976 (in Russian).

63 62 2 tbid., pp. 67-114. S"lstems Theom: 3 G.w.F.Hegei, Siimtliche Werke, Parr 9, Stuttgart, 1929, p.69. a fopical Aspei* V. l:Le.ri.r, Collecteil Worfrs, Moscow, Vol. l, p. 410. 5 K.Mu.* and F.Engels, Collecteil ld'orfts Vol. 3 Moscow, 1075, p. 320. 6 K.Mu.* and F.Engels, Selecteil Worhs in three volumes, Moscow, 1970' Vol. 3, p.365. 7 K.M".* and F.Engels, Collecteil Works" Yol. 3, p. 276. 8 P.K.Anokhin, "The Forestalling Reflection of Reality", Voprosy fil:osofii, No' 7, r962. e I. P. Pavlov, Collecteil Worh:, Yol.3, Moscow-Leningrad, 1949, P. 568 (in Russian). r0 K.M..* and F.Engels, Works, Yol. 47, Pa* I, p. 476 (in Russian). rr K.Mr.*, Copitat, Moscow, 1971, Vol. 3, p.352. r2 Ibid., pp. I75, 176. System and Wholeness Concepts " K.Mrr* and Frtsngels, Worhs, Vol. 46, Pan ll, p. 204. ra Ibid., p. 205. 15 IGOH BLAUBERG Ibid.-. i r 16 K.Mu.* and F.Engels, Selected Works in three volumes, Moscow, 1969, Vol' l, P.21. 17 K.Murri and F.Engels, Worhs,,Yol.46, Part ll, p.2O4. 18 Ibid., ilpl. a6, Part l, p. 228 In systems research the concept of the whole, wholeness le Ibid., vdl;. 46, Part II, p, 'i9. plays an important role. All authors (at least, rhe great majorityof 20 Ibid., vol. 46, Part I, p. 99. 21 them) base their studies on the fact that a system represents an Ibid., vol. 46, Part II, p. 85. integral set of elements. At the same time, there is a century-old 22 Ibid., p. 204. history of the philosophical categories of part and whole, in the 25 Ibid., p. 208. course of which their content, as well as methodological 2n Ibid"-. their 25 significance for the development of scientific knowledge, has been Ibid., Yol.4t, p. 186. 26 transformed substantially. It seems to us that methodological K. M..*, Capitat, Vol. 3, p. 820. 27 difficulties in cognising and constructing complex integral objlcts, V.I.Lenin, Collected. Worhs, Yol. 27, p. 4ll. which were experienced in the second half of the 20th century by concrete scientific and technological knowledge, in large ..r.uirre necessitated the systems approach. Considered as philosophical categories, the part and the whole express the relation between a set of objects and a connection which unifies these objects and is responsible for the appearance of the new (integrative) properties and regularities which are not present in isolated objects. The type of connection between parts determines also the type of the whole formed. The categories of part and whole characterise also the general motion of knowledge; the latter usually begins from the undivided concept of whole, to be followed later by the analysis, decomposi- tion of the whole into parts, and is concluded by the reproduction of the object in thinking in the form of a concrete whole. As is well known, Marx formulated these laws of cognition of integral objects in his Economi,c Manuscripts of 1857-1858. In this connec- tion, the nature of the interpretation of part and whole categories, as well as the problem of wholeness derived from them,

65 determine to a considerable extent the general strategy of scientific cognition, the method of solving fundamental scientific

rnethodological point of view includes definitions of system through trrlh aoraapts as "elements", "relations", "connections", "wholi," "wholenesJ", although the terms that fix these concepts in one or another definition are extremely heterogeneous' The author infers from this that the definition of a system through elements, connections, relations and wholeness forms the base structure of the definition of this concePt, which describes at least quite a large class of systerns, other grouPs the subject-matter of the Present Paper appears in systems As for the two literature. that give concrete exPression In ascertaining the fundamental which roduction of additional attribu (cybernetic, biological). The author considers the the properties of a system are ascr bjects, of systems . definitions of a system as a certain Sadovsky emphasises'the extreme em of ,..""d group which includes 67 66 class of mathematical models as a mathematical expression of the base definition (if the objects are described that satisfy this definition), and, on the other hand, as a construction of a broader class of mathematical models, in terms of which one can trace the gradual transition from the non-system to the system object of Jtudy.s The relation between wholeness and systems nature analysed here forms a more generalised criterion of the classification of the most essential and decisive attribute of any system. above definitions of the system concePt. In accordance with this Although, when compared to the concept of wholeness, the criterion, the set of such definitions is divided into two grouPs, system concept appears to be much more detailed and separated-related one of which includes wholeness as the essential feature of every into elements, being surrounded by a dense network of c_o!.cepts, the feature of wholeness is usually accepted in the definition and description of a system as intuitively obvious and is not subjected to further explication. In most cases, the wholeness of a system is specified through indication of the mutual cal models, namely, those of them which serve to describe objects connection between elements; in his concept of "the general system theory", L. von Bertalanffy, for instance, for whom the study of the system was equivalent to that of wholeness, characterised wholeness as a property in the presence of which the variation of any element affects all other elements and leads to the

properties, functions or goals that are different from the properties, functions or goals of its componentsa, which the iuthors base their argument on, one can easily see that this assumption is not explicitly fixed in their definition. However, as has been demonstrated in a number of articles by qualities and properties not being inherent in the individual parts Soviet scientists, the interpretation of the system concePt in terms 5 or their sum. of the set theory is not adequate to the tasks of describing It is exactly the integrativity of the whole, and not the specific systems formations and should be regarded only as auxiliary analytical means of their analysis. Yu. Shreider, for instance, stresses the following fundamental difference between the set and the system; when a set is formed, the basic components are the elements certain combinations of which form one or another set; for a system, the feature of wholeness, i.e', the fact that it constitutes a certain whole composed of interacting

wholeness, which cannot be described in terms of relations either, concepts are in principle characterised by the same attributes. The since the logical characteristics of binary relations (or those whole, as well as the system, consists of parts (elements); the stable, 6e c something which can be achieved with a lesser one. For all their invariant connections between parts form the structure of the of deep kinship, the concepts of whole and system having century-old ike the tyti.*, possesses the properties history and continuously reproduced in the evolution of modern organised erliness. The whole is hierarchically scientific knowledge cannot help possessing substantial differences. in another; a part in son e respect is a whole In order to identify the specificity of each of them, however, we part is, le ii a part ol another whole, and any must leave the narrow circle of definitions and competing as in the study of in its turn, a whole. In the inalysis of the whole, interpretations of these concepts and consider them in a broader of an analYtical segmentation context, namely, in the context of those functions they sYnthetic research the use of modern science. From the perform in on, and so forth. now answer the second half of the question and the Thus, we should features of the system formulated in the beginning of the paper: what is the meaning of peculiarities results, so essential, the functioning of these two concepts in scientific knowledge? This 3sily continued' is exactly what we are going to do now, being aware that this The following conclusions can be made by Ylt attempt, since it is the first of its kind, may turn out to be literature problems 1. The great-majority of authot's in systems unsuccessful; at any rate, we hope that it would be helpful for the system-s do not dfstinguish between wholeness and further discussion of this issue. definitions-.nature ). And when in the difficulties which are encountered by both in We shall begin with of wholeness is absent strives record wholeness criteria (and, definitions anyone who to the ch definitions are not accordingly, those of systerns nature) from the point of view of purely ontological approach to various objects of reality. Such ns on the Problem of wholeness recording implies the possibility of formulating a certain (suffi- e whole and sYstem are essen- ciently complete) list of features that are typical of all integral between tially identical. And those aurhors who distinguish objects, and only of them. In other words, a certain class of objects ystem- (usu- these concepts refer to one or anoth the level, which possesses the of should be singled out at empirical ally to that of Bertalanffy: the syste complex above features of wholeness and differs fundamentally from int of view' elements standing in interaction") to another class of (non-integral) objects, which does not possess such universally The references to a certain system d featureS. however, recognised in scientific literature are not convi-ncing, Above we tried to demonstrate how difficult it is to outline an recently since- the large-scale development of systems studies has empirical boundary that separates the integral formations from been accomp"anied by the appeararrce such a diversity of those ^both _of non-integral ones. Now we would like to add that, as it seems to definitions, informil ina formal (discussed above), that an us, the problems that emerge in this case are associated not to identify certain gen-eral contents in them would require with how apt is the definition of the whole in some or "ir.r"pta considerable classification effort' other publications but with the fact that the meaning of the wholeness concept can never be reduced to the function of i::#'lr H:,':n,3'"'l; generalisation with respect to the level of scientific knowledge the at the beginning of achieved at each moment of tirne. these it in the following waY: Yes, One should not underestimate the significance of such nt and are essentiallY sYnonYms' generalising role of the wholeness concept, which is specifically they can stylistic considerations, expressed in definitions that describe the general properties of r in the corresPonding texts, or integral formations. More precisely, each of such definitions (most special scientific literature records the general element which has been singled out in various t-of whole as less "modern") is objects appearing as wholes at each stage of scientific develop- ment. One must clearly realise, however, what cognitive proce- t satisfactory' dures such definitions are based upon and what exactly functions of As it seerns to us, an important role in the develoPment they can actually perform in cognition. and science belongs to a principle which goes back to Ockham When definitions of wholeness are constructed, the way amounts to a statement: it is useless to apply a great effort to do 7t 70 "upwards", associated with the initial recording of the features definition of the system concePt, as well as in a number of its corresponding to the lower type of wholeness, followed by the other definitions, the importance of the epistemological position in subsequent addition to this set of features that characterise the study of a complex object is emphasised correctly. For all that, wholeness formations of higher types, is certainly inappropriate. however, it is quite obvious that this oPeration of specifying the For such an approach, the resulting set of features depends connection between elements appears in reality as secondary, essentially on the type of wholeness chosen as the initial one, but it derivative with respect to the segmentation of a given complex forms a certain wholeness (or is regarded as a whole). is exactly this question that cannot be solved at the empirical level: object- that the answer to it is related to the prescnce of a certain theoretical It is exactly this segmentation which can be performed on conception of wholeness, i.e., it implies that the definition of different grounds that provides the possibility to identify some or wholeness exists already in knowledge. other elements of the system under study. It would be appropriate to repeat here once again that systems study, unlike the-inalytical approach, implies the motion not from the parts. Thiq the parts to the whole but from the whole to _ statement has to be recalled more than once and, in particular, it was mentioned above, in a section where Shreider's point of view on the inadequacy of the set-theory language for the description of systems formations was Presented. As it seems to us, his reasoning is an apt concretisation of a statement concerning the respect the ele-mentarist primacy of the iniegral approach with -to one (based on elements, parts) and the possibility of diversified concepts of wholeness of a given type and level. segmentations of an integral gbject, which occurs. Persistently- in It may seem at first that the ontological status of the system ryJt.ms literature. In this connection we would like to say that concept of Sadovsky's classificatiqn of the comPonents of the system con- concept is somewhat different from that of the rr wholeness, since its connection with its empirical "assessors" is less cept definitions thai are most iides rread in literature rigid. Indeed, in systems literature the interPretation of the system seims to be made somewhat more precise. Among these compo- as an arbitrary set of objects with relations (connections) specified rrents Sadovsky singles out the characteristic of the initial on it is sufficiently widespread. By way of example, we can cite formations (Ai)-elements, Parts, etc., and the characteristic the system definition suggested by L. Blumenfeld at a discussion of combination of such formations (Az)-complex, set, and so meeting on systems approach in biology (1968): "The concept on. It is not necessary, from the point of view of systems research 'system' denotes a set of real or irnaginary elements chosen in any methodological principles, to give special proof to the fact that it is way from the rest of the world. This set represents a system if 1) exactly A2,-i.e., ihe whole, and not the elements. which should be the connections between these elements are specified; 2) each the prirnary item in the above enumeration' element is considered indivisible inside the system; 3) the system In this case, therefore, one discovers once more that the interacts as a whole with the external world; 4) the set will be content of the system concept is inseparablv connected with that of regarded as a single system if a one-to-one correspondence can be the concept of wholeness; for this reason it is as difficult to "tie" it established between its elements at different moments of time; this as it is to "tie" the latter to a strictly definite class of the objects of statement applies to the case of evolution in time."e reality in order to characterise it exhaustively on the basis of As a matter of fact, however, if one has in mind real systems features of exactly that class of objects. In view of such conclusion, research and not a certain logical mental play, this arbitrariness of it is natural to try to apply another method to establish relation system specification is only apparent. In literature one between these two concepts: to comPare them methodologically, can frequently come across W. Ashby's statement about the having in mind their meaning, place and functions in scientific possibility of imagining a system with the following three knowledge. variables: the ambient temperature in a given room, the air The methodological functions of the concePt of wholeness were humidity and the dollar rate of exchange in Singapore.r0 identified and desJribed by B.Yudin in our joint publication.r2 In Incidentally, he himself admitted that such choice of variables is the above publications, along with the generalising definitions of irrational, with which one can hardly disagree. In the above the wholeness concept, other kinds of definitions were consi- n dered which, instead of recording the level of knowledge achieved individual objects as such but the specific features of the-cognition (this is a function of generalising definitions), appear as guidelines of *hol.r.r, in g..r.ral which ire concrete in application to that denote the direction for further development of scientific t*i1i;i"'t::'l[];"r, thinking. The specific feature of such definitions is that they that this second, "potential" laver can be de scribe not integral objects themselves but those cognitive explained mosr completely in a historical scientific study, when situations that arise in the study of these objects. For scientific knowledge the given function of the wholeness concept is one of the most meaningful: it is as if the concept here turns out to be of the coordinates system for e of reality. cientific study the concept of the rs at the intuitive level, it creates fragment, and not as a whole. It conceptual apparatus employed ori[in of these fragments or hi: and for the systematisation pf the available knowledge concerning unknown to us, cannot help being in some way revealed in parts a given object (for detailsJ see our book, just rnentioned, pp. that we have already known, the unknown structural level cannot 1e-36). i help being somehow discovered at the levels already known' etc' What is then the emergence of this function of the wholeness Let us venture an assumption that it is exactly the presence of concept', in scientific knolvledge associated with? this "invisible" layer which constitutes the source of rntultron' In ordqr to answe,p,fhis question, we shall need the method of creative thinking, etc. distinguishin-g berween two meanings of the concePt of wholeness, In this conniction we would like to recall an analogy from a introduced in the beginning of the paper. In this case we have in different sphere. The well-known soviet writer K. Paustovsky, rnind wholeness in the broad sense of the word, as associated not the role of details in a work ;;ii;;,i"g ii tri. Golden Rosz upon- concrete objects complex organisation but with a style of selection by the artist, with of of literiure and the principles-closely of their thinking characteristic of a certain epoch (culture). Now, when the wrote: ,,The detail is most related to that phenomenon above is taken into account, it becomes clear that this categorial which we call intuition. formation possesses a rather complex structure" Without attemPt- "I.conceive intuition as an ability to reproduce the picture of ing to give its detailed description, which is difficult as yet, u'e still the whole from an individual detail, from a certain single two layers in it and attach to them the condition names can single out Property. "actual" and "potential", ' itrrrtirition helps Y the true The first layer consists of the concepts of wholeness, existing in picture of life ofl t ' the verY philosophical and scientific knowledge at any given moment of I*ot. the people, somewhat time and considered in their general form (the relation between "r ours... the whole and the parts, the place of these categories among a good intuitive and others, the interpretation of the system of concepts associated with wlole: and his (her) wholeness, the notions concerning the rnethods of cognition of finally, the whole, etc.). It is exactly at the level of this layer that the ainty'th f facts known generalising definitions of the wholeness concePt are located, to science that represent frigments of a whole which is as.yet ilthough not completely, since they are related, on the other hand, red later in intuitive inspiration' also to the interpretation of wholeness in the narrow sense of the e of how to aPProach suoh facts word. " fl'om the grouP of the generallY The second layer constitutes that what is lacking in the concepts of wholeness that have been in existence; what is being tTfr ;i :1":f,1?#"" ffiif"il:; found out about wholeness in the course of the subsequent between creative and noncreative development of scierice; those relations that exist in reality but thinking. have not as yet been discovered by scientific knowledge (although Thui, the introduction of a distinction between two meanlngs it is of irnportance for us that these are not the specific features of of the whoieness concePt dernonstrates that heuristic significance

71 75 in scientific knolvledge is attached above all to the concept of ordered process with its internal logic."t4 And what has not been wholeness in the broad sense of the word, with its "potential" layer. known as yet, cannot be formalised. Thus, the call for the It is exactly this concept that forrns the guideline of scientific explication of the wholeness concept which is encountered knowledge, promoting the explanation of new facts or phenomena frequently in systems literature may be referred, in reality, only to from the point of view of a broader whole. And the concept of the whole or, more precisely, to the ways of its expression in wholeness in the narrow sense of the word (associated, as we have knowledge. It is exactly the system concept, as well as the whole already said, with cognition of objects with complex organisation) is set of conceptual means associated with it, which play the role of directed mainly towards the recording of the fact that a given an explicate of this concept (whole). Therefore, the concept of concrete object of scientific cognition is integral, and therefore, the system is indeed inseparably connected with that of the whole. application of purely reductionist methods of study to it in the final Thus, when we speak of the relation between the concepts count turns out to be ineffectivei "whole" and "system", w€, as a matter of fact, admit of a certain Now we are in a positioq to make the relation between simplification. Actually, the point is that a certain integral object concepts "whole" and "wholene'ss" more precise. The "whole" is and its properties are described by means of a developed set of the result of applying "wholeness" as a notion that performs concepts, the central and organising place among which methodblogical functions to a certain concrete object, which is belongs to the concept of system. Complete and accurate regarded from this moment onward as a whole if it satisfies the description of an integral object through systems conceptual criteria adopted by us. It i9 hardly necessary in the present context means presupposes that the given object has already been singled to justify ln detail the fact that such procedure is by no means a out in knowledge as a certain integral formation, and that the formal statement of a generally known fact but is associated in researcher is faced with the task of explicating the connections and most cases with the fundamental restructuring of the existing the properties of this object and, as far as possible, of expressing concepts of the object under study; it would be sufficient to recall, them in the corresponding formal-mathematical concepts and for instance, the substantial shifts in linguistics produced by the operation procedures" To put it differently, the system concept notion of language being an integral formation or the changes includes those aspects of the study of an object with a complex produced in biology by the similar concept of biogenocenosis organisation which have already been "worked out" in the process of (ecosystem). using the concept of wholeness and permit of formalisation. The Thus, the concept of wholeness in the narrow sense of the meqping of this is that the methodological role in systems research word generally coincides with that of the whole. "Wholeness" belongs not to the concept of system but to that of wholeness. And proper, however, coincides with the concept of wholeness in the systems studies themselves appear in this case as an important broad sense of the word. It is exactly with this meaning that these "proving ground" on which the methodological-heuristic function concepts will be used in our further discussion. of the wholeness concept is "tested". What leaps to the eye is that the concept of wholeness in our From this it clearly follows that the ever wider use of the system interpretation cannot in principle be described in formal language, concept in modern scientific knowledge by no means implies the since it records not so much and not only actual knowledge as the rejection of the concept of wholeness, since it is exactly the latter incompleteness of this knowledge. "The original cognitive situa- which specifies that methodological context of scientific knowledge tion on the basis of which an integral object is studied is defined in which systems studies evolve. At the same time, the concept of by the presence of a certain amount of knowledge concerning it. wholeness does not permit of explication; therefore, in order to The available knowledge, however, turns out to be insufficient for characterise it, one his to use quch nebular expressions as "the style reflecting the regularities inherent in a given whole, i.e., for of thinking", "the background of scientific knowledge", "the type of constructing its scientific explanation. This gap between what has reflection", etc. We try to describe the concepts of whole, wholeness, been already cognised and what has as yet not been cognised is system and their interrelations more specifically. recorded exactly by the conception of wholeness of the object The whole (d,as Ganze, le tout\ represents a concrete object under study. It is important to note that the above gap in with integrative ("emergent") properties. From the epistemological knowledge is relative: the non-cognised, as well as the cognised, is point of view integrativity appears as the resultant of the in a sense given to us. To put it briefly, we know what exactly we generalising function of the concept of wholeness, associated with do not know. Such definiteness of what has not been cognised the cognised features of objects with a complex organisation. leads to the study of an integral object appearing as a rpgular, The wholen ess (die Ganzheit, l'intdgritd) represents concepts of the

7r completeness phenomena, and at the same time of them, rather than occupy adjacent places. This integral hierarchical- the essence o processes of formation of the new, ly organised conceptual systerri represents a subsystem of scientific structural le organisation of processes and knowledge as a whole, considered from a definite angle from the point of view of thc' integration or synthesis of knowledge. The concept of wholeness appears here as the integral description of synthetic tendencies of scientific knowledge. It is exactly with respect to such a system of concepts that the place and the significance of each individual concept (the whole, system, structure, organisation, etc.), and their hierarchical subordination, are determined in it. Obviously, these concepts are not synonyms, each of them expressing quite definite content. At the same time, it is also impossible to draw the line of absolute distinction between them from the point of view of their content and meaning because of their close interrelation in the system. To sum up, one can draw a conclusion that the study of the methodological aspects of the problem of wholeness and the development of systems approach can only be realised under present conditions in their inseparable connection with each other. NOTES I For ,., analysis of literature on the problem of wholeness in the light of the above relation between concepts, see our paper "Wholeness and Systems Nature", Systems Research Yearbooh 1974, Moscow, 1977, pp. 6-15 (in Russian). 2 Foru detailed treatment of this topic, see V.N.Sadovsky, "Sorne Fundamental Problems of Constructing the General Systems Theory" Systems Research Yearbooh I97I, Moscow, 1972, pp. 47-48 (in Russian). 3 tbid., pp. 51-53. a A.D.Hull and R.E.Fagen, "Definition of System", General Sysfems, Vol. l, 1956, apPearance them of different, representations, The possible in P. 18. 5 more efficient methods of the description of the whole, which would E. R. Rur,r"p, "systems Analysis of Invention Description", Scimtific and replace the systems approach in the same way as it has replaced Technical Informatior4 Series 2, 1971, No.6; Yu.A.Shreider. "On the Definition others, should not be excluded. of System", Scientific anil Technical Informaliory Series 2, 1971, No.7; nature". If V. N. Sadovsky, "General Systems Theory as a Metatheory", Voprosy filosofi,i, much nnore 1972, No. 4. 6 Yrr.A.Shreider, the Definition of System...", p. 5. seems to us, "On concept of ] e.e"gyat, "Logic of Systems", Slstems Thinhing, New York, 1970. ' L. uo., Bertalanffy, "An Outline of General System Theory", The Brilish Joumal wholeness used in its complete sense which we strived to explain rn ^ for the Philosophy ol Scicnce,1960, Vol. I, No. 2. this paper. It merely denotes being related to a system and is not ' Slslzrns Research Yearbooh I97O Moscow, f 970, p. 37 (in Russian). r0 subject to further segmentations. Studiu in General Systems Theory (a collection of translated papers), Moscow, What is the relation between the system and wholeness concepts? 1969, p. 129. " V.N.Srdorsky, "Some Fundamental Problems of Constructing Ceneral Systems Theory", Syslems Research Yearbooh I97I, Moscow, 1972, pp. 5l-52 (in Russian). l2 B. G. Y,rdi.r, "The Concept of Wholeness in the Structure of Scientific Knowledge", Voptosy filosofii, 1910, No. 12; I.V.Blauberg, B.G.YudiIr, The Concept of Whobness and Its Role in Scienlific Knouledge, Moscow, 1972 (in formalising this concept. Russian). r5 In thJ real process of scientific cognition, the concepts of K.G.Prrrtovsky,"The Golden Rose", Collectctt Worhs Vol. 2, Moscow, 1958, pp. the whole, wholeness, system form a certain hierarchy including, in 614-615 (in Russian). addition to the above notions, also a number of others related to ra I.V.Blauberg and B.G.Yudin, op. cit., pp. 2l-22.

7E projects (see Table l) specialised models are also being developed Systems Theory: alongside universal global ones; some of them are devoted to a Topr,cal Aspects general problem fraught with the danger of a crisis for the whole of mankind (e.g., the problem of food), others deal with a complex of global problems in the context of the development of individual regions or countries. On the basis of these studies practical recommendations are made to governments and interna- tional organisations. All this is indicative of the intensive expansion and diversifica- tion of projects in the field of global modelling, and therefore, of the need to analyse a broaC range of methodological problems that arise as systems modelling global development are construc- lndicators Global Models ted. The development of a scientific approach to the applica- Social in tion of social indicators in global models is one such problem. In considering it, the first question that arises is that of the NIKOLAI LAPIN criteria of indicator selection. In our view when the global models are being formulated, three types of criteria should be distinguished: general theoretical, concrete scientific and applied. A specific class of large systems, the systems that model global Table 1 development, or global models, emerged in the 1970s and is being GLOBAL DEVELOPMEN IAL PROJECTS further intensively elaborated. Their formulation meets the needs Year of of present world development. Comple- Asi was noted at the 25th Congress of the CPSU, "global Project Leaders Project Names Country don problems such as primary materials and energy, the eradication of the i most dangerous and widespread diseases, environmental Forrester J.W. "World-2", or "World USA l97l protection, space exploration and utilisation of the resources of Dynamics" the World Ocean are already sufficiently important and urgent. In Meadows D.H. et aL "World-3", or "The USA 1972 the future they will exercise an increasingly perceptible inlluence Limits to Growth" on the life of each nation. The Soviet Union, like other socialist Mesarovii M., Pestel E. "Mankind at the Turn- USA, FRG 1974 countries, cannot hold aloof from the solution of these problems ing Point", or "Strategy which affect the interests of all mankind."r of Survival: Organic analysis global Growth" All this makes essential a comprehensive of Herrera A.O. et aL "Latin American World Argentina 1974 developmental trends. Such an analysis is a complex task of an Model", or "Bariloche interdisciplinary nature and is possible only on the basis of Model" applying various methods, both formal and informal, that are Kaya Y. et al. "Global Constraints and Japan 1974 integrated within the framework of the systems approach. It is New Vision for De- precisely the global models that make it possible to investigate velopment", and "Japan various versions of the evolution of the global system and its in the Changing World" subsystems, to evaluate the long-term consequences of probable Linnemann H. et aL "Population Doubling Holland 1975 controlling actions and thus to serve as an instrument in the and Food Supply" Tinbergen l. et aL "Reshaping the Interna- Holland l 976 solution of these problems. tional Order" In various countries, some ten large projects have been realised Roberts P. "Systems Analysis Re- Great Britain 1976 over a short period, under the auspices of international and search Unit Model national organisations. Those projects are devoted to investigating (SARUM)" globalslobal pproblems and in most cases employemDloy methods of mathemati- Leontieff W. et aL "The Future of the USA 1976 ial modelling.2 As one can see even from the names of these World Economy"

80 8l "World-2" by J.Forrester (1971) and "World-3" by D.Meadows (1972), can hardly be identified with one or another socio- philosophical concept. The authors of ,these models, bypassing this kind of general theoretical premises, subordinate the parameter selection directly to concrete scientific and applied criteria. The main purpose of these models was to determine how great was the probability of a serious crisis in mankind's interaction with its natural environment. In other words, does this crisis pose a threat to the physical existence of the planet's population? When this problem was formulated, no analysis of its socio-philosophical premises and alternatives was m'rde. For this reason, it was mainly the physical parameters that were selected by the authors of the first models. Such parameters can be measured easily, and their magnitudes are fixed in most cases, i.e., to put it differently, these parameters are most convenient for modelling. As a result of this, the above models include a great number of parameters (in the model "World-3" this number is about 500), that describe the state of the natural environment, material production and population, while the social and cultural parameters proper are represented extremely poorly. These models interpret the global nature of posing the problem as mankind being non-differentiated with respect to any of the parameters: the "world as a whole" ib considered, without distinguishing the social classes and strata, countries and regions. Only the average characteristics of production and consumption are taken into account, Income, services and food are computed "per capita", an average member of mankind. Differentiation is introduced only for demographic parameters (birth-and death- rates), and it is also of a demographic nature, according to age groups. Therefore, all these parameters have been "purified" to remove their specifically social content. It is noteworthy, however, that the authors of the above models, even with such an approach, had nevertheless to employ certain cultural parameters, for instance, educati,on, health care. True, these pararneters have been introduced in their "physicalist" function: as factors that affect the birth-rate (education) or the death-rate (health care). But in this case too there is convincing evidence of the fact that no matter what approach is adopted, This new sittlation has still not been fully grasped' One even a purely "physicalist" one, global models cannot be con- structed without socio-cultural parameters. Thus, in the first global models the parameters were selected not on the basis of general theoretical (socio-philosophical) criteria but on that of concrete scientific and applied ones. The general theoretical meaning of the ones, problem consequently was reduced to identification of the actual Consider the types of criteria that were chosen by the authors connections between the parameters, on the one hand, and a of the best known global models. The first such models, definite mathematical theory, on the other, making it possible to t2 83 Accordingly, a number of new social and cultural parameters are introduced into the model: regions as the sub-systerns of the global system, singled out, true, mainly according to economico- geographical criteria, but with due account of sorne social and cultural characteristics (10 regions); social morrns and. ualues the goals of. organisations; the subject of management, i.e., the person who makes decisions in accordance with his (her) values, norms, goals. In the opinion of Soviet specialists, Mesarovit and Pestel's report to the Club of Rome as well as other materials presented by them contain rather a programme for the construction of the global model and individual fragments dealing with the solution of special problems than a finished model as yet.6 The subject of management is offered several alternative scenarios; it remains unclear, however, how he (she) chooses those managerial strategies which he (she) would like to check, and whether it would be possible for him (her) to find the most rational solution by sorting out several such actions that have been chosen arbitrarily. Nevertheless, the new approach that has been realised on the basis of the theory of multilevel systems and, has required the introduction of new social and cultural parameters in the global model allowed MesaroviE and Pestel to obtain new results wittl respect to the nature of the trends in mankind's development. As was shown by compr.ltations, the world is facing the threat not of a global catastrophe in the 21st century but of a series of crises which move from region to region; the first of these crises will take place already at the end of the 1970s (hunger, followed by mass infant mortality in Southeast Asia). Mesarovii and Pestel made use of these results to advance the strategy of "organic growth" (to counterbalance the strategy of "global equilibrium"). It suggests the differentiation of the trends and rate of world development with respect to various regions: during each period in some regions one should observe an increase or a decrease of the growth rates of some parameters, in other regions-of other pararneters. Thus, there is an essential difference between the Mesarovit- Pestel results, on the one hand, and those of Forrester-Meadows, on the other. This difference, however, is associated with the different approaches within the framework of the formal (mathematical) and not the informal (socio-philosophical) general and persons' decision-making organisations theoretical description of the object. We have noted above that it is i'e.,i.e., totr operate in a dialogue 92..A . A rnodelmodel *tr"rlashould be manageable,manag , difficult to identify the Forrester-Meadows approach with any make decisions with respect to ..girr. between the experts- who definite socio-philosophical concept. The same holds true of the comPuter' o.ri o. another strategy and the MesaroviE-Pestel method. means follows from this, not merely as a uniform It by no 3. A model shouldtescribe the woild however, these approaches the regions' that are free from any of whole but as a system of interconnected influences of current socio-philosophical concepts.

84 85 described by the authors thernselves as a kind of "sociai utopia". the above approaches orient First, the authors of both of . This contradictoriness is vividly expressed in the division of the themselves on fixing values and interconnections of Parameters world into four regions, one of which are the developed countries reveal ...tui", profound essential characteristics of the *ni.f, of (not divided into capitalist and socialist), and the three other' obiect. without howevei making a general theoretical analysis regions-the developing countries grouped on the geographical of positivist ;#;;"'.t u.u.t.rirti.r themselvei. fiete the effect basis. This is where the root of the contradictions is disclosed: philosophical views is evident. importance attached the difference between ' from the primary is not to Second, the set of parameters that are obtained capitaiisrn and real socialism to the division of the world into possible to but concrete sciences, especiilly economic ones, makes it "rictl" and "poor" regions and countries. The main models of concepts.' The trace the effect bouigeois socio-economic - interaction between the regions were constructed according to this "f which are tabulated functions of capitil investment distributions, division, i.e., with clr without econornic aid to the "poor" regions only of the used in the above modeis, reflect the mechanisms . of from the "rich" ones. The practical conclusion that follows from capitalist methods of production, first of all, the mechanisms regions the and the model experiments is that aid to the "poor" from ;h!-;;;i*iJtion of surplus value with all their prerequisites countries should amount up to two per cent of the annual production' "rich" ;;;t.-q";;;;t (private ptop..ty. il. tlt mean-s o.f end product of the latter. 'wage mechanisms' however' of labbur, etc'); all these For erroneousness of dividing the world into "rich" and over the all the "*fi"il",i."ari tacitty interpreled as "universal" and ar€ extrapolated "poor" regions and the profound contradictoriness of the whole 2lst centurY' Bariloche rnodel, it re pre sents a certain step forward in the developrnent of social indicators used for the construction of the global model. First, the requirement is consciously formulated to be guided by some socio-philosophical concept in the selection of these indicators; true, this requirernent, is declared rather than realised. Second, certain new indicators are made operational and the Mesarovit-Pestel models r introduced into the mathematical model. technocratic concePts' The rnost irnportant them are " satisfactory canditians of lifd' . the general of Thus, as far as the above models are concerned' By this is meant certain levels of nutrition and housing, medical care and education. There is a fundamental difference between this parameter and biological "survival"; the former cannot be reduced to the extrerne "to live or not to live" but includes the normative formulation of the question about a certain minimurn of living conditions that satisfy the main needs of the hurnan dCveloped at the same time as t being. It seerns to us, though, that the definition "satisfactory r- the supervision rti, model whichl has been formulated under conditions of life" would be incomplete if it did not inciude the iof Prof. A. Herrera differs in guarantee of labour the content of which corresponds to the worker's qualification; accordingly, certain conditions of labour should be taken into account and the principle of payment according to work dnne shouid be guaranteed. Another essential parameter to which special attention is paid "s "equality", "managernent" and this rnodel wrbanisat,ion" It includes the operational charac- not in is duced.T On the olher hand, most of these notions are teristics of the living conditions of the urban and rural, population, the and are not used in the construction of the migration processes from the village to the city and some other "p...ii""ufisedmathematical model ProPer. aspects. The informal theses themse Without formulating the task of tracing the application of one social indicators in all the available global models, we rnight note publ still anothen aspect which is beginning to ernerge,in certain models are under developrnent and is of fundamental irnportance. In the real claimed socialist principles are

86 a) the parameters included in it should be theoretically subsiantiated from positions of an integral socio-philosop_hical concept and at the same time be operationalisable and quantifiable

is the existence of socio-professional groups in a society (country) with different levels of income.s Thus, for instance, for the capitalist society six such groups have been identified differing from ."+ other considerably in the level of income and

global model.

concrete picture of the socio-economic processes and their- real trends, raiher than a result averaged globally or according to large regions. Let us summarise what has been said and draw conclusions

a) First of all, the rationalise, for the PurPoses of global rnodelling, ocial indicator" once again give"s rise to the oii is "social". This problem is iia"ty debated in the er countries. shows also the weakness of the Western socio--phil- trn the West, one observes the emergence of the so-called ently ,,social osophical concePts themselves, which are not sufficiently lucid indicators movernent". Its adherents stress the inadequacy u.rd substantiatid for solving the problems of mathematical of the GNP concePt that was prevalent uP until recently, for an integral characteriitic of the slate of society as a whole and the .o.riitio.rt of life of its mernbers, and advance a new concept: the "quality of life".lr According !o s9m9 authors, the group of-.social in'dicators includes most of the basic Parameters of the life of society: population, environment, techonology, etc.,12 according to

88 parameters constitute a more narrow circle that is also imPortant' There is a close others, the social it is perceived subjectively) - inclucles labour, the social community,, the family, and so on"rS relatidnship between all these and otherlnformal approaches: they It follows from the analysis that there are three basic meanings interweave with one another. of the notion "social": the first meaning is associated with the In addition ro rhis, the formal (mathematical) theory specifies a number of foundations for classification. This is distinguishing between indicators according to the possibility of their quantifica- tion, aggregation-desaggregation, etc. Finilly, lndicators can be classified also according to certain .*piri."i'foundations: the availability of inforrnation sources, of the methods of obtaining it, etc. The theoretical (both formal and informal) and the empirical foundations of the indicator classification are interconnected (first uff, because they have to be realised within the framework of a and general, while that the second and the third are "isingle model). To'avoid the model being excessively complex meaning is of be more splcial. In the construction of the global model each of them nofi-realisable the number of these foundations have to performs its own methodological functions. reduced to the necessary and sufficient minimum' Thg greatest of the informal founda- One of t lems the solution of which would airri.,rtty is the problem'of minimisation promote the n of the concept "social indicator", tions. approaches to the solution of this problem are essential for of the list of indicators for global Different " propose the ideal indices": modelling is the specification of the main rneanings of the concept possible. some specialists -"pynamid.of values as abundance, health, equality; "social". It, up.* is composed of suth ^ intermediate abstractions (for instance, second group of problems is cornposed of the the middle livel-of b) The iiubrrrrdu.r..,, is differentiated to include the production of various compilation of the list of social indicators and the deterrnination of services, etc.); the foundation of th9 pyramid their internal structure. commodities, contains a broad list of specific indicators that can be related to the First all, is necessary to formulate the foundations for the of it above intermediate abstractions.'o Other specialists, noting that the lies in there being a classification of these indicators. The problem ;pyr"*la" is unrealistic, construct the "cube of indices" accordin-g such foundations, which it would be desirable to large number of td in.ee foundations: I) the objective and the subjective indices; 2) reduce to a certain rninimr.lm. it. uggt.guted and covari- Frgrrr t there are ationil'qu?ntities; 3) Plicable empirical f on. The th i;ii.;r'il There is n of this tidins, in th into forrnal probl le, and tasks of As far as theil informal aspect is concerned, there is a whole globa set of foundations of classification. Distinguishing betlveen " c) uP of ich we shall onlY mention to th n t g of the social here oi the great number of possible) ident of ning and the nnrrual relations of the sociai i s-with other indicators of rs if a rn the second the global model: fund the requirements Also essential are the structural approaches: distinguishing 6. The constru between the horizontal levels of the system (from the global to the individual one) as well as between its vertical spheres (production, s s social subsYstem as a correct? According to Mesarovit, one of the indispen cteristics of the hierar- chical system is the priority;f actions or the.right o-f interference ;f ;h. ;pper level *btytt'.*. into the activity of the iower level 9l 90 subsystems.r6 But what should be interpreted as such an upper Ststems Theory: level with respect to the global system? iopical Aspeits Another problem is the identification of the mathematical apparatus which is suitable for describing the historical variability of the object and of the mechanisms of its functioning. There are also othei problems.r? In conclusion we would like to stress the fact that the above and other formal and informal problems can be solved only through the joint efforts of philosophers, sociologists, historians, economists, mathematicians and specialists in the field of the modelling of large systems.

NOTES The Methodology of Science I Approach L. I.Brezhnev,ReportoltheCPsuCmtralCommiteeandthe ImrnediateTosksof the and Systems Partl in Home and Foreign Policy. 25th Congress of lhc CPSU, Moscow, 1976, p. 98. 2 Fo. rno.. details, see V. A. Gelovani, A. A. Piontkovsky, V. V. Yurchenko, "Mod- VADIM SADOVSKY elling of Global Systems", Suraey ol the Commiltee on the Systems Analysis, Presidium of the USSR Academy of Sciences" No. 5, 1975; V.Zagladin, I.Frolov, "TheGlobal Problems of Our Times", Social Sciences, No. 4, 1977. E D.H.Meadows et aL, The Limits to Growth, New York, 1972. 4 M. Mesarovii, E. Pestel, Mankind at the Tuming Point. The Second Reporl to the _ Club of Rome, 1974. ' M.Mesarovii, D.Macko, J.Takahara, Thcory of Hierarchical, Multileul Slstcmt New York, 1970. 6 V.A.G.lorrni, A.A.Piontkovsky, V.V.Yurchenko, op. cit. 7 M. Kaplan, "Towards an Alternative World Model; The Socio-Political Dimen- approach, etc., and can be regarded as a special branch of these sions", Raporl in the Proceedings of the Seminar on the Latin American Workl Modcl studies. of IIASA, Laxenburg, Austria, 1974. It is well known that scientific knowledge has been interpreted, 8 H.Lirrrr.-"rn et al., MOIRA: A Model of International Rclatiola in Agriculture. Paper for the Third IIASA Symposium on Global Motlelling (Food and Agriculture), Laxenburg,, [975. 9 f.N.f"4Oriyev, Communism ond Phitosophy, Moscow, l97l (in Russian). r0 A. ca6pb.ll, P. Converse, The Human Meaning of Social Change, New York, t972. rr S. Encel ct al., The Att of Anticipolion. Values and Methods in Forecasl,ings, London, 1975. tz Soiopl Intelligence for America's Future, ed. by B, Gross, Boston, Trefids, ed, by M. Niseel London, 1970. l3 A. Campbell, P. Convirse, op. cit. ra B.Gr,is., 'Ihe Srcrre'ol the Natiou London, 1966. 15 See S.Encel ea aL, op. cit. adopted rules), instead of a generalised 16 M.M.ru.oriE, D.Macko, J.Takahara, op. cit. general systems theory and the systems l7 Fo. *or. details, see N.I.Lapin, V.A.Gelovani, "Methodological Problems of possible to say about the logic and Global Modelling", Cooperation of the Sciences in lhe Solution ol Econunic Probl.ems sciences that they are concerned with o Moscow-Obninsk, 1976 (in Russian). nature of knowledge). Therefore, in the analysis of knowledge the systems concep- tions (in the logic and methodology of science, as well as in other

93 92 structure, the control processes in systems, etc.; 3) the study of the

single whole. a complex of intercon- Systems research as a whole is -sysleT nected elements in which one should first of all distinguish the

includes icientific systems theories proper (systems conceptions of L.inlaorrbiology, psychology,-.rrrhnlaow sociology,qoriolocrv- and so on), on). the formal systems t , \ theor'iis (ihe contiot theories, the theory of organisation,----:^--:^- etc')^r^ and^-l (the sy-stems analysis, applied systems theories systems -technology, oplratiot s researchr etc,)' Obviously, systems theories differ essentiallyessentiallv from each other with respect to the generality and the type of icientific and technological fields for the description of which they are formulated. u 95 development of this concept, agreed, beginning with the mid- thirties, to liberalise considerably their initial assumptions. The history of development of the standard concept is described and analysed in detail in literature, including the Marxist one.5 In spite of all endeavours to save the standard concept, however, which sometimes occur even at present, this concept, which was not vigorous enough to stand its ground against the numerous external and internatr critics, now practically belongs to history. Yet, H. Feigl, one of its pillars, tried, even in 1974 not very convincingly to defend at least one of the basic theses of the standard concept-the empirical interpretation of the foundations of scientific knowledge.6 The meaning for the Western logic and methodology of science of the rejection of the standard concept was the rejection, not only of the unified but even of the more or less widely adopted system of methodological views and conceptions in general (at any rate, this is exactly the present situation in this field). Indeed, instead of the standard concept which did not justify itself historically, the nurlerous alte rnarive theories, which analyses the methods of building scientific knowledge, mainly methodological approaches and loud-rnouthed projects of forrnu- natural scientific. lation of the new logic and rnethodology of science appeared in As is well known, beginning th the modern Western logical and methodological literature. They century, the logical and metho ln are all critical with respect to the neopositivist concept, with most Western literature within the or of them (this is also how their negative attitude towards the standard concept is revealed) taking into account, not only purely methodological considerations and arguments but historical and scientific data and facts as well. Certainly, in the present paper we cannot afford to give a detailed critical analysis of the modern stage of development of the logic and methodology of science in the West. Our considera- tion will be limited to just one aspect of this problem-to rhe comparison of the standard concept with the approaches alterna- tive to it that appeared during the last decades, from the point of view of their realisation of the systems nature of scientifi,c knowledge and their striuing for constructi.ng the methodology of science on the systems basis. It is necessary to emphasise here that in what follows the point in question will be not the philosophical foundations and problems of certain concepts of the Western scientists (neopositiv- ism, Popperianism, the "historical school", etc.) but their, so to speak, logical and methodological skeleton which is irrelevant in some respect to the adoption of one or another philosophical position. As for the purely philosophical views of the modern Western methodological and historico-scientific schools, they have already received a detailed Marxist assessment.' In this case our main thesis will consist in that as far as rnodern methodological approaches are concerned (in contrast to the standard concept), 96 g7 empirically (this abstraction is permissible in the solution of a certain sphere of problems), the scient ted in this way turns out to be a subsystem of e, and the specificity of the latter can only b other subsystems, in particular, the sets of metaphysical (ontological) a.ssertions that are accepted in a given theory, are taken into

Another form of rejection of the above thesis of the standard

L Lakatos' "methodology of scientific research progra.rnmes",r0 the systems orientation of which is beyond doubt, becarne most widely known. In particular, the follolving conclusion can be derived from the

The evolving populations of concepts are associated not with

90 disciplines, quite different formations scientific theories but with Western literature this assertion was first advanced by N. R. Han- corresponding scientific an essential element of which is the son and becarne most radically expressed in R. Feyerabend,s works).17 The thesis of the theoretical ladenness of observations which is

analysis defined a class of objects that are subject to the. study within the framework of the standard conception, the model of the

of such understanding of the ition of a certain initial basis of ted to any doubt (the so-called

concept) being lvholly determined by the Properties of the statements containgd in it as well as by those logical connections thit exist between The rejection o of the standard conception, the so called "non- the theory", is based on the

, fo e "historical of the theorY's nal the forrn of etic vations" (in the "theoretical ladenness of observations" which is specific for

100 t0r rward in the realisation of the field of deductive logic, seemed to rdturn to the historically basrc e elements of knowledge. The theses of the standard concept. This conclusion is wrong, however. the above theses, f autonornous, isolated Parts the In spite of the verbal coincidence between their real meaning is essentially different. As far as the standard ::'1'l:1i:'1 Hh.1T:x"il: concept is concerned, the deductive logic is applied to the sensorily authentic, unconditionally true statements of observation for reason, if the observational statements",ffi can, in a certain sense, be obtaining scientific statements which are authentically true. Fop- used for verification of a theory, they themselves bear the stamP hand, rejects the existence some the theoretical level of knowledge. one should not, certainly, per, on the other firmly of of unconditionally true basis of scientific knowledge and uses the overestimate the constructive possibilities of the above alternative means deductive logic for the rational description of the Y; theY contain a ntlmben of of are far from being solved; in advance of new, more plausible (but nevertheless false) hypotheses not also ignore the obvious facts that replace the old ones which are less plausible and therefore entific theorY which have been obsolete. Present-day Western methodological literature contains also Let us finally describe one more group of problems.in the formulations of rnore resolute forms of rejection of the standard t recent trends of the Western identifying rationality as the logical property, which belong, first ce oPPOse resolutelY the standard of all, to Feuerabend and Toulmin. The latter believes, in tion, at least, during the last particular, that the reduction of the rational to the logical does not the methodologY of science has urake it possible to rationally explain the historical variation of I descriPtion of the structure of scientific knowledge, and for this reason rationality should be understood as a set of methods and techniques of re-evaluation of scienti,fic knowledge, assunted, made it possible co the intellectual norms and positions acceptable for a given scientific r ationally rec onstruct community. the standard conce Thus, as a historically conditioned form of reasoning associated with the norms of scientific activii;r which are sanctioned by the scientific cornmunity at a certain stage of its historic development, rationality stands opposed to extratemporal, absolutely true logical assertions.le Such understanding of rationality reveals its obvious systems orientation. Rationality, instead of being interpreted in a reductiQnism as the logicallY one-dimensional way, i.e., only from the epistemological point of view, turns to be a complex phenomenon the knowledge of systems 4pproach. We have just out tire neop"oiitivist understanding of the foundations of scientific which implies taking into account the activity of the corresponding knowledgei ilclw we are goin 4 to assess other theses of the scientific communities, the scientific norms inherent in them, the standard conception that wlre named above frorn the point of nature of social relations between the membe.s df these co*- view of their aipect that we are concerned with' munities, etc. In the earliei version of the logical ernpiricism (during the Perhaps, the most vivid expression of the complex, systems of evolution of science twenties and the thirties) the rationality was identified- with approach to the development of the theory reasoning according to the canons of d,eductiae logic. Later, is found in the criticism of the cumulativist concept of the history however,' during th"e forties and the fifties, the sphere-. of the of science and in the set of alternatlves to this concept suggested e of "generalised logic" which in the modern Western literature. A. Koire already made one of n deductive logic, the inductive the first steps in this direction; according to him, the task of the historiography of science consists in the demonstration of the ,",f;.o,fil':l#f,,'illo'3t.::i ,# wholeness of science during the periods of its existence which are i relationships typical basic assurnptions of the standard concePt, while one.of the historically different; this implies the analysis of the fiirt versions of its criticisrn, Popper's theory of scientific between the ideas of one or another scientist and the ideas of his knowledge, which limited the sphere of the rational only to the scientific community. As for Kuhn's paradigm method, it should r0E 102 first element belongs to subset A, the second-to subset B, ... the n th-to subset N. The product of the subsets (sets) is denoted by AxBxCx...xN. Thus, the set of relations R is defined as R:AxBx Cx...x N. If the number of co-factors in the product of sets is equal to two, the relation defined through such product of sets is called binary. In the case of three co-factors we obtain a ternary relation, etc. The relation between set M and the same set M is called a binary relation on set M and is denoted through R: Mx M. By specifying the basic set of elernents and the relations defined on this set we can describe the object under study. In this description both the elements and the relations are quite specific. If one abstracts oneself from the specific nature of elements and relations and considers them as abstract formations, the network of connections between such elements and relations forms the structure of the object under study.?3 The deterrnination of the object structure makes it possible for us, on the one hand, to conduct a rigorous, forrnal derivation of the consequences concerning the elements and relations that are contained in the structure, and on the other, to establish various relationslrips between the structures of various objects, such as their similarity, similitude, isomorphism, etc", which allows one to Lrse the results of the study of a single object in other fields. The above general understanding of structure is applied for the analysis of scientific knowledge, mainly for the description of its individual aspects-the syntax and semantics of scientific language, the set of logical rules of inference which are used in a certain theory, etc. The result of this is that many different structural descriptions are constructed with respect to the same ,rk * ,< object, scientific knowledge. In this connection a question arises about the synthesis of such structural descriptions, and in order to importan-t concepts in the systems study Undoutrtedly, tt]g most answer it, it is necessary to employ the concept of the system of those of the structure and the system of scientific knowledge are knowledge. The concept of system is close, in a certain sense, to that. of set (each system can be regarded as a set); the methodological natures of ttrese concepts, however, are essentially different. When a set is formed, the basic units are the elernents centain combinations of which constitute some or other sets. In the case of a systern, on the other hand, the primary consideration is that it is a certain whole cornposed of intCracting (interconnected) parts.2a The elements of a system are not specified beforehand; they are constructed (or selected) in the process of segrnentation of the system as a whole, relation on set M is called a strbset of the pnoduct of subsets that with each systern permitting various forms of segmentation. Each itself is constitute it. For subset A, B, C,..-, Nof set Mthe product of these segmentation of a systern represents a set, while the system subsets forrns a set of orflered rtuples of eleryrents in which the not a set.

1M {K$ryhere k:\,2,3,... (each of these sets includes the object-system under study as a certain element). This procedure leads to the following general definition of the system concept: a system S is a class of sets {S= M:' I-! I(j}, where {Mr} {I,i} and {Ki} are different subclasses (with the above interpretation of their elements) combined with the set of correspondences for each pair of sets that may belong to a single subclass as lvell as to different ones.26 It is quite obvious that for each segmentation of the system one can define the corresponding structure. Thus, a system turns out to be a set of interconnected structures. Each structure, as applied to the study of scientific knowledge, describes one aspect of knowledge; for the description of scientific knowledge as a whole it is necessary to construct the corresponding system (of course, each system is characterised by its specific structure which, in accordance with the concept developed here, represents "the structure of structures", i.e., the structure defined on the structures of sets comprising a given system). The conceptual apparatus of the systems approach and the From the general point of view, it is possible to say that the general theory of systems, interpreted for description of scientific minimal requirement for any system under study is the existence knowledge, makes it possible to consider certain properties of of three different levels of its description: l) based on the systems of knowledge. external, integral properties inherent in iU 2) based on its internal structure and the "contribution" of its components to the

can be constantly replenished with new statements. The closed nature of a system of knowledge is ensured either by explicit enumeration of the statements that pertain to it or by indication of a sct of possible conclusions derived from the basic statements (axioms, postulates, etc.) adopted in this system of knowledge. The addition to a compiete closed system of knowledge of a staternent different descriptions of the systern can be constructed. which is not deducible in it results in a contradiction and, The above considerations make it possible to formulate the therefore, deprives this system of knowledge of its scientific status. Closed systems of knowledge are first of all axiomatic, forrnal- deductive constructions. Empirical scientific systems of knowledge are predominantly open. As a rule, such theoretical constructions interact with the adjacent spheres of knowledge which may be regarded as their environment (medium). The process of addition to a given system of knowledge of new statements that cannot be deduced from the statements already present in the given system is possible and is being constantly realised. Such understanding of the open nature of a system of knowledge is typical of the earlier stages of the construction of a thecry and mainly of the development of

106 l0? lion represents the increase in the interaction coefficients for a theoretical knowledge. is expedient for the de scription of It individual elerrrent of a system. As a result of this, scientific knowledge development to make use also of other part or an insignificant variations of this part (the leading part of the system) systems concepts (the systems concepts employed in what follows of the whole system. The role of the are defined in Bertalanffy's monograph just mentioned (pp. lead to substantial'variations leadiug part of the systems of knowledge belongs to axioms and 66-75), see also our book Foundati.ons of the General Systems Theory, rules inference formal deductive theories and to the basic pp. r73-r7a\. of in theoretical principles in the open systems of knowledge. The Summatiuity within the framework of the general systems inherent element systems of knowledge is the hierarchical theory means that the variation of any element of the system in princi,ple organisation: the individual elements of a system depends only on itself. The result of this is that the variation of of represent lower orrler systems, while the system under considera- the whole system represents a sum of variations of its elements tion appears as an element of a higher order systern. For instance, which are independent of each other (in this case the interaction when statements are analysed, they may be regarded as systems of between the elements is equal to zero, and we are actually dealing terms, and theories, i.e,, systems of statements, may, in their turn, with a degenerate system). The property of surnrnativity character- appear as elements of more complex systems of knowledBe, e.8., ises, at least, certain stages of empirical research (individual certain sequence (logical or historical) of interconnected experiments and ernpirical descriptions of an object may be of a independent of each other), as well as the first steps of the theories. theoretical construction of knowledge (when the general principles that unify the individual elements of knowledge concerning a The certain subject-matter field have not yet been established). Certainly, the above considerations concerning the possibilities pure form of summativity, however, is not inherent in scientific of a systems study of scientific knowledge are only the first between individual knowledge (there is always a connection approach to this problem.2s It seems to us, however, that even elements in it, and the property of summativity may belong only such simple ascertainments are quite sufficient for the positive then only to relatively isolated fragrnents of knowledge, and even assessment of the potential of using the ideas of the systems at certain stages of their development). Scientific knowledge is approach and the general systems theory for further development characterised by its integral nature. 'an and improvement of rnodern methodological concepts" Unlike summativity, the uhaleness of object means that the NOTES I V. P. Kuzmin, 7[e Systems Principle tn Matx's Theory and Methodology, Moscow, 1976, pp. 237,243. See also I.V.Blauberg, E.G.Yudin, The Formation and the Essence of the Systems Approacla Moscow, 1973 (both in Russian), 2 P.Cu*., "science and Systems: on the Unity and Diversity of Scientific Theory", Generol Syslerns, Vol. XIII, 1968. summativity (which is present to a 3 transition frorn the state of G.1.fli., "The Polyphonic General Systems Theory", Trends tn General Systems certain extent) to that of wholeness is typical. This process may be Tlraory New York, 1972. a called the systematisatiom, of knowledge. The opposite process, A.E.Lerin, Abstract of the book The Structure of Scientific Theories, Urbana, rnechanisatioa which represents tkre transition from the state of 1974, Abstract journal Nauhoued,enie, 1975, No. 4, abs. 75,04.029, p. 94, 5 wholeness to that of sumrnativity, manifests itself dur:ing the V.S.Shuyryov, Neoposirirism and the Empiricat Justification of Seience, Moscow, radical change of the established theoretical conceflts and the 1966 (in Russian). C.A.Hooker, "Philosophy and Meta-Philosophy of Science: Empiricism, Popperianism and Realism", Synthese, Vol. 32, 1975, No. 1/2. origination of new theoretical schernes (paradigms). A new 6 Method,ological trIistorical Essays in the Natural paradigm is rnore sumrnative than its predecessor, which, as a H. F.igl, "Empiricism at Bay?", and and Social Sciences. Boston Stud,i.es in the Philosophl of Science, Vol. XIV, Dordrecht, rule, has brought out to a rnaximal degree its wholeness- Boston, 1974. 7 characterised potentialities, after a long evolution. Having been M.S.Korlora, Pkilosophy and Langtage, Moscow, f972 (in Rrrssian); V.A.Lektors- formulated, the new paradigm begins its life cycle when it rnoves ky, "Philosophy, Science, the Philosophy of Science", Voprosy fi,losofii,, 1973, No. from the state of relative, summativity to that of wholeness. 4; E. A. Mamchur, The Choice of a Theory, Moscow, 1975 (in Russian); The concepts of centralisation and hierarchical organisation of S.R.Mikulinsky, L.A.Markova, "Interesting Features of T.Kuhn's book T[e Structure of Scientific Reaoluti,ons". In the Russian edition of T. Kuhn's book The systerns express other aspects of systems of knowledge. Centralisa-

108 Stracture of Scientiltc Reaolutions. Second edition, Moscow, 1975; A.L. Nikiforov, "P.Feyerabend's Methodological Concept", Voprosy fi'losofii" V.S.Shvyryov, Neopositiuism and, lhe Empiri,cal Justifi'cation of S 1966; N.S.Yulina, "Postpositivism and the New Metaphysics", 1974, No. l. 8 K. R. Popp.., Logic of Scientific Discoucry, London, 7959; Objectiue Knouledge. An Euolutionary Approach, Oxford, 1972. 9 M.W. ysics as Heuristics for Science", Boston Studies in the Phi,tos III, Dordrecht, 1968; J.W.N.Watkins, "Metaphysics and t Science," British Journal for the Philosophy of Science' Vol. 26, 1975, No. 2. l0 I. Lrkutor, "Falsification and the Methodology of Scientific Research Program- mes", Cri,tici,sm and thc Growth of Knouledge, Cambridge, 1970; I'Lakatos, of Science and Its Rational Reconstructions", PSA 1970' In Memoty of "History l-{ Rudotf Carnap. Boston Stud'ies in the Phi,losaphy of Science, Vol' XIII, Dordrecht, The lstorical Experien ce t37 t. of the Soviet Five-Year Flans rr S.Toulmin, Human (Jnderstanding, Vol. I, Princeton, 1972. 12 E. M. Mirsky, "The Systems Approach to the Study of Science (Methodological Remarks)", Systems Research Yearbooh. 1973, Moscow, 1973 (in Russian). GENNADI SOROKIN rs W.Stegmiifler, Theorie und Erfahrung. Zweiter Halbband, 'fheorien structuren und' Theoriendynamifi, Berlin-New York, 1973. ra ;.D.Sneed, The Logical Structure of Mathematical Physics, Dordrecht, 1971. rb W.Stegmiiller, op. cit., pp. 42-45. For over half a century now socialist and communist construc- 16 T. Krrhrr, The Structure of Scientific Reulutions, Chicago, 1970. r7 tion in the USSR has been carried on the basis of five-year plans. N:& Hanson, Pattcrns of Di'scooery, Cambridge, 1958; R. K. Feyerabend, "Consola- The Soviet experience in planning is universally acknowledged, its Grouth of Knowledge, Cambridge, 1970 tions for the Specialist", Cril'i,ci,sm and. lhe significance is far-ranging: practical and theoretical, historical and l8 cit., pp. 179, l8?-188. C.A.Hooker, op. prospective, national and international. Without the five-year re Change", Philosophical Founila- Plans S.Toulmin, "scientific Strategies and Historical inconceivable; those tions of Science; Boston Studies i,n the Philosophl of Science, Vol" XI, Dordrecht- the practice of communist construction is Boston, 1974. plans rest on the firm foundation of advanced economic theory t - Mikurinskv' L' A' Markova' and constantly enrich it. The five-year plans are the economic "o' ''l history of the {JSSR. The Soviet five-year plans are profoundly :: ,, Logrc. Method,otogv and, phitosophv of national but, at the same time, they have become an international tional Congress for Logic, Methodolagy and feature and a part of the life of the socialist countries. The , rs71. developing countries too are, to one or another extent, using the 23 Se. M. Mesarovii, "The Foundations of the General Systems Theory"' General Soviet experience in elaborating five-year plans. the Relationship Systems Theory, Moscow, 1966, pp. 27-32; l.I.Revzin, "On implernegting the five-year plans the working peoPle Between the Structural and Systems Approaches in Modern Linguistics", Syslaras While Research Yearbook. 1972, Moscow, 1972, pp. 110-174 (both in Russian)' learned how to manage production without shocks and dissipation, constantly increasing the national income and, thereby, raising 'n C. A. Hooker, op. cit., p. 5. 25 Y,r. A. Shreider, "On the Definition of System", Scientific anil Technical their own living standards. The transition to planned socialist Informatton, Series 2: Information Processes and Systems, Moscow, 1971, No. 7; (all economy has enabled man to rise above production and become in Russian). E.R.Rannap, "systems Analysis of the Description of Images", the master of the productive forces" Scientific anil Technical Information, Series 2: Informalion Processes ond Systems In comparison with feudalism, capitalism increased the produc- Moscow, 1971, No. 6 (all in Russian). tion potential of mankind enormously but it did not, and could 26 Fo. rno.. details, see V.N.Sadovsky, Foundatiow of the General Systems Theory. A Logical and Methodological Analysis, Moscow, 1974 (in Russian), not, teach people how to manage production according to a Plan, 27 the L. uon Bertalanffy, General System Theory. Foundations. Deuelopmmt' Appli'cati,ons, without exploitation of man by man, and how to distribute London, 1971. product fairly. Together with the productive forces capitalism 28 A. I. Rukitou , Ph.ilosophical Problenns of Stience. The Systuns Approach, Moscow, 1977 accumulates social contradictions, and, as the economic crisis of (in Russian). ,<*{< 1974-1975 showed once again, its inherent defects are incurable. lll Socialism alone creates the conditions, forms and methods of Progress' increased labour productivity and improvement of the economic management that correspond to the present scale of the quality of work at all levels bf tt e national econbmy. The further developrnent of the productive forces, frees the economy from build-up of the-country's economic might, the eniargement and crises and working people from unemployrnent, and gives full basic renewal of production assets, arrd the stable aid balanced range for economic development in the interests of the transfor- growth of heavy industry are the pivot of t_he economic strategy. mation of labour and the well-being o{ all members of society. When raising the economy to the level of the demands-of socialism and communism, ttre Soviet Union took Russia,s pre-'the revolutionary development level in setting the targets of five-year. plans only for a short e and thlen began"to compete with major capitalist were far aheicl of the young All Soviet long-term plans, beginning with Lenin's plan of Soviet Republic. By of the Tenth Five-yeai plan electrification, are distinguished by purposefulness. They all have period, the USSR's ial product had exceeded the one goal-the creation of a socialist and communist society. Each pre-revolutionary level roughly bb times. Only 25 years ago the specific plan, naturally, accomplishes this task conformably to the soviet nation4l income was less than one-third'that of the ilnited conditions and possibilities of its time, but the main criterion has States; in 1975 ir was already two-thirds. The USSR leads the always been whether it promotes our country's further advance world in the production of ores, steel, oil and coal, mineral towards Communism. Lenin's plan of electrification (the GOELRO fertilizers, cement, tractors and some other items, by the end of Plan) ernbodied his idea that "Comrnunism is Soviet Power plus the Tenth Five-Year Plan period, the Soviet gross industrial the electrification of the entire country". Scientists and experts output will have exceeded the I S level of lg7g.- The implementation of the five-year 'theplans made it possible to resolve the very difficult problem of social and technical transformation of agriculture. The socialist agrarian poricy was carried out in two major stages. -organisationThe first wal the creition of a network of state farms, the of 25 million peasant households into producer c-ooperatives and the $rimary mechanisation of agiiculture where before the Revolution'manual labour -predominated. This stage is rightly regarded as a socialist revolution- in agriculture. It was at thai time that the socialist type of agriculture was established, whose stability even the fascist rnvasron and rest collective led to th petty-bourgeois production in agri strategic direction, ensured the priority of social problems over production in socialist industry. The necessary social and produc- purely production ones, and precluded a techrrocratic approach to tion basis was formed for the further socialisation and advance of Soviet agriculture. Relying on that_ basis, it became possible to begin the second stag.e-the comprehensive industrialiiation of socialist agriculture, raising -the state and collective farms technically to the level achieved by industry, the balancr d development oi the two main branches of socialist production, and the accelerated overcoming of the essential distinctions between town and country. Th; transition to the new stage was economically prepared by the accumulation of state resources and the increased proposition of industries that supplied agriculture wittr the means of production.

u2 1r3 In the Ninth Five-Year Plan period alone, capital investments in agriculture exceeded five timts the total capital investments in berween re17 and 1e41. Au ,Iil;lll* iridustrv i1,5":"1[J; e Tenth Five-Year Plan of crop-farming will be, evel of mechanisation in other branches of agriculture, including live-stock farming, will be raised r extent, considerably. activity. on The five-year Y concentrate its own the raising the people' conditions for any assir,g2nce flom the outside, and despite the and free ind aliround n' The Plans imperialism and the devastating wars it un- results achieved i well known' To e Soviet Union. mention only some of the achievements of the Soviet five-year plans. ' I.t was the First Soviet Five-Year Plan that ensured full employment. Full employm ajor feature of pta"ned economy. Soviet p hours a week, irni.n is 18 hours less than ' Between I9l3 and 1975, the real incomes of 9'4 times, and those of peasants, 13.5 times. Beginning rne ussR leads the world in housing construction. technological progress. There are 1.3 million research workers in with the Eighth Five-Year Plan period, 100 million squlle metres of living sp-ace afe built every year, and from 10 to 11 rnillion tions. of its members, socialist societY e force of societY-man, for "the forces of individuals is the real

plans envisage the achievemen [he eliminaiion of its unskil or low-skilled forms and the gradual obliteration of the distinctions between manual and ire.rtul work. The intellectual level of people of the new, socialist, svsrem constantly rises. In rhe USSR univeisal secondary education tia. bee., achievld, in the main; specialised secondary and higher LJucation is widely accessible, th. -uss vocational training of workers and farrners 1974 alor,e, vocationa The major social task of the First Five-Year plan was the workers, trained 1' I while 27 million facto and professions, improved their skills without discontinuing work. The state takes uPon itself the health prorection of the p"p"irri"". In the years ,cf Soviet government, the number of between 511 and 835 thousand people, and the agrarian do.t"r, has increased 28 times. Forty-three million people spend overpopulation from 8.5 million ro between 2.6 and 4.9 million

l14 115 should be created anew, I reply: "Sorry, as been created in part and its most lies in the practical experience that the ed." 5 Today, when, besides the GOELRO Plan, we have the

- that of the historical conditionality of planned economy and its emergence on the basis of socialist property and socialist relations of production; n objective economic laws and ence on the development of lopment, of the law of balanced,

_ - that of planning as the key element of economic management; the state nature of planning under socialism; the need of the CPSU's guidance of planning, the CPSU having a scientific programme for building communism; - that of tcrm, five-year, annual, national, bran nsive programmes, plans of enterprises Glossary"-section of this journal-Ed.),

_- that of the organisation of the implernentation of the plans and the check-up of their fulfilment with the broad use of economic levers influencing production, the ever broader involve- ment of the working people in planning, and with the use of state statistics and accounting;

tt7 .that of planning in the world socialist system, the methods and Works, for instance, produces three times as much steel as the principles of coo.ditating the national. economic plans of the entire metallurgical industry of tsarist Russia used to produce. It is iocialiit countries, the joint planning of integration measures and quite clear that the provision of such a giant with raw materials branches of industry. and fuel and the use of its produce are tied up with the entire A great contribution to the theory of socialist planning was national economy, with the systematic guidance of the enterprise rnade 6y the 25th Congress of t te CPSU which outlined a broad by the whole of society. programme for improving planne Of All the expanded branches of the national econorny, the fundamental importance is the on transport and energy systems, the network of oil- and gas- complete solution of the agrarian of pipelines, the irrigation system, etc., call for planned management. scientific and techonologica[ Pr rgr ffi- The high level of the development of the productive forces is but ciency and improvement of quality, the orientation on the ultimate a material precondition for a planned economy. Its successful economic goais; fuller account of social requirements and their functioning calls for socialist relations of production. Relations of satisfaction at a minimum cost; the improvement of the methods planned development can emerge only on the basis of socialist of solving major national, inter-branch and territorial problems in property and of relations of comradely cooperation in production, complex; on iull account of the time factor, i.e., account of not distribution, exchange and consumption. It is only in these only material and financial resources but also of the terms of conditions and in accordance with the aims of socialist production reaiisi.rg various projects; on a more skillful combination of that harmonious proportions between various aspects of reproduc- branch ind territoiial planning (see "Our Glossary"), of long-term tion and the branches of the national economy emerge and are and current problemi; on ensuring a balanced economy; the consciously maintained. Only comradely cooperation, the absence improvement of the comprehensive planning of economic and of exploitation, an equal attitude towards the means of production social development. and distribution according to work done can ensure stable links The restructuring of the economic mechanism charted by the between all sectors of production, emulation among them, and congress has greatly influenced the content of planning, and explain the mechanism of the movernent (self-movement) of required that the target figures be supplemented with measures to socialist proportionality. e.ri,.r.e their achievement, and that the organisation and check up On the other hand, the characteristics of the complex totality of performance be improled. Thus, the study of social nequire- of the relations of production include definition of the objective me.rtr should be accompanied by offering the consumer broader foundations and quantitative proportions in the distribution of the q luction, and the fulfilment of the means of production and labour according to the spheres of p s should be ensured bY a skillful activity, the objective foundations and quantitative proportions in u and levers in order, first of all, the distribution of the product, i.e., definition of the type of to achieve high efficiency and quality. economic relations in the process of reproduction. In this cgnnection the,sreat irnportance should be noted of Many bourgeois economists assert that planning is inherent in researches bcith into geneial problems of the theory of planning the "technological civilisation" of capitalism. J. Galbraith. for and into specific methodological problems, because it is on the instance, believes that the broad use of rnodern technology and success achieved in this field that the further improvement of the character of the use of time and capital connected with it have respects depends' Tfre-sg constantly dictated the development of planning in all industrial- practical planning in many -researches ind broad scieniific discussions have already yielded valuable ised societies. He thinks that a "planned system" emerges within results and rnade it possible to fclrmulate a number of irnpt-rrtant bourgeois society and that a sort of "capitalist State Planning propositions and uieful recommendations. Sorne conclusions, Board should be set up". Such an approach tends to ignore the how.r"r, seem insufficiently substantiated and debatable. differences between the productive forces and the relations of In our opinion, a rather typical theoretical mistake is the production and leads to the ernasculation of the very essence of one-sided explanation of planned development only by the planned developrnent. The technology of production prescribes character of the modern productive forces, when, in fact, it is a only some proportions in the distribution of the rneans of characteristic feature of the relations of production under production, but it does not deterrnine the mechanism of that socialism. Of course, today's gigantic productive forces can be distribution, the basic proportions or the general nature of rationally used only according to a plan. T'he Magnitogorsk Steel Proporrionality.

r18 rl9 exploits many workers at the same time. "Their union into one single productive body and the establishment of a connection between their individual functions, are matters foreign and external to them, are not their own act, but the act of the capital that brings and keeps them together. Hence the connection existing between their various labours appears to them, ideally, in the shape of a preconceived plan of the capitalist, and practically in the shape of the authority of the same capitalist, in the shape of the powerful will of another, who subjects their activity to his aims." 5 Socialist planned development however expresses the relations of production in production, distribution, exchange and consump- tion, the relations in production being of prime importance. Such a methodological approach shows the absurdity of the statement that in planning only one part of its relations, say, that connected with exchange, should be taken. That is what the advocates of "market socialism" suggested when they declared market relations to be the chief motive force of planned economy and counterposed the market and the plan. They believed that relations of exchange could not be of a planned character. And when they found it inconvenient to deny planning in the sphere of distribution, they spoke about a "synthesis" of the plan and the market, in which demand and supply, free prices and competition were to play the key role. The systern of relations of planned development also includes the objective mechanism for implernenting the plans and the incentives that bring about the coordination of work at all the stages of reproduction. It follows from theory that each of the phases of reproduction exerts its own influence on this coordina- tion and, in totality, ensures the planned character of extended reproduction. Relations of exchange influence reproduction and can be built only in connection with and under the decisive influence of relations of production and distribution. The knowledge of the laws of development of the objectively existing relations of socialist planned development and their utilisation are the basis of the Soviet state's planning activity. The five-year plans have shown the necessity for the entire era of socialism of state guidance of the elaboration and implementation of the plans, the growing role of the Cornmunist Party in economic and social activities, and of strict observance of the principles of democratic centralism in planning" Some bourgeois theoreticians use the state and directive character of planning to frighten off the man in the street. To directive Soviet planning they counterpose so-called indicative (optional, facultative) plan- ning. The economic life of the capitalist countries in the conditions r20 12l of the economic crisis graphically shows just how "effective" the The five-year plans mzy be said to have become world latter is. propagandists of socialism. Jawaharlal Nehru wrote that the Soviet five-year plans had evoked a new wave of interest and enthusiasm in respect to the USSR. Many former colonies are trying to use planning for raising their national economy and ensuring its independence. To the extent that these countries embark on the road of non-capitalist development, their state economic policy becomes a factor of their economic progress. However, the economic backwardness inherited by the former colonies, the pressure of the imperialist monopolies and the struggle of the national bourgeoisie for its clan interests create many obstacles to economic development, and establishing the state sector which is the base for carrying out regulating measures. A progressive role in the development of the national' economies of the newly independent countries is played by the assistance of the Soviet utilisation of economic laws. Union and other socialist states in creating key industries there. Many statesmen and theoreticians of the industrialised coun- tries who began with sweeping criticism of socialist planning, soon pondered the possibilities of utilising its principles for stabilising the capitalist economy. At the time when the USSR was reviewing the re.sults of the First Five-Year Plan, US President Franklin Roosevelt called for a "new deal" and a planned economy. Since then, many economic programmes, plans, includ- ing five-year ones, have appeared in the capitalist countries. It is through this type of plans that state-monopoly capital performs some regulatory functions, but on the whole, they could not, and n8 cannot, change the main direction of economic development, give to it different, non-capitalist, goals, and sqcure it against crises. And lo- what is more, the general crisis of the capitalist system keeps ng growing more acute as are also the contradictions between the social nature of capitalist production, which calls for planned economic management, and capitalist appropriation, which is an irremovable obstacle to a planned economy. Analysing imperialisrn, Lenin came to the conclusion about the universal replacement of the anarchic capitalist econorny by the Leninisrn. socialist planned economy. He wrote, "... there is a tendency * * * towards the creation of a single world economy, regulated by the The First Five-Year Plan amazed the world. The working proletariat of ali nations as an integral whole and according to a common plan. This tendency has already revealed itself quite clearly under capitalism and is bound to be further developed and consummated under socialism."6 When the proletariat of a number of countries won political power and production was socialised in a socialist way, the said tendency rnanifested itself in the development of national plan- ning and in the formation of a world socialist economy which is planned by the joint efforts of the socialist states. When charting

r22 123 At the close of the 1940s e 1950s, five-year plans appeared in Bulgaria, Mongolia, Poland (six-year-plan). The Korean Republic adopted its First Five-Year Plan in 1975, the First

Scientific Knowledge and Labour

ERIK YUDIN, BORIS YUDIN

Ever since science became an indepindent social institution it enriched the practice and theory of planning with international

activities. difficulties of the growing socialist economy should be. overcome. A prominent/ place here belongs to planned econornic manage- .ment. ,, NOTES , Th, USSR State Planning Board. Long-Term Orientations for 1927/28-1931/32, Moscow, 1927, p.3 (in Russian). so on. Science's relative independence as a social institution by no 2 K. Mr.* and F. Engels, Worts, Moscow, Vol.46, p.476 (in Russian)' means obviates its inclusion in the life of society and culture or the (in Rus- is science that enables us to see most clearly ' G.M.Krzhizhanovsky, Works, Vol.ll Moscow-Leningrad, 1934, p.364 circumstance that it sian). a F.Engels, Anti-Dt)hring Moscow, 1969, p.321. 5 K.M^.*, Capital, Moscow, 1969, Vol.l, p.314. 6 V.I.Lenin, Collected Worfrs, Moscow, Vol.31, p'147" 7 L. I.Brezhnev, Report of the CpSU Central Committee and. tke Immediate Tashs ot' the Party in Home and Foreign Policy. 25th Congress of the CPSU, Moscow, 1976, p' 102' 125 today far from consummation, evidently could begin only when practical activities. Thus, although it had won recognition as a science and social production had reached a definite Ievel of questor of truth and although it had pressed theology as the development, when capitalist relations of production became theoretical foundation of the world outlook, science still had to predominant in the most highly industrialised countries. There is traverse a difficult road before it came to be regarded as a no need to consider all the resultant changes that have ta,ken place powerful and absolutely vital means of hurnan activities. in society, changes that were so strikingly described by Marx and Cases when the results of science found practical use were few Engels in the first chapter of the Manifesto of the Communist, Party until the rnid-19th century. They were, metaphorically and thoroughly researched by Marx in his preparatory manus- speaking, those solitary swallows that do not make a summer. cripts for Capital. These episodes did not go beyond the framework of indi- All of man's activities, chiefly, of course, his activities in material vidual cases because they did not become the mainspring for production, are now clearly seen as activities aimed at gaining understanding and rationally r-rsing the possibilities held out by the control of and remaking the external world. It is becoming practical application of the results of scientific research. possible to correlate the means, aims, and results of activity However, as time passed, it grew obvious that the purely rationally, and objectively assess its efficacy. Activities oriented empirical foundation was much too narrow and could not ensure externally and yielding a directly tangible, quantitative (and the steady development of the productive forces, technological actually rneasurable) result may be improved endlessly, arrd each progress, and the improvement of the means of man's activities in step in the direction of its improvement may be tecorded production. In the quest for a source that could ensure a steady unambiguously (for instance, an increase of the output of some flow of innovations, engineers and inventors began to look product per unit time). Under conditions of practically increasingly to scientific knowledge. As a result, it was quite unbridled competition, the continuous rise of production efficien- quickly found that scientific research could yield a very large cy becontes a matter of life and death for each producer. practical and quite concrete and tangible effect amenable to a The traditional modes of regulating this activity inherited from quantitative calculation. Thus, people became aware that science feudalism prove to be totally insufficient: today it requires a could be a powerful catalyst of a process that had begun earlier rational attitude to itself . There arises not only the abstract and was becoming increasingly necessary-the process of continu- possibility but also the practical need for measuring how efficiently ous rationalisation of the means of production activities. This led some kind of activity or other is realised, and how far the means to a sharp modification of the attitude to science and was an conform to the aims for the attainment of which they are used. Of essential precondition enabling science to effect a decisive turn course, its means, which are the most mobile element in the towards practice, towards material production. structure of activity, are improved first of all. The point is, however, that scientific knowledge yields the most ,,' For a fairly long time the means of production were rationalised tangible practical result not when it is used to improve established chiefly on a practlcal, empirical basis, while material production branches of production and technological processes but when it is and technology developed, on the whole, independently of what the foundation for radical changes and steep advances in the was taking place in science. T'his was expressed and seen, in development of the productive forces. An example is the r particular, th€ fact that men science were many cases appearance at the close of the 19th century of entire industries 'separated in of in frorn men of technology by social partitions. Such such as the pharmacological and electrical engineering industries temples. Science as the French Academy German that develop mainly through the application of scientific achieve- . of or the universities were mostly closed organisations and in this sense ments. Here, to quote Academician N. Semyonov, science is turned resembled mediaeval guilds. (Recalling his work in Cambridge in from a handmaid into the mother of production. The result of the the 1920s-1930s, i.e., only some 50 years ago, the British scientist universality implicit in scientific knowledge is that in this case and author Ch.P. Snow characterises the atmosphere of those science cannot be confined to a subordinate role for long; it shows years as follows: "We prided ourselves that the science we were its potentialities quite quickly as a force that radically changes the doing could not, in any conceivable circumstances, have any make-up and character of production. practical use. The more firmly one could make that claim, the But this new function of science had still to win social more superior one felt.") I At the sarne time, for that external recognition and consolidation. Even at the beginning of the world itself the knowledge that was built up by science was, at best, present century the link between science and production was built what had to be mastered and not what had to be applied in up on a relatively broad foundation, but that foundation was not

126 127 very reliable. Let us assume that an engineer has drawn from the armoury of scientific knowledge what enables him to resolve a problem confronting him, or that a scientist has discovered a phenomenon that may be used in practice with benefit and without much trouble. In these cases science and technology have interacted on the whole purely externally-the link between them described repeatedly, others are less evident but no less vital. is not yet what is called socially organised and has no permanent Among. the former are ew highly channels. Underlying it is a chain of fortuitous finds (tangible to productive implements of esses, new society only to the extent the process has acquired a rnass industries, ne\fl sources the more character). comprehensive use of resources already drawn into production- In the 20th century there appeared, alongside this mechanism and the enlistment into production of new natural resources, of free quest, which largely characterises the specific nature of revolutionary changes in the organisation of production, and basic research (which, it must be noted, is to this day the most much else. fruitful reserve of fundamental scientific discoveries making it However, we woul possible to create new industries or radically restructure old tion of the process of industries), a new sphere of science or, to be more exact, of force and, generally, scientific-engineering activities-applied research and develop- functioning and devel ment. The employment of scientists in laboratories and design an examination of only these aspects of the process. In addition to departments of industrial firms became a mass phenomenon. The what we have already said, under certain social conditions science work of the scientist was given an industrial basis: he was set concrete tasks dictated by the need to improve technology. Scientific knowledge is now vital not merely for technological progress "generally", but for the development of specific indus- tries, for improving the technical and economic efficiency of specific industries and enterprises. The creation of such perma- nent channetrs for the practical application of scientific knowledge (something of the kind takes shape in the wake of industry in other branches of material production and even outside it, in other spheres of human activity) yields substantial results for both sides. As regards science, in addition to receiving a powerful impetus for development, its application "in direct production" now becomes for it "one of its determining and inducing elements" (Marx). It acquires a form of organisation that greatly facilitates the use of its results in practice. For its part, practice begins to orient itself more and more distinctly on its stable and continuous- ly expanding link with science. For modern production (and far from only for it) scientific knowledge is becoming not merely desirable, it not only enhances efficiency-its ever broader application is now a mandatory condition for the very existence and reproduction of many forms nrachines Autkors) as a wage worker, as an active individual of activities that had in their time emerged outside science, to say - nothing of the forms engendered by science itself. Today much has a scientific basis, rests on the scientific knowledge that has been accumulated and-this is particularly indicative-on know- ledge that is still to be obtained. r2E 129 forces of nature".8 As a result, the enhancement of labour efficiency is identified with the minimisation of the time and physical effort necessary for the performance nf labour opera- tions. Only some aspect, some individual capability of man as an integral individual is in fact involved directly in production activity. Man himself is compelled to be present only to the extent that in his physical existence he cannot separate this aspect from himself. Here the significance of activity thus proves to be external and programmed in advance. From the standpoint of a concrete individual the regulator of his activities under capitalist relations of production consists of rationality and expediency that are external, incommensurate, and incommensurable to him. When it stands, as it were, above rnan's activitiy, alienating from it its significance, this embodiment of scientific knowledge is an objective mainspring of mystification so characteristic of the modern bourgeois consciousness-mystification as a result of which science either becomes an object of blincl worship or (in its more modern variants) regarded as a fate awakened by man's presumptuousness, and punishing him for this presumptuousness. However, as science increasin5ily penetrates production and, accordingly, with the further development of labour, the part played by science in production grows richer, acquiring essentially new features. In its developed forms this labour presupposes not only the consumption of knowledge acquired earlier and material- ised in implements of labour, but also the direct participation of the worker in the creation of new knowledge. Here the element of subjectivity, formerly liable to elimination, proves to be essential in some respects. Not only production as a whole, but labour itself increasingly comes forward as the application of science. "In this conversion," Marx wrote, "the principal basis of production and wealth is not the direct labour performed by man himself, and not the time he spends in work, but the appropriation of his own universal productive force, his understanding of nature and supremacy over it as a. result of his being as a social organism, in short, as a result of the developmerlt of the social individual."s A person engaged in modern forms of production is required to have considerable social knowledge and the ability to apply this knowledge in specific situations. He must react quickly to unforeseen ctranges in the situation, energetically intervene in the technological process controllecl try him if sorne parameters of this process go beyond permissible lirnits, independentiy perform I innumerable operational tasks, and so forth. This sholvs that the

I modern worker must have cliverse skills, that he must be versatile-physically, mentally, emotionally, rnorally, and intellec- tually-that he must be prepared for production activities. As rtt rm distinct from labour entirely subordinated to the syste m of rnachines, this labour increasingly acquires a human content and becomes a field for the application of the entire sum of human strength and abilities. Of course, the element of subjectivity in modern forms of labour should not be absolutised. Labour is by no means becoming

restricted also by technological considerations; he has to strive for standardisation; he cannot use materials at whim; Jre must take into account the possibilities of the processing equipment, the assembly, the specifications for the installation and. operation of machines, and io forth. Nonetheless, all these restrictions do not

process is built up algorithmically and can be completely objec- iifiea, man is sooner or later replaced by an automatic machine. In this connection it would be in order to recall the destiny of

152 r33 Note rnust be made of yet another circumstance. While production activity undergoes a transformation under the impact of scientific knowledge, it in turn stimulates the growth of that knowledge. It not only brings to life new scientific disciplines such as the sociology of labour, engineering psychology, technical aesthetics, and ergonomics that serve it, but also sets the orientation for their theoretical development. The inclusion of science in production through the participant in production makes it vital for that ParticiPant to have a certain amount of scientific knowledge. This means that the training of man for labour is increasingly becoming a process of acquiring scientific knowledge and the ability to use that knowledge

tion-without this man simply would have been unable to participate in modern production-the individual is himself drawn into new and closer ties with society. In its turn, the process of obtaining and using scientific knowledge becomes an increasing- ly more universal type of interaction between individuals. The broad use of scientific knowledge directly in the process of labour thus results in the social links between individuals becoming more purposeful, richer and rnany-sided. Since the acquisition of a steadily growing volume of certain scientific knowledge proves to be vital not rnerely to becoming a "cultured person" but also to the training of man for independent participation in society's activities, chiefly in production, because this knowledge is becom- ing social in the true sense of the word, i.e., universal property- sorne quantity of scientific knowledge is possessed by eacry worker in modern forms of labour and is used activelv by him. The prerequisites are thus being created for surmounting the bifurcation of universal human existence resulting from the historically developing forrns of labour. " The surplus labour of the working firosses has ceased to be the condition for the development of common wealth, much as the nsn-labour af a few has ceased to be the condition for rhe development of the universal force of human intelligence." rP Of course, this can only be achieved in a socialist society, in which scientific and technological progress does not conflict but is closely linked with social progress. Labour subordinated entirely to a systern of machines and' requiring man's efforts only as a specifically schooled force of nature could create only a purely economic forrn of the individual's dependence on society under which the labour power of the individual, his capacity for labour is nothing more than a process of Production.

1S4 commodity; by selling this commodity the individual gets the possibility of satisfying his most vital requirements. Accordingly, under these conditions the social links between the individuals has a limited foundation, manifesting itself chiefly in the form of external compulsion. Conversely, the increasing scientification of the process of labour in a socialist society erilarges the foundation of the individual's links with society, and the development of these links shorn's "the extent to which the conditions of the socially vital process itself are subordinated to control by the univensal irttellect and remade in accordance with it." ls We thus see that in the course of the scientific and technological revolution science is becoming an essential element of the productive forces, inducing diverse structural changes in The Development of Sociolinguistics them. The content and character of, man's activities in production undergo considenable transformations under the impact of scien- in Conditions of the Scientific tific knowledge. Moreovel science's conversion into a key produc- and Technological Revolution tive force creates the preconditions, the springboard for the further many-sided inclusion of science into the life of society and YUNUS DES}IERIEV of the individual.

NOTES The character of present-day social development, the scientific I Ch. P. Snow, Tfte Tuo Cultures: anil a Second, Ioofi, Cambridge, 1965, p.32. and technological revolution, and the natural sciences have rnade 2 K.Mar-* and F.Engels, Worhs, Yol.46, Part ll, p"212 (in Russian), Ianguage an extremely irnportant problem of science and the s lbid., p.2to. practical activity of people. This is due to many factors of u Ibid.-. irnmense social, epistemological, and practical significance. 5 tbid., p. 2r2. 6 ibid., p.slo. 7 Ibid.-. 8 tbid., p.tto. e lbid., pp.2l5-214. In speaking of social factors, it must tle noted that considerable r0 changes have occurred in the development of the world lingual Yrr. A.Sh.*ider, "Is Intelligence Implicit in a Mactrine?", Voprosy frlosofii, 1975, No.2. process after the Second World War as a result of the downfall of rr G.L.Smolyan, "NIan and the Computer," Voprosy filosafii, 1973, No. 3, p.33. the world colonial system, the growth of the national liberation 12 K.Mu.* and F.Engels, Worht Yol.46, Part II, p.214. movement, and the emergence 6f many new independent states. rs Ibid., p.215. The languages of numerically small peoples began to develop in Asia, Africa, and South and Central America, and in many cases written languages were evolved where such were noir-existent. Some scholars believe that out of a total of from 2,500 to 3,000 languages (this is the figure most frequently rnentioned, although it mu$t be specified), only between 15 and 20 have the socially-conditioned potentiality for fulfilling the functions of languages of international associatinn, of scientific and cultural intercourse on a world scale. In many ways language barriers prevent scientific, technological, and cultural achievements from adequately reaching all people through their languages. Suffice it to note that in order to make translations from only 50 languages basis of what local dialects and on what graphic foundations should it is necessary to have 2,450 different dictionaries, a huge army of these languages be created? What must be the social functions of translators, and so forth. Most, particularly small, countries are these new written languages? 3 Strould their social functions be unable to cope with this task. confined to instruction at elementary schools and the publication In the complex, dialectically contradictory, language situation of periodicals and belles lettres, or is it necessary to organise prevailing in the world, there is a growing need for resolving the instruction in the abovementioned languages at secondary schools sociolinguistic problems of world social development. The prob- and institutions of higher learning? The formulation and solution lems have arisen of an auxiliary language of science and of these and other problems of applied sociolinguistics depend on international intercourse, bilingualisrn, the spread of the most many factors: specific socio-economic, cultu'al and historical, and developed international and world languages,' prognostication of ethno-linguistic conditions; the language situation and Ianguage the linguistic process considered from the standpoint of the policy in the education of the masses. dn illiterate or semi-literate operation of socially conditioned regularities of the function of the person cannot properly use the great achievements of science and languages of the world. technology" His personal tragedy is compounded by the fact that This has generated universal interest in the various scientific in a certain sense he becomes a "burdetl" to society. It was concepts of the further development of rrankind's lingual life, of justifiably noted in Courier UNESCO that these are morally the fundamental principles of language policy in different regir:ns disgraceful facts, that they are evidence of injustice, of monstrous of the world, of the present and future of national languages, and losses of intellectual labour,n of the role of international langrrages in the development of trn this light it would perhaps be advisable to set up a special science, technology, and culture, in the spread of scientific, commission at the International Comlnittee for Socinlingrristic technological, and cultural information, and of international Research in order to help evolve written languages, draw up experience of resolving language problems. scientific and practical recommendations on the use of native From the social angle, the formulation ancl rolution of languages in the education of their users and on language policy language problems are linked with questions of method, theory, in African, Asian and tr-atin American countries. and practice: basic socially-conditioned tendencies of the develop- Other sociolinguistic problems of modern social development ment of the social functions of long-established and new written and the scientific and technological revolutiori are dealt with in languages, and unwritten languages of the world; language policy special Iiterature.s and language planning under various socio-econornic and political conditions of the development of multi*national and mono- national states; language and man in the epoch of the scientific r8*rl and technological revolution; international significance of the problem of bilingualism; natural languages and the social aspect of formulating the problem of an artificial ancillary language; the social aspect of language formalisation; the problem of language as a social phenomenon and as a serniotic systern; the problem of the social differentiation of language; international experience of guages.6 accelerating cultural-language development and its significance to It rnay be regarded as universally accepted that "modern developing nations; sociolinguistic problems of applied linguistics; scientific theory is language, i,e., the sum of rlneans used to social linguistics and the ways of its development; sociolinguistic construct and express thought...Behind the language of scientific problems of mass communication, sociolinguistics and the sociolo- theory is a s man to understand the gy of language,* and some other problems. phenomena ality" The question of According to UNESCO statistics, there were nearly a billion what is the is its objective content illiterate adults in the world in the first half of the 1960s. In some may be answered by interpreting not only individrral terms and countries there was increase in the number of illitenate people. sentences of theory, but also its entire language."' What must be the role of native languages in the accelerated At the l4th International Philosophical Congress (Vienna, elimination of illiteracy and semiJiteracy? In which of the present 1968), the problern of language was the third theme discussed at unwritten languages should a written language be evolved? On the the plenary sitting. It was considered mainly in the philosophical Itt aspect of epistemology, of a logical analysis from the standpoint of various ways and comprehensive method.s, Much depends on the diiferent philosophical schools.8 Here we ai:e concerned with the existing political systerns, on socio-economic conditions, and on philosophical, episternological aspects of its examination only to the national-language policy.e With the assistance of scientisi,s working extent that this is necessary for a sociolinguistic and sociological on problerns of applied sociolinguistics and sociology, and also of elucidation of this problern. specialists from interested countries, the exponents of synchronous Mathematics is often called the language of science. However, sociolinguistics should evidently work out a general range of not only mathematics but also any other branch of knowledge, any problems and rnap out scientific-practical measures with the sphere of human activity is mirrored in a natural language. Thus, participation of UNESCO and the countries concerned with the in its nature language is a universal forrn, a universal means of purpose of finding the best ways of resolving these problems, human cornmunication, of scientific-theoretical and artistic thought. However, all branches of science and technology and all scientific theories are represented and reflected in far from all the languages of the world. If one proceeds frorn approximate data, it What are the orientarions of the rvorld linguistics process? The will be seen that of the 2,500-3,000 existing languages only historical approach to social phenornena, the study of these 250-300 are written languages (in which some scientific theories process functioning, and rnay be mirrored to one extent or another). The remaining to gain g of their present 2,200-2,7A0 unwritten Ianguages remain almost entirely divorced uture. F d be expedient to from the highroad of modern science and technology. The vast life of phenornenon. majority of the users of these Ianguages speak ontry their native Of all man's acquisitions throughout the history of civilisation language and thereby have no access to many modern theories the mosi; irnportant, nrost valuable, most vital social phenomena and achievements of science and technology. are labour, language, an This has given rise to social and sociolinguistic problems of cally in indissoluble in worldwide significance: What are the ways and rleans rif rapidly Engels, first labour and t raising the social self-awareness of the users of the vast majority of the two most .essential languages of the world, i e., of the vast majority of mankind, to brain" of its development, and also the development-Consciousness of the the educational level of modern advanced nations? By what means senses,to "Language is as old as consciousness.... given access modern is,..frrrm the very beginning a social product, and remains so as can all the peoples of the world be to rr scientific and technological inforrnation? Of course, this can only long as men exist at all." Labour, language, and consciousness be achieved with the aid of language, for human language is the are thus socially conditioned. They are studied in all their varieties sole all-embracing universal means of expressing systems of and manifestations: physical Ia scientific th.eories, of artistic, aesthetic understanding of reality. In has its own gradations, and m the.ianguages of international comrnunication-English, Russiatr, also studied as an extremely French, German, Spanish, Chinese, and also Japanese, Italian, and The same rnay' be said of thi some other of the more developed national langrrages-are the social asLlects conditioning labour, language, and consciousness reflected practically ail .nodern scientific and technological in all their varieties and manifestations are still not studied as a theories and achievements. special .ategory that has a structure, functions, and diverse Various wavs are suggested for utilising different languages to manifestations of its own. But the social aspect underlying all raise the education and cultural level of all the peoples of the social phenomena ranges far beyond sociolinguistics, This is a world. Some suggest disseminating world languages everywheren general sociological category, ;r gerieral sociological proh:lem. trn and organising instruction in these languages. Others propose that language we deal with its unil,ersal manifestations, as in the case of national languages should be developed, that they should be made consciousness and labour. We feel that it would be of the utnlost languages of education of all levels, and of science and technology. importance to evoh,e a theorv of the hurnan language, thinking, International experience of accelerated cultural-language develop- and consciousness in their close interaction uncler the conditions ment and education of formerly backward peoples shows that of the scientific and technological revolution. these key social problems of the modern world may be resolved by From the standpoint of manifestations of social aspects, of their

140 theoretical and practical significance to modern social development rules, the replacement of obsolete by improved alphabets, develop- and the scientific and technological revolution, we distinguish the ment of the social functions of languages, elaboration of terminol- follow of sociolinguistics: general theoretical socioling- ogy, questions of the culture of language and speech, and uistics he elaboration of a general theory,r2 rnethodol- norm-setting for literary languages. oBy 1' of sociolinguistic study; and also synchronous In the early 1950s new problerns of appliecl linguistics arose in sociolinguistics; retrospective sociolinguistics; perspective socioling- connection with machine translation and the formalisation of uistics; specific sociolinguistics; comparative sociolinguistics, and language. The study of these questions is regarded as the main interlinguistics. task of applied linguistics, which develops in close interaction with The purpose of synchronous sociolinguistics is to work out structural linguistics. Applied linguistics is confronted mainly by current general and specific problems of the functioning and tasks of a "technical" character. interaction of languages under different socio-economic, ethno- Applied sociolinguistics takes its departure from a definite linguistic, socio-political, and cultural conditions, in other words, methodological conception, from a sociological theoiy of social the problems of the language situation.ra Ttre most irnportant of development, from socio-language problems and language policy. these are the problems of systernatic research into the world Thus, the sociolinguistic aspect is the point of departure for sociolinguistic (language) process in the context of modern social establishing the correlation between borrowed and one's own development and the scientific and technological revolution, terms in the terminologicai system of one language or another, including the functioning of long-established and new written and for the struggle against purist aspirations and against the languages and unwritten languages; modern international lan- pollution of a language with unnecessary borrowings. It is also the guages; the implementadon of language policy in different point of departure for the most complex social problerns of the countries.ls spelling of borrowed words and the setting of forms of literary One of the basic features distinguishing synchronous from languages, particularly in a multinational state. retrospective sociolinguistics is that the former takes into account In this work cooperation between exponents of applied the spontaneous and conscious influence of social factors on the sociolinguistics and structural linguistics would be extremely functioning of language and, consequently, gives more attention to useful. Some scholars hold that social linguistics and structural conscious influence. linguistics are antipodal, incompatible , even hostile, that they Until the lg50s, no branch of Iinguistics had set itself the task exclude one another. In my view, this is wrong. Structural and of elaborating sociolinguistic and other problems of the develnp- mathematical methods, in particular, statistical rnethods, serve ment and interaction of the languages of the world in such a al and broad sociolinguistic plane as is done by prospective sociolinguis- tics. Its cardinal airn is to plan and prognosticate language development. National-language policy, the conscious influence of i, 1,"1 society on the development and interaction of languages receives dictate of the times, of the present state and development priority att€ntion, as rdas shown in the Soviet experience of prospects of the scientific and technological revolution. Ttre planning and prognosticating language development.'o interpenetration of different sciences and the further intensifica- This concerns prognosticating the development of the social tion of this process are a hallmark of the development of both functions of languages rvith all the ensuing consequences. modern sociology and rhe science of language. Some inner-structural processes, for instance, phonetic and Specific sociolinguistics studies sociolinguistic problems of grammatical phenornena., wray also be prognosticated and even specific areas of the use of language: for example, the theory of planned. Rut the point is, first, that the social importance of these bilingualism,rs and the social differentiation of language. Under processes is very insignificant; second, that these are extrernely conditions of the scientific and technological revolution it is vitally slow processes. On the other hand, the deveiopment of the social important to study the processes of the socio-professional cdifferen- functions of literary Ianguages is of irnrnense social significance. tiation of language. In this area there are many special problems: Until approximately the 1940s applied problems of the science the ,sociolinguistic problems of the genesis of specific features of of languages were raised chiefly in the context of society's the language of each socio-professional group of people; the conscious guidance of the functioning and development of question of so-called sublanguages, and so forth. Local dialects languages: the creation of alphabets, the cornpilation of spelling and, in socialist countries, so-called social diaiects disappear t42 gradually. At the same time, the socio-professional differentiation ly existing artificial languages, their merits and shortcomings, and of language grows more pronounced. In our age of rapid problems of the social functions of an artificial language and the scientific and technological progress Ianguages mirror the complex sphere of its application. social conditions of their functioning, cultural-historical factors, The aforesaid leads to some general conclusions: and also factors of the intellectual perception of scientific-technical l. The development of the multinational and multilingual reality with its aesthetics, its special vision characteristic of Soviet society, the international experience of resolving national different socio-professional groups. language problems, and the scientific and technological revolution Specific sociolinguistics covers also the sociolinguistic problems have eloquently'showrr the untenability of the widespread concept of the development of art in conditions of the scientific and that linguists are merely passive onlookers recording spontaneous technological revolution.re T'he study of language as an aesthetic processes of language development and language changes that cartegory is an important task of this branch of sociolinguistics. To cannot be purposefully regulated by society. The Iong Soviet some extent every language reflects industrial aesthetics, its experience of language development has demonstrated that contribution to the development of elements of a langTrage's sociolinguists number among scientists called upon to play a internal structure, to the shaping of new special means of vigorous role in directing the functioning and development of expression for the enrichment of social consciousness, the aesthetic languages. They have created written languages for more than 50 perception of reality in the given language, and so forth. It would formerly unwritten languages; extended the social functions of be hard to overestimate the theoretical and practical significance languages by organising instruction in native languages at elemen- of elaborating the sociolinguistic problems of a branch of specific tary and secondary schools, and institutions of higher learning; sociolinguistics such as mass communication (problems of the promoted culture, science, and mass communication in native language of the press, radio, television, and films). Sociolinguists languages; created terminology systems in cooperation with must cooperate also with philosophers in studying the problem of scholars in other branches of knowledge; worked out spelling; the language of science in its sociolinguistic and epistemological resolved problems of the culture and aesthetics of language and aspects.zo speech; planned language development, and so on. The task of working out the methods, the conceptual 2. There is no area of social life where language is not used, apparatus, and the terminology of synchronous, applied, specific, much as there is no area of social life that does not require the and prospective sociolinguistics is consistent with the requirements active guiding and regulating assistance of sociolinguistics in of modern social development and the scientific and technological formulating and resolving language problems. Ther present-day revolution. social developrnent and the scientific and technological revolution Interlinguistics stands somewhat detached among the various prove that insufficient attention to the development of socioling- brnnches of sociolinguistics. Essentially spedking, this is an uistics is fraught with serious consequences. intqr-branch discipline. The prcblems of interlinguistics have to be 3. Sociolinguistics is faced with interlinguistic and intralinguistic worked out on the basis of defir:ite methodological and ideological problems of the rnodern functioning of the languages of the guidelines, and also with account of the present state and world, and of planning and prognosticating their immediate and prospects of social development. Moreover, the cornmon and local more remote future. In working on the broad social, methodologi- interests of nations must be taken into account. It is important cal, theoretical, and practical aspects of these problems, socioling- methodologically and ideologrcally to consider the languages whictt uists have to cooperate with representatives of sociology, the creators of one or another artificial language draw upon, and philosophy, history, Iiterary criticism, psychology, and other so on. branches of knowledge. In raising and resolving these problems interlinguistics rests on 4. Many modern philosophical, sociological, linguistic, and sociolinguistics. However, in resoiving ttre problem of creating the psychological schools overestimate or underrate the role and rnost perfect alphabet and phonetic system, rules of grammar, and significance of language when they consider various aspects of vocabulary, interlinguistics uses the methods and principles of social life. structural linguistics. The principal aim of interlinguistics is to The role played by language categories in reflecting reality is exaggerated also by Ludwig Wittgenstein, founder of a new school resolve the problems of creating a perfect artificial ancillary o'a language of science. To this end it exarnines various projects, the of linguistic philosophy, who believes that sentence is a model guestions of the functioning and further dissemination of current- of reality".2r I feel it is wrong to identify in everything the fact of t4 th_e of for thinking and speech that may be realised only in a human reality with its Ianguage expression, the object with -activity the word is not the collective, in society. But without the biological foundation the ect. social foundation cannot create and develop language (speech). Committee during the The excitation received by man through oral signals were called by 7th International Congress of S an attempt was made Ivan Pavlov "signals of the second signal system".27 The generatr- isation implicit in a word "comprises...the special hurnan, higher to prove that the main-contradicti developmenl 9f Third world countries are due to language distinctions and barriers. thought".28 Unity tretween thought and language (speech), that has a This exaggeration of the role of lanfuuage_in political-orientation dual social and biological foundation, predetermines the features of and in s6ciio-economic development is totally untenable. thought as a stage of cognition and as a process. "The consciousrless Sociolinguistics is called uptn to combar underestimation of the is the reflection of reality refracted through human experience and reflected in language. In the meaning of words... reality is reflected role of lan"guage in social development, material-production,.and 2s cultural life] FJr instance, individual exponents of some schools of deeper, more fully than in a direct impression." To quote structuralism demanded what a nounted to the total isolation of L.Vygotsky, speech and its basic element-the word-underlie life, although everybodY is aware the appearanie of the most intricate functional systems.3o He f societY, that it can function and attached the greatest significance to the role of language in the Hjelmslev, one of the founders of formation of the highest functions of the human mind, in the atics), maintained the view that development of consciousness and knowledge. That explains the ,,unclerstanding of language as a pure structule of relations, as a great importance of elaborating socio-biological (physiological) pattern, as so-methi.tg that is antipodal to the causal"'is the problems of the optimal use of the potentialities of the hurnan ierlisation in which t"his pattern comes forward"'s2 Of course, brain to reflect new scientific and technological achievements by language may be studied for means of sound language, and also of studying the role of the of relations (for instance, social and the biological in the functioning of speech under formalisation of language), but it conditions of the scientific and technological revolution. cardinal in the nature of langu Language is an intimate phenornenon and must have the sociolinguistic nature of lang closest attention from sociolinguists. This intimacy gives expressiorr structure, and remember that to the features of language as a social pheno[lenon. This was means of human intercourse"n2 noted by Bertrand Russell: "When a rnan says, 'I can never convey the horror I felt on seeing Buchenwald...' he is saying sornething which is strictly and precisely true: he possesses, through his ilffi,t experience, knowledge...not cornpletely capabJe of verbal expres- on the sion. trf he is a superb literary artist, he may create in sensitive conterrt reflected by it explains e ssibility readers a state of mind almost similar to his own, but if he tries any culture, and anY ideologY. scientific methods the stream of his experience will be lost and ot ignore the social nature of dissipated in a dusty desert. "I-anguage, our sole means of cornmunicating sdentific know- #lo?l,'*"i. :i .?"31'if:H'; ledge, is essentially social in its origin and in its main functions." sr : language.2s The Soviet linguist Sociolinguistics has the irnportant task of studying language in V. Abayev justifiably writes on this score that the "unfolding of atrl its social diversity without either overrating or underestirnating language ai a.ocial cultural value and the study of-history as a lt. .orrii.,rio,1t creative process are consistent with the tasks of 5. NIuch tras been done in this field in the multinational USSR., hurnanistic education." 26 where special concer n has always been shown for the development Moreover, it is important to bear in rnind that as a social of national languages and for the elaboration of sociolinguistic Sorviet phenomenon with many aspects, language has a binatural founda- problems" In the Union language development comprised a iiorr-socio-physiological (biological). When we spel\ of the far-reaching prop;'i.rrrine of the education of nurnerous formerly backward peoplc-s on the basis of their native languages. This physiologicai lUiologicat) foundation of language (speech) we have in tnind"the ce.,trul nervous system, the brain, the natural ability entailed the comprehensive solution of innumerahle scientific, r47 I116 1950, there were 1,693 newspapers with a circulation of. 575 million, and in 1970, there were 2,618 newspapers with an annual circulation, of. 3,478 million. In 1970, there were 105 scientific, socio-political, belles lettres journals and other periodicals with a and branches of Iearning, research institutes, academies of sciences total annual printing of 11,682,000 copies, and 394 newspapers these aiademies, theatres, clubs, and a periodical press using local with a circulation of 1,052,000,000 in the Uzbek, Klzikh, Tajik, Kirghiz, and Turkmen languages.ss Analogous data may be cited with reference to other iiterary languages of the peoples of the USSR, the social functions of which have widened immeasurably in Soviet years. From this data it is obvious that Elliot R. Goodman had no grounds for writing of a decline of the languages of the peoples of the USSR, of their Russification. Nobody was so consistent and resolute in opposing the forcible imposition of any language, including the Russian language, on people speaking other languages, and nobody had so emphatically upheld the complete equality of languages and peoples as the Marxists-Leninists. It was Lenin's maxim that no nation and no language should be accorded privileges.sG Goodman's book is certainly no model of impartiality. It does not help to foster understanding between peoples and states. a written The assertion of some authorsrs that stePs to create However, in the USA there are scientists who endeavour to give wgr-e taken only language and to develop some national languagel an objective picture of the life of the peoples of the USSR, of consequently this work was in ihe- 1920s and 1930s, and that Soviet reality. We value their works highly. One of them is the languages of the peoples of the halted and the Russification of Professor W. C. Townsend, author of the book Thcy Found Comman USSR was started does not conform to the facts. Actually, the Language.sT We are in agreement with Professon Joyce O. Herrzler, who wrote that more than any other country the Soviet Union

NOTES I V. C. Ko.to-arov, P. N. Denisov, P. V. Veselov, The Russian Language in the Modcrn World. Moscow, 1969 (in Russian). 2 A.D.Shweitser, Probbms of Sociology of Langrnge in Modern American Li,nguistics, Moscow, l97l (in Russian). Ukrainian language. 3 Yu.D.Desheriev, press- gives the following picture: in 1914, one Deuclopment of New Written Languages of Peoples of the ltSS& The -only Moscow, 1958; V.A.Avrorin, "Development of the Languages of Peoples was published in the Ukraine; in the of Ukrainian langriage newsPaPer Siberia in the Soviet Period", Iztestia Sibirskogo otdelen\o AN SSSR, Social r.tt s0 L.S.Vygot.ky, Deulafment of the Higher Psychical Functiow, Moscow, 1960; idern, M.LIsayev, 130 Equal [-angttages of the Peoples of the sciences series, 1967, No. I1; Cybernetic Aspects in lhe Study of the Warh of tlw Btain" Moscow, 1970 (both in USSR, Moscow, 1970 (all in R.ussian). Russian). 4 1963, 3, 3l' 31 Courier UNESCO, No' P' Bertrand Russell, Human Knowledgc. Its Scope and Limit* New York, i962, p. 3. 5 yu.D.Desheriev, N.G.Korletyanu, F.P.Filin, Sociolingttistics anil the fto_O^le_r.n of 92 (in Karl Marx and Frederick Engels. Thz German ldtology, 1968, p' 480. tii D;irtop**t of the Social Finctions of Languages of the Workl" Moscow, 1967 3r Elliot R. Goodman, "World State and World Language", Readings in the Soctology Russian). ol Languagc, The Hague, 1968, pp. 725-728. 6 cs, Mouton, The Hague, l97l' l.Fis 5a 1922-1972, p. 454 (in Russian)' Russian)' Tln Er-rr*.y of tht USSR. Moscow, P,V. Logic, Science, Moscow. 1973, p' 189 (in 35 8' 1968, 1' lbid.-. Akt nolen Kongresses fiir Philosofhie, Yienna, Vol' s6 e V.LL.nirr, Coit4hte Worts, Moscow, Vol, 24, p. 391 (in Russian). Longrrog, Problems of Deueloping Nations New York, 1968' r0 W.C.Totrtsend, They Fornil Common Lan7aagc New York, l9?1. Frederick Engels, Dialectics of Natute, Moscow, 1964, p' 176' u''? O.Hertzler, A Sociotogy of Langunge, New York, 1965, p. 261. 11 Karl l\4arx and Frederick Engels, Tft.e Gennan ldealogl, Moscow, 1968' p' 42' 1oy." st Laws llw Druelopment of Lit'erary Langtages in the Soviet Ed. by Vol' 1, The Hague' Yrr.D.Desheriev, of '2 Ad.oonru iu the Sociology of Language, J'Fishman, Epoch. Deulopmmt of ,h'e. Social Ftnclions ol Langtages, Moscow, 1976 (in i968. Russian). t$ Yu. Deslreriev, "social Linguistics", Linguistics, 1973, Vol' ll3' rn Thu L^nguoge Sittatior; Moscow, 1968 (in Russian)' t5 ,.Language L. B. Nikolsky. Policy as a Form of Society's Conscious Influence on I-anguage Developmentt', Yazyk i obshchestvo' Moscow, 1968'

19 A.C.yugo.ov, ,,'I'he Scientific and Technological Revolution and Art," Znatnla" 1973, No. l" pp. 143-171. 2o Marx, Engels,. Lenin Cantem' P. N. Fedoseyev, Iufarx;sm in the 204h Century. -ond poronrity, It{Lscow, \972; P.Y.Kopnin, Dialettics, Logit, Science, Moscow' :973 (both in Russian)' 2' Lr.l*ig lVittgenstein, Ttactatus logico-philosaphdcug Bonn, 1967' 22 ,.Method of strucrural Analysis in Lori. Hjelmslev, __ ^ -Linguistics"" Acta t,zn[iistica, Copenhagen, 1950-i951, Voi. VI, Issue 2-3' p' 6l' 23 V. I.L..rin, Collectcd Wbrfts, IVloscow, Vol. 20, p' 396' 2n Lorrgnog, 8, P' 63 (in Russian)' 2, U.;.UtauU,^n A Study in the Methodalogy of the Hurnaniti,es ui.ih Speclal Copenhagen, 1957' p' 16' 26 V.I. Ab.y"r, "Language and Humaniltic Education", Abstracts of Papers' Buchareit, August 28-Septernbe:'2, 1967, p' 3. 27 LP.Paulou, Coniplete Worhs,2nd ed", Vol. III, Book I, Moscow-Leningrad' l95i' p. 321 (in Russian). 2t IL,id., p. 232. 20 A. N. L.o.rtyev and A. R. Luria, "The Psychological Views of I-' S'V^y-g^otsky' ' Introd uction ,o I-. 5. \rygotsk y's Selecteil Studtes in Psychologl, Moscovr, I 956' p' I 7 (in Russian). 15I 150 These internal and external contradictions, the most glaring of which were those between the Chinese people and imperialism, formed the objective basis for the ripening and development of the Chinese national liberation movement in the new internal and international conditions that had taken shape under the impact of the Great October Socialist Revolution. Of the various factors of the influence of the October Revolution on China, the most important was the impact exerted by the first news reaching that countryabout the October Revolution, by Lenin's foreign policy line, by th Leninism in the country, and by the first contac Communist movement [the Comintern and unist Party History (Bolsheviks)l and the Chinese Communist movement that had just From the emerged in China. These important developments facilitated the of the Chinese Communist Movement laying of the ideological and organisational foundations of the Communist movement in China, and this was a great achievement by EVGENI KOVALEV the Chinese working class at that time.

,t {! !F China is one of the countries that came under the powerful influence of the Great October Socialist Revolution. It was the On the eve of the October Revolution, various sections of the October Revolution that imParted Chinese intelligentsia had shown a keen interest in the events tic,n movement a qualitatively ne taking place in Russia. The victory of the February bourgeois- emergence in China of new socia democratic. revolution had greatly stirred the revolutionary dem- that movement. This occurred in ocrat Li Ta-chao, who became subsequently one of the organisers period following the October Revolution of 1917, when, to cite of the Communist Party of China (CPC). On March 29, 1917, he Lenin, China wis "seething".r published an article in the Peking liberal newspaper Chioyin What made China, sodn after the October Revolution and (Tiger), of which he was the editor, entitled "The Influence of the Great Russian Revolution". In it Li said that the Russian revolution encouraged the Chinese to fight for "a strengthening of the republican sy-stem" and to oppose the restoration of the rnonarchy in China.2 In the following April, an article by Chen Tu-hsiu, a representative of bourgeois radicalism, appeared in Hsin chingnien (New Youth), a monthly magazine of the bourgeois-dernocratic intelligentsia published in Shanghai. Chen pointed out in his article that the February revolution in Russia irad helped "arouse" the Chinese people.$' For the first time in the Chinese press, the events taking place in Russia at that time were linked with the name of Lenin and his struggle for peace. Thus, Hsin chingnien reported that "Lenin is actively seeking people who share his views for the purpose of conducting peace propaganda", and that "troops at th€ front that had been won over to Lenin's Party have practically abandoned the war".4 domestic semi-feudal system which was backed by imperialism' News about the victory of the October Revolution reached

t62 China on the third day after it took place. It was reported in Thus, the rnonthly journal Laotu,ng (Labour), edited by one of Minhuo jihpao (The Republic), a Shanghai newspaper published by China's first anarchiits, Chich-huei, which came out in Shanghai Sun Yat-sen's supporters, on November 10, 1917. The next day it between March and July 1918, made an attemPt to explain the was reported in the major bourgeois newspapers in Shanghai and character, meaning, and goals of the October Revolution. [n the Peking. Those earliest reports were no more than an announce- article "War in Europe and the Working People," published in the ment of the fact and were not always accurate, and in some first issue (March 20; 1918), it was pointed out: "Events [in Russia] instances were accompanied by malicious attacks against the are developing in such a direction that the workers, having revolution. Nevertheless they introduced to the Chinese public overthrown th-ose who held power, will themselves govern the social ideas which were hitherto unknown to it and which country and in the future will probably put an end to war for therefore aroused tremendous interest among various social ever." lo groups. From newspaper reports they learned that Russian The response in China to the revolutionary events in Russia' revolutionary workers, sailors, and soidiers had overthrown and the attempts of various bourgeois and petty-bourgeois SrouPs Kerensky's government arrd that Lenin at the Second All-Russia in China to understand these events, clearly show that the October Congress of Soviets called for the conclusion of a peace treaty, for Revolution awakened the political consciousness of these groups, turning over land to the peasants, and for solving the country's made them a\ryare that a social revolut-ion, the greatest in economic problems.s They were no longer satisfied with knowing mankind's histor/, had taken place, and compelled them to that a revolution had treen accomplished in Russia, but wanted to ponder the meaning of this fact and course of learn about the nature of that revolution, about Soviet power; the developn:ent of China herself. The truth akingplace Party of the Bolsheviks, and Lenin's role in the October in Russia-and this was somethirg that t es in China Revolution. and Western bourgeois proPaganda could not conceal from the The revolutionary democrat Sun Yat-sen and the democrats Chinese people-*as that for the first time in history political who grouped around him hailed the October Revo!*tion. In a power was wiested from landowners and capitalists and taken over conversation with Japanese and Indian journalists in the spring of by the working people, i.e., workers and peasants. 1918, Sun Yat-sen spoke in favor of recognition of Soviet Russia The effect of this event on the Chinese public was enormous. by Asian countries and of publishirrg report-s in their press about LaLer, the outstanding organiser of the working-class movement, the achievements of the October Revolution.o It was probably then Teng Chung-hsiang, who called the October R'evolution "the that Sun Yat-sen sent a cable to the Soviet Bovernment and to greaiest event in world history", wrote: "Chinese workers, living Lenin, in which he, on behalf of the parliarnent of South China under unbelievably wretched conditions, greeted with joy the nervs and his part/, expressed admiration for the successes of the about the world working-class movement. They especially rejoiced Bolsheviks and the hope that the Revolutionary Party of China at the news about the triumph of the Great October Socialist (Chungkuo Koming tang) and the Russian Communist Party Revolution in Russia. This was an inspiring event for Chinese (Bolsheviks) would unite their efforts in joint struggle. l,ater Sun workers and deeply influenced the development of the revolutio- Yat-sen wrote that the Russian revolution "was for China an nary movement in China." ll example of how a country can liberate itself from the fetters of Lenin's foreign policy exerted a tremendous revolutionary foreign aggression and injustice",T and that "if from now on rye influence on China. The legislative acts adopted by the govern- do not follow the exarnple oi Russia, our revolution will fail".8 rnent of Soviet Russia, the country of victorious working class, irt Chinese students also responded with enthusiasm to the the years following the October Revolution, set an unprecedented October Revolution. In a petition addressed to the government, exarnple of how international reiations should be conducted. As is dated May 21, 1918, a group of students wrote: "The new Russian known, as soon as the workers' and peasants' government was government, which has set as its goal the creation of a communist formed, it called on all belligerent nations and their governments society, has already declared that it will under no circumstances imrnediately to begin talks on concluding a just. and democratic commit aggression against another country."e peace. The Decree on Feace also declared null and void the secret The October Revolution was of such epochal significance that treaties acceded to or concluded by Rus:ia pritr to October 25, in China even those whose ideology and political views were 1917. On November 15 (28), the Soviet government called on the opposed to scientific socialism came under its liberatory influence governments and peoples of the.^belligerent countries (including and showed a keen interest in what was happening in Russia. ehina; to hold arrnistice talks.12 On December 2, 1918, the l5{ I65 Presidium of the All-Russia Central Executive Committee resolved China in connection with the Boxers' Uprising of 1900, and August proposes that the Chinese government establish official relations to annul the treaty which Russia concluded with China on 15 25, 1901, trnder which the latter was to pay indemnities to Russia with the Bovernment of Soviet Russia." in connection with the Boxers' Uprising.rr In China, response to the Appeal was enthusiastic. Organisa- The government in Peking headed by Tuan Chi-yui did not tions of workers, students, businessmen and industrialists, journal- respond to the Soviet proposal, broke off negotiations on ists, etc., sent rnessages of greetings to Soviet Russia, and a establishing friendly relations between the Soviet republic and movement for extending recognition to the Soviet Republic got China which were started in November-December l9l7 on the under way.'u The Chinese Association of Labour sent a message to initiative of the Soviet government, and at the end of March l9l8 the workers, peasants, and Red Army rnen of Russia, in which it recalled its envoy to R.ussia, thus virtually severing relations with said: "All our people greatly admire your creative efforts and your the Soviet Republic. That the Peking government was hostile to spirit of self-denial, which are especially cheering and inspiring for the RSFSR was also seen in its direct involvement in anti-Soviet our working people. They wish to cooperate with the workers, actions conducted by White Guard bands in Northeastern China, peasants and Red Army men of Russia, who rose up under the and in its open support of former tsarist diplomats stationed in banner of humaneness and justice, and through joint efforts to wage the struggle for overthrowing the privileged classes and for China. On May 16, 1918, a secret Japanese-Chinese agreement otr I7 joint military actions against Soviet Russia was concluded. In achieving the great world unity." Under the pressure public sentiments the Peking govern- accordance with this agreement the Japanese and the Peking of ment sent a military-diplomatic mission to Soviet Russia to discuss governments sent troops under Japanese command to the Soviet Far East and to Siberia. After that other agreements were signed preliminary conditions for holding possible Chinese-Soviet negotia- by Peking and Tokyo which turned China into an instrument in tions. On September 5, 1920, the mission, headed by Chang the struggle against the world's first socialist state. Seu-lin, arrived in Moscow.rs The Soviet government, out of Despite the anti-Soviet intrigues, the Peking government could respect for the Chinese people and wishing to normalise relations not suppress the feeling of sympathy which the Chinese masses with China, accorded the Chinese delegation a cordial reception. had for Soviet Russia. Its policy of promoting peace and This was acknowledged in Feking. On September 18, the Peking friendship and equality of the peoples, the first of its kind in the government notified the former tsarist missions and consulates in history of international relations, convinced the Chinese people China that they should discontinue their activity. But the Peking that new Russia, where a socialist revolution had been successfully government went no further." Owing to pressure of foreign carried out, was a sincere friend of their country. powers, the Peking government declined to establish diplomatic Soviet Russia tried to establish friendly relations with the relations with Soviet Russia. Chinese people on the basis of joint struggle against imperialism. Continuing the policy of normalising Soviet-Chinese relations, In a letter (August l, l9l8) to Sun Yat-sen, I'eople's Commissar the government of the RSFSR, on September 27, sent a note to for Foreign Affairs of the RSFSR G. Chicherin said that at a time the government of the Chinese republic proposing that they start lvhen imperialist to destroy the Russian negotiations on the conclusion of an agreement. "Between the revolution and "w nmcnt set u.p by foreign Russian and the Chinese peoples there are no questions which bankers was ready plunderers... the Russian cannot be settled to the advantage of both peoples," the Soviet o their Chinese brothers and call on them to note said. "We know that.the enemies of the Russian and the Chinese people are trying to prevent our being friends and drawing 1919, the young Soviet Republic made yet together; they well understand that friendship and mutual help another effort to establish good-neighbourly relations with China. between the two great peoples will make China stronger."20 Lenin In the "Appeal of the Government of the RSFSR to the Chinese received Chang SeuJin before the latter left Moscow on November People and the Governments of Southern and Northern China," 2, l920.rl Since "the Peking government does not express dated July 25, 1919, it was said that the Soviet government was the rvill of the "ready to reach an agreement wi ople ... on Chinese people and is rvaging a struggle against the people of cancelling all acts of coercion inst China South China who have revolted against the reactionary North," 22 concluded by previous Russian go with Japan the Soviet government decided to support the proposal of Sun and the Allies," that "it renounces be paid by Yat-sen, President of the national government formed in Canton tt6 in the autumn of 19tr7, for establishing contacts with Soviet Russia' mastery of the theory of scientific cornmunism to the dissemina' A letter sent by G.Chicherin on October 31, 1920, conveying tion of it, was not an easy one. greetings and proposing that rade be re-established between For, in the conditions then prevailing in China, revolutionaries Lussia and China ieached Sun Yat-sen on June 14, l92l' In his were under the constant threat of imprisonment and torture. It was also difficult to discard many political and social concepts which had been implanted in people by education and social environment. Thus, among the first and relatively few -socialist intelligentsia, there scientific socialisrn, but also e beginning were attracted to understood it and who later withdrew from the revolution. Nevertheless the very emergence, in Chinese society, of r ia, whose outlook was completely strata of Chinese society, was a n in the ideological and political life of Among the first to join the tionary-socialist intelligentsia was Li Ta-chao, ropagandist of scientific socialism among the w lped found the Communist movement in China. From revolutionary democracy to Marxism and proletarian internationalism-su path. And an important landmark along this Russia. October Socialist Revolution in Russia. Li was Chinese r:evolutionary-socialist intelligentsia to hail the October Revolution, and also the first to analyse the situation in his own country in the lution. He called on the had been opened up by his articles "Today" and sPring of 1918, Li pointed out that China could Iiberate herself from the unbearable situation she was in, and solve her domestic and foreign policy problems only through active struggle by the masses against the old political system.zn In the earlier revolutionary rnovement in China, only a relatively small group of re- place within the capitalist system. As lor the Chinese proletariat, it volutionaries understood the necessity of struggle against the old was still a "class in itself" and did not yet realise that a correct application of the communism was wh.at rnade pbssible the victor in Russia. Marxism was China before the October Revolution of 1917 in Russia. After the October Revolution and under its influence there appeared in China, from among the mostm.,st nrosressiveprogressive circles of ihe Chinese revolutionary-democraticrevolutionarv-democratic due to the feudalistic mentality of the people, held that China's road to liberation consisted in the establishment of a bourgeois- democratic republic. For Dr. Hu Shih, t in breaking-up the existing system but in the cultural-and educational fields. Li Ta- asic

150 question about the path of China's further development, and was the Chinese government delegation demanded an end to the {uided in his thinking by the experience of the October policy of carving out spheres of influence, lease of territories, Revolution. concessions and exterritorial rights and other privileges of foreign Marxism-Leninism reached the Chinese working class only nationals in China, in particulir, Japan's claim to S-hantung. But after a bitter st socialism, reformism, anarch- the demand was rejected. This aroused widespread indignation in ism, and other al trends which were alien to China. On May 4, t919, a mass patriotic anti-imperialist movement scientific social ed the Chinese intelligentsia got under way. cal struggle between with Western In the May 4 Movement the Chinese working class views and concePts, took the the Chinese first step towards independent political struggle. ideologically the first after But and the revo Years and organisationally it was still immature, and this prevented it became increasingly sharp as it became the October Revolution from becoming the leader and the main motive force the rnore and more involved with oroblemsproblems of vital imDortanceimportance to the of more and more rn()vement. But even so, it demonstrated Chinese war, and revolution which that the Chinese people-problems of Peace' proletariat was already beginning to play an independent role and end of the First World War and in connection had arisen after the to realise its place in the revolution, and in this way hampered the a peace treaty. with the forthcoming signing of efforts of the bourgeoisie to seize control of the revolution. In his article "A Compaiison of the French and the R'ussian Revolutions" (July 1918); Li Ta-chao, proceeding from inter- The ideological struggle between the supporters of Western nationalist positions, expounded the thesis about the need for bourgeois political views and concepts and the revolutionary- the old Political system. socialist intelligentsia led to a further ideological and political al for China at that time, differentiation among the members of the Chinese petty-bourgeois and bourgeois intelligentsia. The differences between the two eas the ;Ll1ii'ji3iltH'*:; currents of ideological-political thought in China found expression ationalism and in the interests of in the struggle for two possible paths of development of the one country, the Russian revolution was "a socialist, a deeply socid country: the socialist and the capitalist. The position of the i.uot,rtior, 'oi the type that will triumph throughout the world".25 bourgeois intellectuals represented the interests of the national In his article "The Victory of Bolshevism" (November 15, 1918), bourgeoisie who wanted national independence but was in Li regarded the October Revolution as a victory "of socialism and favour of the capitalist path of development and of the Bolshivism... of the world working class", and said that the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie. But the victory of Marxism- organiser of this victory was the Bolshevik party whose activity was l.eninism in Russia showed that it was also possible for China to baied on the theory of Marx and Lenin' Li wrote: "Although t:rke the socialist path. And this was the path advocated by the Bolshevism was created by Russi r t:volutionary-socialist intelligentsia who believed in the resurgent mankind in the 20th century." lorce of the ideas of communism and who therefore not only Li's articles had a great revol lrropagandised these ideas but took part in actual revolutionary st ruggle and began to introduce the ideas of scientific socialism to tlrc working class. llrrrler the conditions of the colonial regime and the constant lrcrs<'rrrtion of everything that was progressive, the process of a-chao became an active sPokes- nrrturirrg of the Chinese revolutionary-socialist intelligentsia, of was numerically telligentsia which 1,r,rp;rg:ur

1d) bourgeois reformists was a serious test of their ideological trends, and the very idea of against clear notion about existing socidist maturity. This struggle became in part an effort to disseminate vague to us."" --socialism - remains Marxism and carry out revolutionary activity among the working it a twofold" task was t r be carried out: to give the ", class. Chinese public a clear idea Of great significance for the formation of a Marxist intelligent- defend scientific socialism in th sia in China, for the laying of the ideological and organisational And in fulfilling this task, of gr foundations of the Chinese comrnunist movement, and for the uniting of scientific socialism with the working-class movement first were the first congresses of the Comintern and the first contacts t contained the Part-the the Comintern and the Chinese Marxists. a theoretical between llowing issue-of In April 1920, the Far Eastern Secretariat of the Comintern Marxism".28 In it Li eption of sent its representatives to Peking-G. Voitinskyr I. Mamayev and he wrote that since oi Marxism; Yang Ming-chai.3r There they got in touch with Li Ta-chao, and become a current of 32 the revolution in Russia, Marxism had with a letter of introduction from Li they went to Shanghai to the world, and thht one ifr""gt t that had penetrated all corners of meet Cheng Tu-hsiu who was then editor Hsi,n chingnien. The A-ustria' and of rerol]ution after another had broken out in Germany, meeting proved be great importance for Chinese Marxists were the guiding to of ii;G;t of *ni.n the principles of Marxism who, as Li Ta-chao wrote later in his memoirs, thus "came to in Soviet Republic, and to learn more banned the- Hsin know better the situation the temPorarilY about its Communist Party. The result of all this was clear for us: we to carry out Marxist 55 o continued must go the way Russia is going." and reformists' inst the liberals Lenin took a keen interest in the revolutionary movement in weeklY Meichou e founded the China and in the work among the Chinese working people living at class binslun (Weekly Review), which he edited in Russia. On November 29, 1918, he received Chang Ying-chung L*"s;iL *"t tti. motive force of history; ng this (Lau of the and Liu Tse-jung Hsiu-chau),ea represenlatives of Chinese t t.r-*Ttt thesis by referring to the history 1920, met again -he "class workers living in Russia. On April lI, Lenin with R;;;i"; workinf people, pointed out Liu Tse-jung.35 is the road leading to Strussle and Mitdal Aid": "CLss struggle Since the ideological struggle between the Marxists, on the one be bypassed; it Ifr. Bfi*i"",i"n of class society. This roid cannot reformists pseudo-socialists, other, 1919' hand, and the and on the ;;.4 a; traversed."2e In the issue of August 17' -there the question "for against the dictatorship of the Problems turned on of or ,oo."r.a Li's articleJetter "Once More About Concrete proletariat, for against a centralised and disciplined party",86 it published in the or ;;[-;i;t;i, which was a reply to an article hastened the ideological polarisation of the Chinese intelligentsia weekly by Hu Shih, who and confronted the Marxists with the necessity of uniting their oroblems; instead of theore efforts. One stage in the achievement of this end consisted of the ideas;, who rejected the M formation of Marxist circles (Communist groups). The first proposed that the Chinese Marxist circle was organised by Cheng Tu-hsiu in May 1920 in irrd .ott.t sus, of class colla Shanghai. practical application, of Marxism and its Before the surnmer of 1920, Marxism spread mainly among weapon with which c socialism was the the petty-bourgeois intelligentsia and was almost unknown among injustice, "destroy the an end to social the working class. The formation Marxist circles in Peking, rulers who live on the of "drive out our Wuhan, Canton, Tsinan, Tientsin, Hangchow, and Changsha rnlde possible organise propaganda Marxisrn-I-eninism Shih lYas of it to of The debate between Li Ta-chao and Hu anrong the workers and to raise their class consciousness, and thus fundamental Political imPorta to unite the theory of scientific socialism with the working-class movement. Dissemination of Marxism-Leninism was conducted by Hsin chingniem,, which had now become the legal organ of the Marxist circle in Shanghai.sT The theoretical journal of the Chinese Marxists was the illegal monthly Kungchang tang (Com' Leninism, a concrete proof of the influence of the Great October munist), the first issue of which came out on November 7, 1920" Socialist Revolution on China, and an outstanding event in the The growth of political consciousness and organisational skill of history of modern China. It meant the uniting of the Chinese the Chinese proletariat was stimulated by the celebration of May working-class movement with Marxism-Leninism, and the Partici- Day, for the first time in 1920. patlonion ofo the Chiinese Communist movement in the struggle of the Shanghai, which called on social international proletariat. the holiday. Hsin chingnien publi historv of May Day; in the arti **{r political struggle.s8' On the initiative of the Marxist circles, weekly publications for The historical experience of world socialism "has convincingly workers were put out in industrial cities, which carried articles on shown the universal significance of the main laws of the socialist the fundamentals of Marxism-Leninism and reports on the revolution and of the building of a new society which were political struggle waged by working people. Translations of works disclosed by the science of Marxism-Leninism and which were Ly' Marx, nngels, and Lenin also ippeared.3n implemented for the first time in the October Revolution. It has The effecliveness of political propaganda conducted by the confirmed the need for creatively applying these laws to concrete Marxist circles became soon apparent. In 1920, there were 46 conditions and for taking the specific features of individual strikes by workers, with 19 of them involving a-total of 46,140 countries into account."4r Since the October Revolution, national- workers;'in 1921, there were 49 strikes, with 22 of them involving ists, revisionists, and bourgeois ideologists have tried to discredit a total of 108,025 people.ao Some strikes bore an anti-imPerialist the general, objective laws of social develoPment, the historical character. initiative of the working class, and the revolutionary-transforming The formation of Marxist circles represented an important influence of the Great October Socialist Revolution. stage in the i f the Marxist intelligentsia and For contemporary Chinese historiography, the basic theoretical, in il:e spread in China. However, the forces ideological and political document is the "Decision on Some hampered of the bhirr. scattered, and this Questions Concerning the History of Our Party," written by Mao the propaganda of Marxism and its uniting with the_working-class Tse-tung, and adopted at the 6th Session of the 7th Plenary *ouimi.rt. It became necessary to establish a single Marxist palty. Meeting-of the CPC Central Committee on April 20, 1945.42 This The experience of the October Revolution, of the Russian document is a striking example of the violation of the Marxist- Communist Party (Bolsheviks), of the Comintern, and of the Leninist principles of historism, the substitution of a subjective, Chinese Marxists themselves convinced them of the need to unite voluntarist approach to social phenomena, in this case the progressive workers in a proletarian party which. would lead the communist movement in China, for the objective methodology of itru"ggle of the popular masses against the imPerialist and feudal the study of historical process. Distorting Lenin's theory of the forciJ. A favouiable circurnstance here was that in China there forms of transfer of power, Maoist historiography tries to belittle was no aristocracy of labour such as that which existed in the West and which, as is known, served as the basis of reformism in the working-class movement. But there were also negative factors-a backwaid, agrarian economy, the small size of the proletariat, and its being strongly influenced by petty-bourgeois p€asant ideology' Later tliese negative factors had their effect on the activity of the -internationalists in laying the ideological and organisational CPC leadership. loundations of the Communist movenlent in China. The ideological growth of the Chinese Marxists, their contacts The Great October Socialist Revolution which, under the with the Comintern, the Marxist circles, and propaganda of lr:rrrner of Marxism-I-eninism, broke through the front of world Marxism-Leninism arhong workers formed the ideological and ushered in the organisational basis for the establishment of the CPC. The o socialism, dealt foindation of the Communist Party of China was officially alism. It greatiy proclaimed at its First Congress which took place from- July 23 to n movement ln August 5, 192 1, in Sfunghai' This was a victory of Marxism- countries, and showed the Chinese people the way to struggle for

164 165 25 Li T".h"o, Sclectail Articles ond Specches, Peking, 1959' p. 63 (in Chinese)' s Iuid., pp. 69, 76-76,78, 8r. 27 Trii Chi.r-po, "Travel Notes About New Russia", Collected Worls, Vol' l, Peking, -1954, pp. 2l-24 (in Chinese). 28 Hrin chingnienn May 1919, Vol. 6, No. 5, pp. 521-537; November 1, l9l9' Vol' 6' No.6, pp. 612-624. 2e Li Ta-chao, Sebctcit Articbs ond $eeclws" P. 122. sp 3I ., ational e , 1929, people's revolution in 1949. C of the f 32 Chi w, Lao-jen, op. cit., p. 16. .,The NOTES 93 yrr. M. Gurrrshyants, Struggle of the Chinese Marxists for the Establish- ment of the iommunist Party i" Cti"a", Narodl Azii i ' 'frihi' 1961, No' 3, p' I V. I. Lenin, Colleeted firorfts, Moscow, Voi. 33, p' 350' 2 (in Russian)' 86. Selected Articles and SpeecheS Moscow, 1965' pp' 57-60 ra Li Tr-.h"o, V.Ll*rrirr, Contplett Wortq Vol. 37, p, 7ll (in Russian)' s chinsnie4 Apr, r' rerT' *' 35 Hsin ''.:';.::,":: Ibid., vol. 41, pp. 654655. op. cit., p. r82' in the chinese press in 'u Yu Arr-li, 37 Tirrg Shou-ho et al., op'cit', p. 93; Lo le, "A Short History of the Chinese Press", People\ China, 1957, No. 5, p. 21. 6 t) Vieus and harlice' Moscow' 1964' p' 18 Li T".h"o, "The History of May Day"', Hsin chingnia May I, 1920, Vol' 7' No' 222 (in Russian). 6. ? chingJing, ,,Historical Ties Between the Great october Revolution and the .,The sun !9-Kiang chun-fang, Triumphant Force of_the. Ideas of Marxism-Leninism , Druzhba, November 7' f956' Chinese {evoiution", Kian_g.'Chun-fang,.Kiang'Chun-fang,."Publication "Publication. and and. Dissemination of 8 ,'The Dtuthbq November or"rf,oo,Or"rf,Oo, ;uty tl't9Ss;tl't9SS; P':::qt:':_1-".f Lo yang-shung, Great Friend of the Land of Soviets", lrnin's Wo.[.. i" China", Prrbli"olirn ard Dissenination of Lmin's Worf,s, Moscow' 8, 1956. 1960, pp. 280-281 (in Russian); Chang Yuan-hou, "A C}l-r-o-nol"q:{ 9l Chinese e Ting Shou-ho, Yin Hsu-yi, and Chang Po-chao, The Influence of llw October Translaiions of 6nin's Works (Decernber l9l9-March 1960)", Lishih ,mchh\ Rnolution m Chino, Moscow, 1959, pp' 50-51 (in Russian)' 1960, No. 4, pp.4748. 10 1o lbid., p. 03. rr T.rrg Chung- ol lhe 'Trade [Jnion Mouemmt in Chi'tto' Moscow, 1952 ,il (in ,, USSR Foreign , Moscow, 1957, pp. ll-13, 15, 28-50 Russian). t2 M.o Tse-tung, Sclccteil WorL* Vol. 4, Moscow, 1953 (in Russian)' lbid., p. b93. 's {! F.rrg Lin, "To Act By Words and Fist", Jatmin iihpoa, Jlune 9, 1977' ra Ibid., pp. 415-416. r5 Ibid., vol. 2, Moscow, 1958, pp. 222-223' Frimdship' Moscow' 1959' pp' 72-74 'u Prng Ming, A Historl of the Chinese-Sniet

20 USSR Foreigr Poliq Docwnmts, Vol. 3, p' 214' 2r v. I.Lenin, Complcte Worfts, Moscow, Vol' 41, p' 685 (in Russian)' 22 USSR Fmeign Policy Documenq Vol. l, p' ll0. (in Russian)' 2s Swiet-Chinese Relations. Ig17-1g57, Moscow, 1959, pp' 58-59 2' l5' Hrin chingnicn" April 15, 1918, Vol' t N9'4,qq'397-.?19'and.also.May isra, v"f 4, No.'S, pl.' ++o-llst Li Ta-chao, selcctcd wortq Peking, 1959, pp. 93-ll0 (in Chinese).

l6e number of states of Southeast Asia, Africa and Latin Amerrca Deueloping Countrees: rejected the inequitable treaties and agreements imposed by the imperialist powers. The political independence of the young states New Researches began ever more to acquire a substantial content. The present stage of the liberated countries' confrontation with imperialism is distinguished by a sharp upswing of the struggle to restrict and abolish the exploitation of these countries by the capitalist world. This has manifested itself mainly in two intercon- nected processes. One of them, that of the nationalisation of the property of foreign companies, was observed before. But it has now acquired such scope that it has become a qualitatively new phenomenon embracing, according to incomplete data, more than Countries forty young states of different orientations. The wave of national- lmperialism and the Liberated isation extended from Peru to India, from Lybia to Madagascar, striking a telling blow at the powerful international monopolies, at KAREN BRUTENTS the entire system of neocolonial exploitation created by world finance capital. The other front of struggle was opened when the young states advanced their platform of a "new economic order", demanding between imperialism and the In the 1970s the antagonism the radical restructuring of economic relations with the imperialist liberated countries grew more acute. Leaning on the changed joint stand defence their interests, their on the support of world. Their in of correlation of class forces in the world and increased unity the face imperialism and the influence of international tension, the in of socialism, and utilising the relaxation of socialism make these demands a material force. new successes. Their interna- peoples of these countries achieved These actions became particularly effective when the economies position has grown stronger, progressive changes have taken iional of the leading capitalist states found themselves dependent, as many them. -place in of never before, on raw material imports. Even the USA, which has policy impelled its authors to make The defeat of imperialism's large oil deposits of its own, has to import up to 48 per cent of its and tactics of neocolonialism, certain modificationi in the strategy oil consumption. its objectives. to look for new ways of attaining The massive nationalisation of monopoly property, the collec- tive actions for a "new economic order" marks the beginning of a {< ,1. {< new stage in the relations between the liberated countries and comparable the The facts show that in the last few years a substantial, even a imperialism, one which in its implications is to qualitative, change has been achieved in each of the main collapse of the colonial empire. these changes have rnade enhancement of the role directions of the- anti-imperialist struggle of the peoples of the All for the countries play politics. A liberated countries. that the forrner enslaved now in world rrew, important frontier has been reached in this process which is It is during these years that the last colonial empire collapsed postwar and as Leonid Brezhnev noted, "the colonial system of imperial- characteristic to one extent or another of the entire period. This has found expression the increased activity of the ism in its classical forms can, on the whole, be regarded as having in been dismantled".r Of the world's 160 states more than 90 gained non-alignment movernent. positions the young states the their sovereignty as a result of the breakup of this system. The The consolidation of the of in walls of the remaining racist bastions are also beginning to anti-imperialist struggle is bound up with the deep-going internal colonial past politics crumble. changes which are putting an end to the in and economics, social relations and spiritual culture. This Appreciable successes were achieved in the confrontation with in in political neocolonialisrl as the overthrow of the puppet govern- process is not a straightforward one, it is marked by zigzags and But is herrtr in Indochina most strikingly demonstrated. In several of the even retrogression, it is beset by enormous difficulties. this African countries the neocolonialist regimes were abolished, a only natural for a process of such dirnension and complexity, and r69 r68 national liberation issues. Social differentiation in the former colonial and dependent The number of former colonies and semi-colonies which have world makes itself n their path of development is steadily level, giving rise to mainly thl more backward states of Troggal on joint actions ag s which have taken the capitalist Path differ relations in some

:1. tl. *

The successes of the liberated countries in the anti-imperialist

oeriod of their existence' ' Th. increasingly distinct crystallisation of the trend of develop- menr of the youilg stares is leiding to a change in the correlation of the young states. rt0 Special efforts are concentrated in the economic sphere where and inveigle the liberated countries into a "dialogue". They imperialism holds strong positions while those of the liberated reckon on causing a split among these countries and on inducing countries, on the contrary, are still vulnerable. The gap between them to withdraw their demands. Exploiting the economic these countries and the imperialist states in a number of important difficulties of many of the young states and also the growing economic indicators continues to grow. In 1963, the per capita socio-political stratification in them, the neocolonialists are particu- larly zealously provoking discord among them. GNP in the former colonies and semicolonies was 12,5 times less than that in the industrialised countries; in 1974, it was already The imperialists cloak their negative attitude in loud declara- tions about "good will" and their readiness to create a fund of one 14.1 times less ($321 as against $4,550). The foreign debt of the liberated countries has increased, according to some data, up to thousand million dollars to aid the developing countries and to 200 thousand million dollars which, of course, makes it difficult hold talks on stabilising raw-materials prices. They also resort to for them to carry out an independent economic policy. such manoeuvres as encouraging the tendency to artificially divide The policy of the neocolonialists is aimed at creating in these the world's states intu "rich" and "poor", and thus instigate the countries not only ancillary but also a number of basic industries, liberated countries to accept the thesis of the "common responsi- including a heavy industry oriented largely on exports to capitalist bility" of ail the developed countries for the existing socio- states. The former colonial and dependent countries are being economic situation in the former colonies and semicolonies. This assigned the role of raw-material and industrial-agrarian- form of subversive actions against the cooperation of the socialist appendage of world capitalism. and the developing countries is being widely used by imperialist Together with private capital, imperialist states are making, propaganda and diplomacy; it is one of the main directions of the often on a collective basis, the implementation of this policy, of neocolonialist strategy. concrete economic projects and programmes their direct concern. Changes are also observed in the political methods of realising One can already now speak of scientific and technical neocolonialism's socio-economic and political course. In the period dependence as one of the main reasons for the subordination to of the collapse of the colonial system and especially beginning with imperialism of the liberated countries that have made the greatest the 1960s, neocolonialism had two courses open to it. One was to headway economically. The dependent character of industrialisa- instal dictatorial and tyrannical pro-imperialist regimes which, in tion is further secured by the dominant role in it of foreign one way or another, resisted change. The other was to support the capital, of multinational companies. In 1975-1976, for example, moderate reformism of regimes with a bourgeois-democratic the flow of direct private investments from capitalist states to the fagade, so as to draw the broadest possible social forces into the "dependent" capitalism. developing countries totalled 18,376 million dollars, which was 1.5 orbit of times more than in 1973-1974 and 2.2 times more than in With the advent to power of the Carter Administration in the L97l-1972. It is no accident that in their bilateral relations with USA the accent has been shifted-at any rate in some regions of the developing countries and also at international forums the the former colonial and semicolonial world-to the reformist variant not excluding, course, support dictatorships. imperialist states in every way possible publicise the "mission" of of of military private foreign capital and insist on privileges for it. The new threads of the neocolonialists stretch to the social hierarchy a number liberated countries, which is using the Thus, neocolonialism's strategy remains essentially the same; of of the only alteration is with an eye to the opportunities opened up aggravation of the energy-raw-materials problem to enrich itself. Financial cooperation a type unprecedented the past is by the scientific and technological revolution. It is now setting its of in being established with the object of "coupling" the interests the sights on a higher level of economic (read: capitalist) development of of the liberated countries and rnore sophisticated forms of ruling circles and of the big bourgeoisie emerging in these countries to the interests of pri'rate and state monopoly capital of dependence. In fact, a new attempt is being made to solve a the imperialist powers. same political problem imperialism has been grappling with during the whole At the time, the actions of neocolonialism and local reaction, directed against the progressive postwar period: to blunt the anti-irnperialist struggle of the forces in a number of regions of the are being coordinated. liberated countries, to secure the entrenchment in them of both world, international reactionary specific capitalist relations and "dependent", that is, "backward" A new social coalition of a character is shape. capitalism. taking One of the forms of this cooperation is the recirculation "oil In respect to the demand for a "new econornic order" the of dollars", that is, their flow back to the industrialised capitalist imperialists are pursuing procrastination tactics so as to gain time 173 172 countries where they are put in government securities, in the underestimate the historical potential and will of the peoples of assets of rnajor industrial, commercial and insurance companies. the liberated countries thal have overthrown colonial rule' In 1975-1976 alone, 22 thousand million dollars were recirculated back to the USA. Further, "oil dollars" are actively used for boosting capitalist development and expanding the imperialist world's econbmic-trade ties not only with the oil producing countries but also with other former colonial and dependent countries, as well as for bringing pressure to bear on the policies of the progressive young states. The coalition, it appears, has broader spheres of political interaction. Thus, Saudi Arabia's oil minister has stated that his country is against raising oil prices since it is interested in the political stability of the countries of Western Europe and in either." s preventing the Left forces there from strengthening their posi- There is every reason to believe that before long-the system of tions. neocolonial dependence, created by imperialism on the ruihs of its The course neocolonialism is steering towards creating "subirn- colonial empirLs, will show signs of new breaches' perialist" centres and bases in various regions of the Third World is becoming ever more apparant. It concerns primarily the countries whose policies are expected to chime in with those of NOTES (in irnperialisrn and whose claims to a dominating position in the I L, I.Brezhnev, Tlu Greot Octaber Reuolution and Mankind's Progress, 1977, p. 2l corresponding regions imperialism is prepared to support on these Russian). 2 conditions. They are expected to act, and are acting, as an V. I. Lenin, Colhcteil Wor[,$ Moscow, Vol- 23, p' 78' 3 essential factor of struggle against the socialist, anti-imperialist L. I. B.ezhnev, op. cit', p' 22. orientation in the Middle East, in the Persian Gulf zone and in other regions of the world. Another trend that is manifesting itself is the trend towards collective "neocolonialism". Despite differing approaches assumed by the USA and EEC states to some of the problems of the relations with the liberated countries, and despite their growing rivalry in this sphere, the inrperialists are trying to muffle the contradictions that have become so obvious in recent years, to coordinate actions and even to contrive a kind of "division of Iabour" when it is a matter of fighting against the liberation movement. China takes a certain part in this "division of labour"; witness its participation in the international arena in the bloc of the most reactionary forces. Imperialism employs a special tactic in relation to the countries of socialist orientation, Open hostility is being replaced by a policy of outward loyalty; but this policy is simply a cover for its continuing efforts to undermine this orierrtation. Every possible means is employed to this end, frorn forcible actions to attempts to stirnulate a reactionary regeneration with the aid of political, economic and icieological levers. As we see, the plans of the neocolonialists represent a source of danger for the young states. But these plans suffer from a fundamental, and one might say also a traditional, weakness: they

\74 Formerly there was a fairly between the rise in employrnent a DISCUSSIONS This was especially apparent durin following an economic crisis. Thus, between 1933 and 1934 the workforce in the United States increased by 2.1 million people, while the number of unernployed declined by 1.5 million. A growth in the workforce by 1.1 million between 1950 and 1951 was accompanied by a decline in unemployment by 1.2 million.t This more or less stable inverse relationship existed up to about the mid-S0s, when the decline in unemployment during periods of economic revival began to lag appreciably behind the increase in the number of jobs. From March 1975 (the lowest point of the Unemployment in the Capitalist World crisis curve) to Novernber 1976, the workforce increased by four million, whereas the unemployment level remained unchanged.2 The very fact that the upward tendency in business activity, The lnstitute of the World Economy and lnternational Relations of the USSR accompanied by an increase in the overall workforce, is not Academy of Sciences held a sp€cial session of its Scientific Council on accompanied by any reduction in the numbef of job seekers is present Problems of Unemployment in the West. We a review of the evidence that today mass unemployment is not only cyclic contributions on the key issues prepared by V. Novikov of our senior editorial staff. of a The materials on the session were published in full in the August and September nature. issues of lhe Mirovaya ekonomika i mezhdunarodniye otnoshenlya (The World Economy and international Relations) journal lor'1977.

S. NADEL: Unemployment is a key problem influencing all ,1. * :t aspects of life in capitalist society: economic, social, political and cultural. The factors that led to the mass increase in unemployment The principal issue of the economic aspect is the fact that large can, as we see it, be classified into several groups: the segments of the able-bodied population are denied opportuni- factors associated with the decline of small businesses, the ty to earn a living and are forced to rely on ungmployment ruin- and proletarianisation of the urban petty bourgeoisie and allowances. The society senselessly wastes its manpower reserves, farmers; reducing the nation's productive forces and irreparably losing factors affecting intensive development of large-scale potential opportunities for increasing the public wealth. capitalist- production, including structural reconsrruction of enter- The social aspect of the problem is that unemployment affects prises, spheres and branches of the economy. The mounting the broadest sections of factory and office workers in all spheres replacement of human labour by machines and mechanisms and of the economy, as well as the interests of non-proletarian segments the breakdown of production structures create numerous redun- of the working people, especially certain intellectual groups. dancies among workers and employees because, among other Work is not only a means of earning a living. It is in many things, the unplanned nature of the economy makes the flow of ways a basis of self-respect, self-assertion and human dignity. One manpower difficult, ieads to considerable disproportions in the state young men and women embarking can imagine the moral of distributi

u6 r77 employees. However, that manpower is redundant only from the the most critical juncture in the change of the phases problern at point of view of the need of capital in self-growth, but not from of the cycle; the positions pf satisfying genuine social economic requirements. fattors associated with the expansionist policies of monopolies and- the export of capital, which teit.ictt opportunities for creating

Bourp;eois governments do not set themselves the practical task of providing work for all those who wish to, and can, work. Measunes of state-monopoly regulation reduce to ensuring the normal course of capitalist reproduction and preventing the development of the revolutionary situation for which a high level of unemployment may be one of the contributing factors. In their efforts to fill all job vacancies, the authorities increasingly resort to rnethods of direct pressure on the unemp- loyed, foreiag them to accept lrrwer-paid jobs than those they had held before dismissal. In the United States, in particular, to this end the time in which an unemployed is entitled to benefits has been reduced. The forms, methods and specific measures of employment policies differ from one capitalist country to another. Substantial differences exist in a number of points. In Sweden, for example, an unemployed who agrees to resettle in an area with a'manpower shortage is offered fairly substantial privileges. Sweden leads the capitalist world in the share of workers attending retraining courses..Certain restrictions on dismissals by employers have been introduced, and methods of stimulating business are more diversified. The Swedish experience is indicative in two respects: on the one hand, it shows that the working class of industrial capitalist countries can achieve certain gains in the struggle against unemployment; on the other hand, it shows that within the framework of the existing socio-economic system these oppor- tunities are restricted.

Unernploymcnt, as is known, is quite alien to socialist society, the supreme law of which is the fullest satisfaction of the steadily rising material and cultural requirements of rnan. Unlike capital- ism, where profit is a dominant objective, under socialism econornic development is wholly subordinated to the improvement of the people's well-being and enhancement of their cultural standards, it serves the continued social progress. The fact that

179 178 which are due to a series of factors that manifest themselves differently at various stages of the economic cycle. In the post-crisis period the rate of inflation declined somewhat in most industrial capitalist countries, but unemployment re- mained high and even continued to grow in some iountries (for culture, etc.). example, the FRG). At the root of this phenomenon is the The experience of the socialist world system offers convincing proof thai the road of democracy and- socialism. oPens- uP the L.oadest opportunities for drawing people into various spheres of socially useful activity. jots declined by l0 per cent, while output per worker increased by 12 per cent. What are the employment and unemployment prospects in view of the continuing processes of automation and rneihanisa- tion? It seems logical to assume that the average growth rate of output per man-hour in the manufacturing industries of de- veloped capitalist countries in the 1970s will be maintained over

Furthermore, the demographic factor must also be taken into

crlses.

especially apparent in such spheres as trade, finance and technical servlces. Education, public health, social security and the civil service are

The basic causes of inflation and unemployment are rooted in the capitalist production relations and can be eliminated only if

180 Itt and women entering the labour market for the first time. During crisis the gap increases sharply. There is nothing new in these phenomena, but today they are acquiring unprecedented scope. The existence among the jobless of people ill-adapted to production processes in the conditions of the scientific and technological revolution, as well as people with no prior ernployment, makes it possible to take i different approach to certain questions. Notably, can unemployment be etc. food, equated to a reserve labour force, implying that the latter consists of potential workers who could be expected to rejoin the working class during an economic revival? In our view, today more than ever before, there are no grounds to consider the two concepts to be identical in content. Another question: do today's unemployed represent competi- tion on the labour market, and if they do, to what extent? Is monopoly capital as capable as before of using unemployrnent as a tool for bringing pressure to bear on working people? Competition on the labour market is determined by the state of three groups of indicators. Firstly, the economic situation, the demand for manpower of a certain quality, that is, the number and structure of vacancies, the feasibility of employment. Second- ly, the site and composition of the reserve labour force, length of and 34 per cent among droP-outs' stay in its ranks, or more specifically, the readiness of jobless to Asa take jobs with worse conditions. Thirdly, the strength of trade workers, unions opposing monopoly capital's attempts to set various sections ers, espe of the working class against each other on the labr:ur market. obsolesce The labour movement is more than before capabtre of cal progress, inhabitants of backward regions, etc', who are most overcoming and neutralising the pressures of the reserve Iabour joinj.il the chronicallychronicalty unernployed. It is significant that in force on trade union positions during collective bargaining. An fif.fyilLli;! ,3 t tzo o +L.^.- Great Brilain, for example, more thin half (58.8 -^-per cent)^^-+\ of^f th.se indirect manifestation of it is the rise in nominal wages even without a job for a year or rnore are 45 and older' during the lS74-75 crisis. The strength of labour unions in Of interest, in our view, is an analysis of the breakdown of industrial capitalist countries is in rnany cases a reliable rneans of jobless according to the immediate causes of unemployrnent' protecting the material interests of the working people. iteferring to US statistics, the unemployed can be classified in 4 In recent years Arnerican economists (notably W" Barnes in and most n rm.ro,-,s are dismisfd,for 1962 and S.Stephenson in 1971) carried out a number of studies g.orrpr. ihe first -workers 8.o"5*i., disciplinary and other reasons' In August 1916' 49'3 of the unemployed. Their findings had a direct bearing on ncr cenr' of ali iobless belonsed to this classicai category' The the questions posed and made certain tentative conclusions pos- worked sible. At present the rise in unemployment during an economic looking crisis does not cause an equivalent increase in competition on the FinallY, labour market. The various detachments of the reserve labour gave uP force represent a potential competitive threat to highly varying de- their jobs to seek for better ones. grees. Finally, in present-day social and economic conditions, the unemployed can hold out for longer and refuse jobs, this classification An analysis of especially at substantially lower wages. To a large degree it is due had never worked befo people who to one of the principal gains of the working class capitalist Even in favour of blace, is increasing. countries in the socio-economic sphere: unemployment insurance. number of new jobs usually lags behi 183 182 It should, however, be noted that not all workers and employees demand, especially important in times of economic crises; they are are covered by it. In 1975, for example, 18 per cent of the gainful also refuted by specifi- studies. First of all, if they were correct the population of the United States had no unemployment insurance. number of availible jobs should have increased with the rise of In Great Britain, about one-sixth of all registered unemployed unemployment, or at least remained unchanged. Actually-, the received no material aid from the state or private organisations. In ratio between vacancies and unemployed is increasing towards the France, only 44.4 per cent of the registered unemployed received latter. According to US economist S. Marston, no rnore than 0.2 to allowances. This situation is also typical of other capitalist 0.3 per cent of the unemployed labour force can be put down to countries. Besides, unemployment allowances only partially com- unemployment insurance. Investigation of this question in Eng- pensate for loss of income due to dismissal, and furthermore, they Iand has shown that various types of allowances delay the return are restricted in time. to employment of some 70,000 out of more than one million Obviously, even the most sophisticated social security system can- -jobless. not solve the unemployment problem, because it does not affect its The degree to which the jobless are satisfied with their position causes. The purpose of such systems is only to somewhat cushion is indicated-by an opinion poll conducted in Great Britain in 1975, the contradictions of capitalist society and direct development into in which 76 per cent rejected the contention that higher a channel presenting no threat to the ruling class. unemployment was a lesser evil than inflation. Another poll The sharp increase in unemployment and major changes in its revealid that three quarters of the population preferred lower composition confront bourgeois society with a variety of economic livirrg standards to longer unemployment. the first place, mass unemployment causes ent and increasing employment is a From the point of view of social rationale, pri ll working people in both the active and example of waste of the main and most res labour force movement fighting for this precious productive force, manpower. defends the most vital interests of the working people of capitalist Instead of utilising these resources to the full the capitalist countries. system prefers to pay off rarily by stepping rrp exploitation of the allowances thus A. MILEIKOVSKY: Claims are sometimes voiced that today reduce social tensions to , with unemploy- unemployment is more stagnant than hefore. This apparently ment rising and benefits increasing, under pressure of the labour impliei a comparison of its extent in the phases- of cycles. There movement, the importance of the essentially econornic aspect of ari insufficieni grounds for such conclusions within the scale and the problem has increased considerably. Thus, historical framervork of the general crisis of capitalism' As is well expenditures related to unemployment insur known, in the 1930s there were periods of protracted, chronic between 1972 and 1975, from 6,500 to 18,100 mass unemployment. After the Second World War, unemploy- accounted for 1.2 per cent of the gross national product (GNP). In ment in the industrial capitalist countries no longer faced millions the same period similar expenditures in the FRG increased 7-fold of people with the threai of starvation and death. The troubles of to 0.9 per cent of the GNP, and in France they quadrupled to 0.6 the jobless in the 1970s can hardly be compared with the per cent of the GNP. The main source for meeting these suffeiings of the workers and employees who lost their jobs during the crisis of 1929-1933. This is, in the first place, a result of the gains of the working people won in stubborn st ocial iights, gains which could the deepening general crisis of ance of class forces on the world are Soaring unemployment in the mid-1970s is doubtlessly evi- M. Feldstein, G. Ehrenberg, and R. Oaxaca (United States), unemP- dence of- the blnkruptcy of the bourgeois policy of "full loyment allowances are so high that they deprive recipients of any employment". However, the fact that since the war state monopoly incentive to find a job as quickly as possible. capltafism has managed to create certain levers for regulating Such claims ignore the positive significance of allowances in the criles should not be discounted. It is not surprising that, when the purely economic sense as an additional source of effective crisis of L974-75 began, the ruling circles of the United States and

184 Western Europe regarded as danger No. l, not unemployment, certain level of material welfare, such an approach may be but inflation; it was only gradually that their priorities in social and economic policies began to change. Most bourgeois govern- ments came to the conclusion that it was unemployment that threatened the very foundations of capitalism. The thing is that today the overwhelming majority of the working class refuses to live on charity and demands work'not only in the name of their daily bread. The working people are waging a stubborn class struggle for guaranteed and real full took place in workers: employment. This is a new characteristic of the labour movement appro'*imately f work a in the conditions of the scientific and technological revolution and .ridr. i-po.tu level of the deepening of the general crisis of capitalism. material iemu 960s the The working class in the industrial capitalist countries has become more organised and its p;eneral educational standards have risen. It is increasingly difficult to convince it of the need to live with the difficulties of crises in the name of so-called "national interests". It can compare the movement of the wage index, which tends to decline, with the vast growth of bourgeois profits. Today, when the labour movement is faced with the need to work out a practicai democratic alternative to state monopoly capitalism, the problem is not only to do away with unemploy- ment, but also to reconstruct fundamentally the economy which would yield an entirely new structure of employment than that which has formed under capitalism.

G. DILIGENSKY: Working people today treat unemployment differently than in the 1930s. Then it was regarded as something unavoidable, fatal, associated with a stage in the cycle which had to be suffered and endured. The reaction today is much more consistent realisation. involved: first of all, it finds expression in refusal to accePt unemployment as an unavoidable evil. Indignation at a situation in which the society is incapable of assuring jobs for ail people has YU. GARUSHYANTS: ment (as been mounting in a number of capitalist countries since the 1960s. one of the key problerns between The scale of mass struggle against unemployment expanded labour and capitaf is the f rties and sharply in the 1970s, when the traditional relation between the organisationr bf diffe..t t capitalist level of unemployment and strike action changed. countries. New trends have of late been apParent in the treatment of the unemployment problem by the bourgeois propaganda machine and publicists. It is claimed, in particular, that in the conditions of scientific and technological progress it is becoming something of a "normal" developmeni charactiristic of the "post-industrial socie- ty" and fully in keeping with the trend towards the establishment of the "leisure society", in which the role of work decreases sharply and hedonistic guidelines and values acquire leading significance in the way of life. For that part of the population which is used to viewing work as only a means to provide for a

186 187 (within the framework of muitinational monopolies and the Common Market).

I. GURYEV: Summing up the results of our discussion, note should be made of the unusual character of the economic crisis of 1974-1975 which conditioned important features of unemploy- ment, first of all the fact that it aquired a massive, universal character. Its average level increased two- or three-fold in all industrial capitalist countries in the mid-1970s as compared with the end of the 1960s, and no substantial change occulred in its nature with the revival of economic activity. The scope and consequences of unemployment are especially dramatic in the Third World, where hundreds of millions of working people and members of their families have been affected. But most significant is the aggravation of the employment problem in countries with highly developed state-monopoly economies. In the 1950s and 1960s, characteristic of them, and especially a number of West European countries, was a ohortage of nnanpower rather than its excess. This to a considerable degree helped to propagate the myth that modern capitalism had allegedly acquired the capability of overcoming crises and unemp- Communists are, of course, aware of the ohiective and loyment through relevant state policies and of creating a society of subjective difficulties, associared, among other things, with a universal affluence. certain lack of contact between various sections of ihe labour Today unemployment has embraced all spheres of the public force, especially in countrie de union economy. Its level is highest in rnetallurgy, textiles and a number centres led by reformist ome out of other fundamental industries. Virtually all categories of workers actively in support of all of who have been affected unemployment, from unskilled labourers to initiated by them, demonstrati for joint graduate engineers and teihnicians. According to our data, in action. 1976 white-collar workers in the United States accounted for 29.4 New. to the pol e fact that per cent of all job seekers; in the FRG, 45 per cent of the antr-crrsls measures elaborated unemployed had complete vocational or professional training; in not only on the basis of capitalist France, 52.1 per cent of the "redundancies" were skilled workers production, but also tructures of and employees, engineers and technicians. state-monopoly capitalism. also necessary such features contemporary As for concrete demands, they possess certain common It is to note of charac- unemployment as the considerable growth in the nurnber teristics, though they may vary depending upon national condi- of unemployed in all sex and age groups; this is already affecting, tions. It is .important to note that Communists supplement socio-economic demands with political demands: introduition and will inevitably continue to affect, the socio-political situation in of industrial capitalist countries. the const prohibition of mass dismissals the right of workers Mounting unemployment among people over 45 years old, who and their cuss all management are the majority in the category of persons out of work for more decisions law. than a year, is naturally refiected in the features of present-day A unemployment as a whole, enhancing stagnation characteristics. is th The chronic character of unemployment, that is, its not being from linked solely to the economic crisis, has again increased. Mass from unemployment has become a permanent feature of modern Itt capitalism and is associated not only with unfavourable economrc not only in the theoretical aspect. One of them is the character of situations. the interaction of these phenomena. The aggravation of the unemployment problem and its prime Different points of views have been voiced on the subject. features are due to specific causes. Without belittling their There are, in particular, claims that in conditions of contemporary significance, it must be stressed that the basic cause of unemploy- capitalism inflation and unemployment operate as mutually ment in bourgeois society is the fundamental production relation reinforcing factors.s The basic premise of this view,-narnely that of capitalism: capitalist ownership, which economically separates the level 6f unemployment and level of prices are in a state of manpower from the means of production and allows thern to dynamic' mutual influence, merfe only through the sale and purchase of labour power. In Special works and, inde the recent years purchasing labour power, capital, accor,rling to its objective nature, have' convincingly demons of one of the pursues the goal of obtaining the greatest possible mass of living corollaries of t6is premise: t ve" constructed labour (surplus labour in the first place) from the fewest possible according to the printiple of inverse dependence of the quantita- number of workers. This is a law of capitalism which operates at tive valu-es of unemployment a rd inflation. Substitution of the growth unemployment is all its stages. opposite dependence, where the -of The possibility of selling and buying labour power is deter- treated as a- caus. of inflational growth of prices, hardly adds mined by the concrete conditions of accumulation of capital. In convincingness to the initial premise. this aspect the features of modern investment processes constitute According to this notion, the inflational level of prices (the the dominant cause of the present aggravation of the unemploy- commoditieJand services market) is determined by the unemploy- ment problem. ment level (the manpower rnarket) and vice versa. Ilowever, the In practically all industrial capitalist countries the whole mechanism and main directions of the interaction of these two post-crisis period up to [he very latest time has been marked by an markets remain unrevealed. Conclusions are drawn where ques- unusually low rate of growth of investment. The volume of new tions should be raised. On the other hand, the inflational price investment is incapable of leading to an increase in manPower spiral and unemployment both have their respective roots in the demand that would make possible a sharp reduction in the level of rph.r. of produition. Unemployment is, as is-known,.inseparable mass unemployment, which had jumped up in tr974-1975. fiom the conditions of accumulation of capital. Inflation is based At the same time, the overwhelming majority of investments 8o in the processes of capitalist socialisation of production and in not into the creation of new jobs, but into the re-equipment of old -o.ropofirution. Howevei these circumstances are not reflected ones. Current changes in the structure of investment reflect the the afbrementioned view, which virtually seParates turnover fl'om trend towards further expansion of capitalist rationalisation and 'production. are an embodiment of the features and properties of an intensive By interpreting inflational growth of pric'-s. as .a result of type of reproduction, while at the same time undermining increises in- social expenditures of the state, this view aims in prospects of solving the unemployment problem. practice at depriving the working people of capitalist countries of Demographic features play a considerable part in the current iven the .mill protection from social evil for which they had aggravation of the ernployment problem. However, they are not fought through decades of stubborn struggle. simply a factor operating on the side of offer of manpower and It the same time, such an interpretation also restricts the explaining the high unernployment rate arnong young people. The opportunities for evolving a democratic .alternative to the reactio- cause here is that, firstly, the influx of young workers has niiy bureaucratic trend in the functioning of modern state- exceeded the demands of capital prompted by accumulation monopoly'expinding capitalism. Yet it is obvious that unemployment and conditions, and secondly, the inability of the bourgeois state to inflatibn simultaneously have a powerful destructive provide young people with work and vocational training. This effect on the socio-economic situation of the working people which inability, moreover, is not always due to objective restrictions of a substantially exceeds the net force of destruction caused by each of legal or financial nature. As often as not, the bourgeois state is these social evils separately' wholly indifferent to the fate of young people. Forced idleness- of one section of the working class is Since the mid-1970s, mass unemployment, as is known, has accompanied by mounting predatory aclions of capital- with respect been accompanied by rising inflation. The simultaneous develop- to th; other section, ina this also decimates the principal ment of these processes raises a number of serious problems, and productive force. IJnemployment has been and remains the most 19l 100 potent means which capital uses to step up exploitation of wage labour. CRITICAL STUDIES fril AND COMMENT portion of it is the desire ro rurn political life to the right. And if today reactionary circles are unable fully to realise that desire, the reason is only that they are opposed by the mounting political might of the working class relying on the alignment of forces in the world ar€na, which has changed in favour of socialism,

NOTES The Fetishist Basis of Contemporary I Hutorical Slatistics of the Llnicd States. Colanial Timcs to Ig57, Washington, 1g60, Western Political Economy 70. 2 P. Th" Ntt Yorh Times" September 9, 1976. VLADILEN AFANASYEV r ';tr;:',:?; i Demo*atic and Repubtican Natimat o nington,"fd:f 1976, p. 8. 6 unique, situation that has arisen in the second half of the Estimated according to Monthly Bulletin of Statistics ^^ Jh. No. 3, 197?, pp. 14-16, 22-Bl. 20th century due to the historic victories of the wo.ld reroiutio- ' Estimated according to Demographic Yearbooh 1974 New York, 1g74, pp. 150, nary movement exerts decisive 158. a influence on the evolution of 8 contemporary Western politiral economy. Today Notional lournal August 21, 1976, p. 1176. the transition from capitalism to sociafism has assumed ',n.ry .i.". Jirtir,.t forms, and has directly invol ""J and peoples. The fact that that there are active socio-e

main direction in mankind's soc These circ Western theoreticians to change the forms of the capitalist sysrem. fi i, tn... circumstances le for the seem'ingly pu.uJo*icut shifts in the rn economists, *n'o' t'"ua affirmed the eternal and "i*uy, naturar character of the .upiotirt- - Such shifts include formal recognition (i, tn.6.i., of".a... trre "industrial", "post-industrial",',su[er-industrial" and,.ta.hrro_ the present age and socio-economic de- sent as being non- is no Ionger capable its historically trans- capitalism, has proved incapable of eliminating the contradictrons adaptation to the progressive development.of the ient nature. This capitalist economy. Moreover, has also failed to process' howlvei, is not in a position to within the it worfd revolutionary - diagnose correctly the diseases that have affected the very stag.ration and degradation of current political- .on.iut the actual foundations of the capitalist economy. the West. eoonomic thought in was naturally to be expected, contemporary bourgeois - reallY major as This for Indeed, political-economic thought remains, in spite of all the "revolu- thought come Y?^ bourgeois p tions" it is supposed to have undergone, an essentially unsuccess- Has ft, foi the eltremelY of ce in the im its ful economic ideology, which retains its fidelity to the general capitalism's principle of vulgar economy formulated right at the beginning of development? the 19th century. "Tfre question of imperialism,l'- Leli ol' n rn of the moit essential but is 'probably tfte ,t ui tpfr... of econ :nce which the ,kr.* fornns of capitalism The problem of The economic life of society consists mainly of labour and for formulated, but als this reason all economic categories used in political economy are years ago, but for Western Politi merely various designations of the work process, its consequences The American economist Lee P and results, its material content and socio-economic form. Marx the problems of determining the established that labour has a dual nature: as a useful, purposeful their relations with the economY form of man's working activity (concrete labour), and as the econ the main stream of modern expenditure of manpower in the physiological sense (the historical has litt that a large corPoration form of this aspect of work, which is characteristic of theory' the cornmodity "firm" stilJ referred to in economic economy, Marx called abstract labour). NeitherhasWesternpoliticaleconomysolvedtheproblemof If labour is at the basis of all economic processes and, at the state-monoPolY caPitalism. same time, has a complex structure, being a dual phenomenon, it In recent decades,' Western ideologists have done everything to f state control of the caPitalist follows that all the economic phenomena of capitalism are also dual manifestations processes KeYn in natuie. They are all various of the of q (r93 concrete labour, on the one hand, and of abstract labour, on the roduct other, the t\,vo comprising all the economic processes and phenomena the capitalist mode production. and a of of The Marxist concept of the dual nature of labour makes it without crises. possible to reveal the dual character of all the phenomena of the Even mature state-monopoly capitalism has been unable to The iglZ-tgiS world economic crisis, the commodity economy, clearly distinguish between their material achieve rhis, however. content and socio-economic form, and reveal the specific economic of the 1930s which led directly to worst since ih. G.."t Depression laws governing any historically determined mode of production. Keynesian doctrine, dispelled.a4y remaining the creation of the In as far as this concept reflects the general features of economic effecti rreness. The American economist illrrio.r, concerning its processes, it contains specific ihformation not only about economic Robert Eisner note-s that, decades af.tet The General Theory was i level, professional as well as public phenomena that have been studied, but also those that have not. p"tfittrJ ttt. policy the it makes possible to resolve two major tasks faced "t *orrthr of increasing inflation and On whole, it Lewilderment grows'through by economics: to elaborate, first, scientific economic concepts, and unemployment".4 second, an entire scientific theoretical system. Marx attached extreme importance to revealing the dual nature of labour embodied in the commodity, and considered this, together with the discovery of the law of surplus value-the economic law governing the movement of the capitalist mode of production-as the greatest achievements of his economic theory. claimed to reveal the econo 195 194 Ftre saw the dual nature of labour as the point of departure for scientific analysis of capitalism, and thus an understanding of all political economy.' There is another aspect to this proposition: failure to understand the dual nature of labour and its special role in the capitalist mode of production predetermines failure to understand The same is true in relation to the still surviving theory of the nature of individual econornic processes and phenomena, and factors of production, which presents things as if the means of the entire system of deep-running laws governing the capitalist production, including land and the foices of nature, are system as a whole. At the same time, this means that if the concept of the dual nature of labour is taken into account in a criticism of Western political economy, the true content of both its individual propositions and theories, and of them all in their entirety will be disclosed. It is characteristic of Western political economy to identify The reason that this th concrete with abstract labour, which is ultimately due to its class apologetic political economy limitations. The fact that capitalism is doomed is due to its main untenable thesis that the contradiction: the growing divergence between capitalist relations workers. One of the most of production and the increasingly social character of productive attempt to respresent auto forces. Western political economy does not formulate this con- factor in the production of tradiction; more than that, it fails to see the very distinction its value.E The apologetic between the productive forces and relations of production under theory are also based on capitalism, which is the generalised and final expression of the value, in which only abstract labour participates, with the creation of difference between the processes of concrete and abstract labour. use-value, in which means of production and nature participate The essence of the universal principle of vulgar political economy is along with concrete labour. to equate these processes. For all the changes that under- For vulgar political economy, this principle is universal being gone, it remains faithful to One of characteristic of all unscientific categories, theories and systems of the most recent examples of the political economy. Either directly or ultimately, this principle category of the "economic s merican underlies the various forms of superficial, fetishist interpretations economist John Galbraith testifies, the dominant opinion holds (commodity-fetishist, production-fetishist, technico-fetishist, and so that its purpose is to provide the goods and rendef the services on) of the economic phenomena and processes of contemporary that people want.e capitalism in Western political economy with a view to concealing this interpretation of the economic system as their socio-economic essence and providing an apology for the , but his own view cannot provide a scientific capitalist order. It also acts as a universal principle in the sense that it al theoretical plane, though it is of certain constitutes a resum6 of the entire methodology of unscientific rast to many Western authors, he asks some political economy (the metaphysical approach to economic questions concerning the role of major corporations in the phenomena and either their idealistic or vulgar-materialistic in- contemporary capitalist economy and the way they function for their terpretation). own enrichment. Marx's critical analysis of the vulgar political economy of the first half of the l9th century shows that it was widely based on an identification of the process of concrete labour with that of abstract labour. Such, for instance, is Senior's "Last Hour" theory, which breaks down working time into time for transferring old value (wear and tear of machinery, production buildings and so on), and time for creating new value (net profit). These processes, however, take place simultaneousll, thanks to the dual nature of

196 r97 order is so multifarious and complex, many different logical characterised by private capitalist ownership of the^ means of orders-each with its own axial printiple-can be imposed on the economic production, consu'mption ai such is.not the g9+-of same time or social frame, depending bn the questions one has in activity, but is media-ted by profit maximisation, which is the direct mind." ro goal" of capitalist production.-correspondence By declaring complefe freedom in This lick of between the goals of direct principle" for each age and social system,- is consumption and the goils imposed by the "economic system" iact, i decisive one for science, that a I evidenci that, in addition to tl hat create theoretical reproduction of reality and goods and services, the so des socio- Moreover, a logical system must establish relations that det essence of firoduction of the process that is society, its class structure and the socio-economic goals incompatible with an 'production. According to Bell, Hence it is clear that contemPorary bourgeois political economy and other phenomena might be is completely wrong in reducing the concept of economic system to fact remaini, however, that the roles of these processes in social forces .o.r.,?,r;:lr.l nothing more thari the produ-tive ", development are far from identical. It is characteristic that Bell mrr: is inclined to take economic processes as "axial principle". (which, himseli people Even so, this takes him further awiy, rather than bringing him processes of the closer to a realistic interpretation of the issue. Thus he claims that ses is one of the "the terms feudalism, cipitalism, and socialism are a sequence of main manifestations of the universal principle of vulgar political conceptual schemes, in the Marxist framework, along the axis of economy, a feature that is also clearly evident in the branch approach property relations. The terms to the diritio., of the socio-historical process into periods. post-industrial production an

,<*{. By taking reference", Bell proceeds on t ising the socio-economic Process, definiteness of the system of different societies. Meanwhile he eveloPment as being ones whose the branch of Production domin- ant within them: in the "pre:industrial society" this is agriculture, in the "industrial" one it is industry, and in the "post-industrial society", services and science. Suctr, then, is the branch approach to periodisation of the socio-economic process, which is, in fact, based on concrete labour, services spherc. The be it agricultuial, industrial or in the - socio-ecoiomic distinctions between socio-economic formations are dissolved in the branch differences in people's direct production activities. Such an approach is clearly apologetic. Of the two aspects of the mode of production-productive forces and relations of production in whose contradi forces and collisions of social criteria for its periodisation- phenomena in the develoPme criteria. This allows him to con

108 no room for conflict between the productive forces and relations factor," he writes, "which is hardest to obtain or hardest to of production under capitalism, let alone for a socialist revolution. replace." In his opinion, this factor was initially land, which That is why he does not take property relations as the "axis" of predetermined the entire age of the agrarian economy; then came the historical process. capital, which caused the transition to the "age of capital", and Such a scheme, however, has nothing in common with finally, the "technostructure" (the managements. of large corpora- historical reality, which reflects not only the need for a transition tionsj, bringing about the transition to ihe "industrial socieiy".ra from capitalism to socialism, but also the successful development Here, too, the specifics of people's purposeful activity (though of socialism over considerable areas of the world. Socialism, which subject to distortion), including management labour, act as the heals the ulcers of a capitalist society-underloading of productive criterion. J. Fourastier, J. M. Clark and F. Ferroux, plus many others, capacity, mass unemployment, low economic growth rates, have adopted the branch approach to historical processes. economic crises, inflation, and so on-shows the tremendous Major shifts in the development of productive forces, which historical advantages of planned economic management, of the bring different spheres of the economy to the fore-agriculture, system that meets the fundamental interests of the working industry, science, etc.-undoubtedly constitute major factors in masses, and the needs of contemporary scientific and technologi- the socio-historical process. They are, however, only the material cal, social and economic progress. The world socialist economic basis for changes in the system of socio-production relations, system is the main factor ensuring peace, which is why the relations of property in the means of production, but are far from attempts to exclude socialisrtr from the contemPorary socio- identical to these changes. Contemporary bourgeois political historical process are not just failures, they are deeply reactionary. economy attempts to interpret the history of human society, too, Neither does Bell's scheme help in understanding previous on the basis of the universal principle of vulgar political economy, By historical stages of social development. In fact, the specifics of the virtually identifying the fundamental shifts in society's productive socio-economic social system cannot, of course, be explained by forces with the changes in the system of socio-production relations, including in the single category of "pre-industrial society" such bourgeois political economy conceals the objective need for such extremely different social organisms as the primitive commune, changes in antagonistic systems. slave-owning Rome, feudal France, tsarist Russia and contempor- ary New Zealand., purely on the basis that their economies were agricultural. A critical review of the branch approach to periodising the socio-historical process is of all the more interest since this pseudo-historical approach is typical of many representatives of It is typical of contemporary bourgeois political economy to Western political economy today, though they give it the most identify the process of concrete labour with that of abstract labour, varied forms. This is W. W. Rostow's point of departure for as is probably most clearly seen in the fact that the categories it constructing his concept of the "stages of economic growth". He uses are fetishist in nature. claims, in particular, that the contemporary stage of economic growth, which he calls the "Age of High Mass Consumption", is characterised by the fact that "the leading sectors shift towards durable consumers' goods and services".r2 Here, as in his later work Politics and the Stages of Growth, in which Rostow interprets his prospects for social development as "the search for quality", capitalism". The of these, including theories of the "consumer branch shifts are directly declared the main criterion for first periodising the historical process.re It is virtually this criterion that Galbraith uses in his concept of the "industrial society", though his position is not so straightfor- ward as that of Rostow, which was largely based on the apologetic forms of the old German l9th-century historical school. Galbraith The second embracing the concepts of the "industrial", "post- proposes historical development is determined by the role qrrrrrrvg that industrial",llluuDLr r4r , "super-industrial",ruHlr r "programmed",rr v6r , ""cybernetic" assumed by each "factor of production". "Power goes to the "technotronic" societies, tries to draw the features of the

200 201 the "factors-of-production" theory ate advertised, but also the concepts of "diproletarianisation'; of the working class and its transfbrmation into a sort of "middle class", "human capital", and so on.

personal consumption, and so on. ' It is characteiistic, however, that all these changes constitute

The basis for identifying'"convergence" productive forces with production rela- tiOns is the concept of of the two SOcio-economic mt systems, which Western scholars use in an attempt to dismiss the main contradiction of our age. This concept is founded on an untenable argument, but one that is typical of contemporary Western political economy: the question of the direction in which MAN AND NATURE the two opposing systems of production rel,ations are developing is solved by ignoring the deep qualitative differences between them, relying on the certain common features between t}l,e productiae forces chzracteristic of socialism and capitalism.

A study of the modern forms of the universal principle of vulgar political economy, from the standpoint of which Western Relations with Nature Optimised economists try to solve their most pressing ideological problems, prompts the following conclusion: a typical form of apology for EVGENI FYODOROV capitalism during the present stage in the world revolutionary process is an attempt by bourgeois ideologists to present the shifts taking place in productive forces under the impact of the scientific and technological revolution directly as fundamental changes in At present, man is going through a dramatic period in his the socio-economic essence of capitalist society towards its "trans- relations with the natural environment. The intensification of formation" into some sort of non-capitalist system. human activity makes it necessary to start taking into account the extent of all the natural wealth of our planet. The proportion of unrenewable natural resources already used up by man (some NO'I'ES mineral resources, for example) can actually begin to be measured I L. I. Brezhnev, Report of lhe CPSU Centrol Comrnilke anil the Immediote Toshs of ttw against their total existing reserves. The balance of renewable Party in Home and Foreign Policy. 25th Congress of the CPSU, Moscow, 1976, pp. natural resources (lakes, forests, biological products of the ocean, 46,47. fresh 2 water, etc.) is changing markedly. The effect of man's V. I. Lenin, Collected Worhr, Moscow, Vol. 22, p. 103. s influence on many natural processes is greater than the normal TlLe of Econonic Literature, 1975, p. 434. a lournal June natural fluctuations in environmental conditions. The Amencan Economic Reaitu, May l9?5, p. 189. has caused 5 This fact anxiety about the present state of natural Karl Marx, Ca\ittl" Vol. I, Moscow, 1969, pp, +8-49. resources 6 and about possible irreversible changes in the natural lbid., pp. 215-216. environment, with dire effects mankind. 7 for H.S,Slo"r, and A. I.Zurchet, Dictionory of Econonics, New York, 1970, p.60. 8 Some time ago, Forrester,l Meadows2 and certain others in the R.Garaudy, L'Allcmotiae, Paris, 1972, p. lE8. West dusted some well-known Malthusian theses came e off and to l.K.G.ilboith, Economics anil the Public htrpose, Boston, 1973, p. 3, I0 the conclusion that sooner or later man would come into conflict D,B.ll, The Coning ol Post-Indtutrial Society, New York, l9?3, p. ll. ll with nature, thus creating an ecological crisis, that this crisis would Ibid.*. break out in some 50 or 100 years, unless the growth of the '2 W,W.Ro.tow, Tho Stogu ol Economic Groutll4 Cambridge, 1960, p. 10. population, and the growth of production and consumption, do W.W.Rorto*, Politics and the Stages of Grourtlr, Cambridge, l9?1, p. 231. not stop. They regard the limited resources and limited size '!ra of the 1.K.G"lb."ith, The Ncu Indrstria,l Slata, London, 1967, pp. 56-59. as an insurmountable I5 planet natural barrier to the development of Ibid., pp, 74, bl. mankind the coming decades. 16 in Th, 1ou^ol of Economic Limature, June 1975, p. 439. Over the past several years, however, others in West (whose r7 the A Dirtionn y of rhe Sociat kiances, Ed. J. Gould and W. L. Kolb, New York, 1965, views are basically non Marxist) have modified their attitudes to P. 66. the problem of the man-nature relationship. In their works, Mesar:ovii, Pestel,s Kinga and Leontieff 5 sought to prove that the natural possibilities of out planet, though limited, nevertheless

205 have a very large reserve for the allround development of mankind, and that this reserve can be used, provided man conducts his worldwide activities in an organised and well coordinated fashion. They have also come to the conclusion that the character and direction of present-day development of mankind has no future, and that the entire social structure should be modified, so that on the basis of this, the technological aspect of human activity would be changed, too.

throughout its existence, since the forms of interaction change only. by way of the slow Process of biological evolution to new sPecles. By contrast, man constantly changes, elpands and develops the forms and methods of his interaction with nature' the author of this article, have on many occasions pointed out the naive and utopian character of those proposals.8 Man's relation to nature, which has become a very urgent global problem of our time, can be optimised only under certain social conditions. And such optimisation in turn calls for the solution of a number of problems in the natural sciences, progress will inevitably lead to the deterioration of the environ- especially earth sciences which is what this article is concerned *.rit it ill-founded. By and of itself, Progress is just as much to with. "blame" for this as it ii for creating weaPons of mass destruction. Every new phase of interaction between society and the The reason lies not in modern technology, but in how it is utilised. natural environment creates a new need for information about At the same time, man's influence on nature, which is assuming nature, and makes new demands on earth sciences. global proportions, has made the solution of many new scientific These sciences are the product of the experience of mankind 'problems imperative. interacting with nature. At the same tirne, the earth sciences serve Let us look at some features of present-day conditions of earth as a tool for further exparrding the entire spectrum of such interaction and for making it more effective and beneficial for both man and the environment. They have always served these aims only: 1) to provide information about the natural environment in order to Protect mankind from unfavourable elemental phenomena, and 2) to find and develop natural wealth. These objectives have not lost their field have to go through a tremendous amount of information, significance to this day. searching for ind seleciing the little they actually need for their However, at present, new tasks are taking precedence over all work. others, i. e., the calculation of the effects of man's influence on The more complex their research, the more information they the natural environment and the development of methods in the must sift through. purposeful transformation of natural conditions. These are very And, becausi of the very logic of scientific development, the difficult tasks, and some specialists doubt that it is possible to entire system of obtaining and processing information about our accomplish them. It is for this reason that many scholars demand planet is being retooled, as it were. that all anthropogenic changes should be discontinued, since they ' The rnost important aspect of technological progress is the tend to upset the balance of the environment, and since nobody utilisation of telemetric devices, so-called mobile platforms and knows exactly what they may eventually lead to. But such men various remote control methods. seem to be unable to understand that any halt in anthropogenic Until a few decades ago, all measurements used to describe changes would be impossible. environmental conditions-temPerature of the air, density of the

m6 magnetic field, speed of flow in rivers, etc.-were taken directly at land-based stations to surveying devices mounted on artificial the point of observation, just as they were a hundred or even two earth satellites, and down to the drawing up of charts to be passed hundred years ago. on to weathermen for analvsis, are being put into operation. A radio probe launched in the Soviet Union in lg30 was The need for obtaining glpbal information about the state of probably the world's first telemetric system. Soon after, the first the natural environment calls for the developing of international automatic meteorological stations were set up in different parts of cooperation in this field. It is necessary to coordinate methods of the globe at long distances from one another-on land and on the observation, to provide rapid collection and dissemination of drifting ice of the Arctic-to transmit data on weather conditions. information of these data in all countries. And finally, in the 1950s, special meteorological rockets came to be used. At present, telemetric systems are used throughout the world and have assumed great significance in space research. Over the past several decades, so-called mobile platforms (specially equipped ships and aeroplanes for obtaining data on the conditions of the atmosphere, the ocean, the earth's surface over large expanses) have been in wide use. And today, artificial earth satellites are also used as a modified type of platforms like this. The first problem in our particular field that we succeeded in solving with the help of artificial earth satellites was to obtain data on atmospheric conditions. The recording of infra-red radiation and high-frequency radiation coming from the surface of the earth, from clouds and from different layers of the atmosphere, as is done on earth satellites, makes it possible to evaluate the state of a large number of elements of the natural environment. The utilisation of the space exploration systems has enabled More serious difficulties are entailed in the organisation of a scientists to pioneer new methods of probing the lithosphere, day-to-day service whereby they could obtain information about hydrosphere and atmosphere by remote control. For a long time, the condition of the biota-the aggregate of all living organisms geophysicists have used the passage of seismic waves through the on our planet. earth, and the spread of .acoustic oscillations which are caused by At p.resent the possibility is being discussed of setting up a big 'explosions in the air, to study its inner structure and the monitoring system for global and local observation of tne structure of the atmosphere. This has led to the utilisation of condition of the biosphere and the biota. There is no doubt that all artificially induced seismic, acoustic and hydro-acoustic waves in these questions will be resolved and that the monitoring systern will the study of the structure of the earth's crust, the atmosphere and be put into operation in the near fl.rture. the ocean. Research in the radio frequency range has proved Another important feature of the earth sciences today is the helpful in the study of many atmospheric phenomena, such as the growing emphasis on phenomena of global and even cosmic ionised spheres in the upper layers of the atmosphere, and proportions. Communications channels and the flight routes are precipitation and clouds in its lower regions. growing longer and longer, and the resources of oceans are being The development of telemetric methods, remote control developed further and further away from rhe coasts, The effects apparatus and mobile rneasurements systems has made the analysis of pollution and other modifications of the natural environment and processing of data fully or partially automated. The need for takin such automation is all the more urgent because of the large T'he volume of information and the speed with which it is received. are a This is made possible through powerful electronic computers. activi New automated methods of observation and data processing planet. are taking over in weather forecasting. At present, whole In this connection the information about the state of the "automatic lines" of weather data processing cycles, ranging from natural environment on the globe and our understanding of the

ME The principal and most difficult elernents of strch an evaluation ecological processes taking place worldwide are assuming great prognostication practical significance' ir the calculation and of future events which will owe their existence to natural processes and/or unintentional and There also problems directly connected with outer sPace' ire deliberate modification of the environment by man. The geochemist who Let us take a closer look at these important elements. Earth naturally wants to If we can make use .of statistical analysis of information on circulation of substances similar events in the past, our calculation may provide certain the For the meteorologist todaY, quantitative values for considerable periods of time in the future. Thus, using data resulting from long-term meteorological observations at some particular spot, one can calculate the " of science. At the same time, probable average or minimum temperature, say, for the month of earth science tends to Promote subsequent years. Analysing results seisrnic nics, and our evaluation of the January in the of observations makes it possible to create a picture of seismic activity global changes in man's environrnent' possibilities of sweeping, for some particular area, i. e., to establish a degree of probability scientific research Another -"ifeature is the inclusion in the for earthquakes of certain intensity in decades come. place oh" the to pr"g.;;;;t ,rr of phenomena taking Such calculations are taken into consideration in designing ^p.o,.. (as parts of our planet Lorierline between thi spheres the main hydro-power stations, blocks of flats or any other structures, and cut across two o!' are called), as well as the phenomena which for long-range planning of various projects, such as calculating areas of knowledge, to *o.. of th-em. And this leadis, as in other what reserves of fuel are needed in a city for the winter in a given and to the .- *.tg.t of what used to be separate disciplines, region of the country. dil ciplines' emergJt ce of new "marginal" Statistical calculations can be made whether or not there is a theory explaining the mechanics of a given process. Flowever, one must be quite sure that these processes retain their characteristics both in the past, when the information that is being used was accumulated, and in the future period, when the events in question are expected to take place. Ftrowever, in cases when changes in the character of the processes under scrutiny are possible, such as changes in the clirnate, such purely statistica! calculations are irrelevant. It is well known, incidentally, that the climate has been changing over the past 100-200 years. that the close ties between all And finally, statistical calculation is of practically no use for properly- be understood. determining a magnitude of this or that phenornenon at a given ioday biologists are making a close study of the ties between moment in the future, because the probability of the magnitude the organism, its population and the environment' we are looking for deviating from the probable at a giaen mom.ent The study of the entire nplex'dornain of links between organisms is very great. and their ehvironment is of ecology-a rapidly Far rnore sorrnd is the kind of calculation that is based cin a developing sphere of knowledg enomena quantitative theory for the process under consideration, on our and employing manY different knowledge of the functional association of the magnitude we are link the looking for with the initial data, also on sufficiently full initial data ironment and values of the parameters of this association. This is what set themselves. At technical and engineering calculations are based on. h science that we Unfortunately, at their present stage of developrnent, the earth help a sciences do not enable us to use such calculations for estimates for believe is called upon to w the - of comprehensive analysis of various disciplines-an evaluati6n of the future, except in a very few cases. Let us take, by way of the iesults of both tire unintentional influence on the environment exarnple, the calculation of the level of high and low tides at by man and his deliberate modification of the environment' various points of the ocean coast, or a calculation of the highest

2t0 211 oossible level of the water in a river in its lower reaches, using of scientific progress in all fields but, as we believe, by the exacting huru o., the rainfall in its upper reaches' practical requirements for the accuracy of data on environmental In the g :s' we have at our disposal only conditions. qualitative I the Process, and Erroneous or inaccurate values for environmental parameters only a part provided by building engineers always result either in insufficient However nstantly fol an reliability of construction or in an extravagant res€rve of strength estirnate of the future conditio elements of the (and at extravagant expense). Considering the growing scale of biosohere. The form an estimate t a situation is the construction work in the USSR, such losses may add up to huge place in the sums money, f"..'.ut,. Methods of forecasting events taking . of the ionosPhere' ice-drift The same applies to the prognostication of the future of the ;i;;ph;t"-the weather, the condition -of o. iir.rr, storms at sea, propagation of agricultural pests' etc" are environment in planning various economic projects. The most varied indeed. difficult task f.or all the earth sciences, namely, working out In most cases forecasts are based on the analysis of tendencies reliable methods, based on objective data, of calculating future in the development of processes, mostly a- qualitative analysis' with environmental conditions, can be accomplished only with the help the occasional inclusion of numerical calculations. Moreovel, we of physics and mathematics. cornpare the situation h simila With the growing need for information about the natural past. This is, in fact, w or what environment, new types of prognostication of its condition are methods of weather fo Similar being developed and the appropriate services are being set up. A to forecast the condition of the here an service that forecasts the condition of the ionosphere has already the condition of farm croPs an been in existence for about thirty years; both the Soviet Union and As a rule, the forecast give the United States have special services which monitor and forecast characteristics of a given Pheno the radiation situation in outer space. Seismologists have come which the process in question ta close to being able to prognosticate the time at which earthquakes future (such as the temPerature may occur. Prognostication is also used in the study of various ,rrrtit. statistical calculations, or those based on functional rela- biological processes. For example, the condition of agricultural rnethod of tions, a forecast may not always'probability, be correct' Each crops and the size of the harvest, lhe time of the appearance of p.oj""rti.ution has ili rnargin of b.ut one can ,ever be agricultural pests, migration of fish in the ocean, etc., can now be iure" his esrimate will be c"orrect-at a given time and in a given forecasted with a fair degree of accuracy. case. All this rnakes us confident that eventually science will develop Deviations from the normal in the atmosphere and the realiable methods of forecasting a great variety of phenomena in h t the Previous Pattern' and these the natural environrnent. in the even today scientists have against more t, ir for various Phenomena But come up still b difficult tasks, namely, to perform the calculations necessary for of g..op and the transformation of natural conditions as the result of the the unintentional or the deliberate modification the environment. ) particularlY remalns of lolution of Problem tica- The most dangerous kind of unintentional modification of the ere' natural tion--- of the basic ele environment is pollution. Let us consider, as an example, with all its imperfections, the weather forecasting service works some relevant calculations. much better than the services that forecast other phenornena It should be pointed out -t at present, environmental taking place in the pollution does not corne from Just one source, nor can the the fact that it is environment be restored to its normal natural state at just a short qualitative methods distance from the source of pollution by way of its natural in other fields, by biological "self-purification". physico-mathematical basis. Rivers that flow through densely populated and industrial '--toa^y such a process is characteristic of all the other earth areas (almost all the rivers in the United States, Japan and the sciences as well. ena it is determined not only by the general logic European countries, including almost two-thirds of rivers in the

212 ztE populati,,on Eunopean part of the ussR), have long since departed frorn their As a result of sickness, reduction of the of sorne ,'natural stite" and have turned into transport arteries, sources of animal or plant species or their desttuction, there will be intensive electric power, sources of drinking water for city mains, and propagation of some other species which was food for first species, wa8e. for example. At the same time, the population of predators who fed on the decimated species will fall off sharply. abdut 20 Per cent of the domestic and industrial world is dumped into rivers. In the next century Thus, one should be able to calculate the entire complex of s in the world will be in this category. The air in changes in the environment, and its possible "responses" to such changes which rnay occur on a very large, even global scale, as these changes are induced by alteration in the envinonmental structure, taking into account all the existing forrns of modifica- tir:n and those expected in the future. Will science be able to cope with these problems? It will have to, and is in fact beginning to solve them. Today the first, somewhat oversimplified evaluation of the influence of environ- mental pollution, iaused by some substance, on one or two species of animal or plant world has given way to a more thorough analysis of the entire chain of reactions that occur in the environment as the result of the appearance of this new elernent. Good examples of such analyses have been cited by Barry Commoner, who told the story of the discovery of the nature of the famous Los Angeles smog.e The fact that many negative effects of the dissemination of sorne substances throughout the natural environment have come to light so unexpectedly, can be explained, in our opinion, not so much by the complexity of the scientific problems arising from such dissemination as by the scant attention that scientists gave it in the past. Now let us take a look at the transformation of the weather and climate, which, on the one hand, like environrnental pollution, is rhe result of unprerneditated modification, and, on the other, is becoming the object of purposeful activity of man. The control of rneteorological and other undesirable natural processes is often impossible for the simple rea$on that there is so much energy involved. In situations like this, the practical thing to do is to find ways and rneans of regulating these natural processes, adjusting them to our needs. A good example is weather control. in water, or in the air) thousands of times over. We have no way of controlling the dynamics of the atmosphere, as we do in machines or in living organisms. Hence the need to find, In every individual Process of interaction between a. given element and the environment and, later, a living organism, a through the complex of atmospheric processes, the chains of condition of instability may occur, with resulting chain reactions, intermittent phenomena which could be used as channels of control. (linear) dependence on the The main emphasis here is placed on the stimulation of cloud when the initial effect losej its -beginsprimary concentration of elements, and to change sharply after even forrnation and on rnan-induced precipitation of rain. The most ncrease in concentration. realistic method of regulation of this natural process is by g about the evaluation of a pollution effect stimulating the crystallisation of hyper-cooled drops of moisture. a population. However, i-n qany cases this The required quantities of solid carbon dioxide which sharply cool f a tohg chain of events in the biosphere. nearby drops of water, causing them to crystallise, or the required ztl 214 atmospheric moisture. Consequently, to get considerable additional amounts of humidity it is necessary to make a cloud work as such a generator. At present, scientists are working out different lines towards a solution of this problem. The experiments by which scientists attempt to alter local can regulate at least some natural phenomena. weather conditions have led them to undertake the still more Intensification of the crystallisation Process is used in three difficult job of controlling hurricanes. Such experiments are being directions: to disperse low clouds, to prevent hailstorms and to conducted in the United States. Of particular importance here is the problem of calculating unpremeditated changes in the climate and modifying it to suit our needs.

thermal radiation of the earth and raises its average equilibrium temperature. Dust and various aerosols discharged into the atmosphere by

could induce a process whose power exceeds the above figure by a factor of 102. by the atom. However, heat will be produced, whether energy is being generated or utilised in whatever way. At Present, anthropogenic heat constitutes about 0.02 per cent of the natural influx of thermal energy from solar radiation. Repeated estimates by different scientists give us reasoll to believe that the rise in the proportion of anthropogenic heat to as high as l or 2 per_cent and the concomitant chan6;es in the heat balance of our planet present

::xi, :f the emergence of new power this general circulation may also be disturbe I heat balance of the earth remains the same utilisation of direct solar radiation, also the enel'gy of ocean tides, etc')' There generator of humidity by transforming water vaPour in the air are powerful anthropogenic sources of heat even now' They are into drops or crystals, which then precipitate onto the earth's induitrial centres and urban agglomerations like the south-east of surface. the United States, all of Belgium, Ruhr, the eastern coast oft Japan. The energy of this "generator" is drawn from the atmosphere- We can surmise that an increase by a factor of l0 of heat by releasing iatent heai by condensation or crystallisation of energy in such centres may up$et the established general

216 circulation of the atmosphere, though it is not at all inevitable that disperse or form clouds in the daytime. we could also create or, the entry of additional anthropogenic heat into the atmosphere o"it. contrary, disperse, such a screen in order to regulate heat will cause the temperature of the atmosphere to go up and the radiation from'the iarth's surface at night. polar ice caps and glaciers in the mountains to melt and the level Changing the albedo, reflective Power of the earth's surface, is of the World Ocean to rise. The end consequences may be quite another ia/ affecting the heat balance in a given region'.This different. We can say with a fair degree of confidence that the can be donL "fby growinf vegeration of a certain kind. The albedo general circulation in the atmosphere and in the ocean will ca' also be afteied bi irrigation or amelioration of the earth's change, but how it will change is still very hard to say. surface. The first snowfall, as also the melting away of the snow Major changes in the world water balance (such as the cover,- increases its reflection capacity. utilisation of the whole, or almost the whole drainage of rivers for Alieration of the global heat balance, in t5e direction of irrigation) may also have some effect on the climate as the surface reducing the amountJ of solar radiation reaching the earth's of evaporation on the continents will increase, which will lead to a ,.rrfu..,-."n be achieved by inlecting considerable amounts of redistribution of the elements of the energy balance in the aerosols into the uPper layers of the atmosphere'- atmosphere, since the energy absorbed by water as it passes from According to.ttn. Soviet (for instance M'-.Budyko)".and one state into another constitutes a considerable share of the total American siientists, marked changes in the clirnate could be energy balance. induced by injecting about orre million tons of certain substances If and when the per capita energy consumption on our planet (for example, sulphur, which wo (with a population of 7-8 thousand million) is as great as it is in the United States today, the share of anthropogenic heat in the world heat balance will increase 100 times over (which could also have a marked effect on the climate). purPose. It has already been mentioned that the climate may become oaifiea by altering the dynamics of more unstable and very susceptible to even small influence. the atmosphere or the ocean. As is known, mountain ranges have Consequently, situations that lead to spontaneous reactions, and u gt."t .ff..t ot, the climate not.only of adjacent areas, but also situations that may prove most dangerous when subjected to more rernote terrrtories. But it is possible that less formidable, unwitting influence, rnay at the same time help scientists in their specially designed structures could well play this roLe' search for ways to modify the climate. " As 'is kn6wn, deviations of ocean currents frorn normal The complex of hydrorneteorological processes in the atmos- traiectories have, on many occasions, resulted in marked changes phere and in the ocean may well be likened to a heat-operated in 'the weather. There ii no d< ubt that such deviations in the machine. Any change in the power and distribution of sources or ocean currents asting climatic the escape of heat could cause it to begin malfunctioning. In such be achieved by the necessary a case, the most logical thing to do would be to try to eliminate the that would be even tens of {efects by heat compensation. Of course, the distribution of the big as the high odaY- ActuallY bi5ic sources of anthropogenic heat, such as large industrial there is no reason, in iheory, why could not be complexes and large populated centres on the continents, took built.- --srrbstantial shapg irrespective of possible effects upon the climate. And it is long-term transformations of the heat balance, just ocean in some very l little likely that in the fr.rture their development will be of the atmosphere-induce or the plaqhed with such effects in view. However, if ever sources of heat the world, will changes in the general sudh as thermo-nuclear power stations are to be placed in the arth's atmosphere, although it is still impossible ocean, it may become possible to take account of such require- to calculate how great such transformations might be, and where ments. exactly they might occur. The heat balance in a particular area could in principle be Orie can see, however, that powerful enough short-term changed in several ways, such as by regulating the formation of alterations, effected only once, in tfie conditions that exist in the clouds. Considering the fact that clouds reflect about 70 per cent atmosphere or on the' surface in certain regions could cause of solar radiation, we could expand or diminish the flow of heat irreveisible shifts, changing its balance and also the climate. that enters the atmosphere in a given area, and in this way For example, to*.- slientists believe that by reducing or

2rr destroying the ice cap in the Arctic Ocean we would cause recycling existing and future substances, to combine natural and enormous changes in the atrnospheric circulation that would make it man-made chains into one ecological system, or systems. impossible for another ice cap ever to form in the future. The ocean Difficult as this problem is, scientists are taking the first steps would then be relatively warm, just as it was at an earlier stage of our towards its solution. Artificial or integrated ecological systems are planet's history. It is extremely difficult to create a mathematical model of the existing climate and to develop ways of calculating its possible changes that result from either unpremeditated or deliberate anthropogenic modification, although the urgency of this problem is becoming more and more evident. Significantly, more and more which draw their uch a sYstem (the scientists in many countries are working on this problem which is spaceship) already pressing need for at the centre of rnany important international research schemes" cieating similar sy bal scale' We have no doubt that in the coming decades a mathematical Thele has not not being able to model of this type will be created. solve a pressing problem facing rnankind, and the present trends It is also difficult to say which of'the existing methods would irr the development of science, including the earth sciences, leave prove practical for stabilising or altering the climate, and when no l'oom for doubt that these tasks will also be accomplished. any of them will actually be used. One can confidently say, It has already been noted that social factors are in a large though, that whatever these methods may be, their implementa- degree responsible for present-day methods of utilisation of tion will call for the concerted efforts of many countries in natural resources and conditions, for the solution and even the different parts of the world. formulation of the problems in question, and all the more so for Another no less important problem is how to calculate the the implementation of measures to transform the natural environ- actual transformation of whole ecological system$. Sirice the effect ment worldwide, for the benefit of man. of man's activity on the natural environment will inevitably grow, True, the very deter the natural ecological systems will inevitably have to be changed- society of this or that re at first on a srnall local scale, later on a regional, and stiil later on the problem is viewed a global scale. Only a well-organised, well-planned transformation man's relations with natu of the ecosystcm can give us a measure of guarantee that man will a large scale only if its whole population is aware of their necessity not suffer frorn harmful ecological effects in the future. and usefulness, and if all of its citizens are united by comrnon It is important, for example, that in creating any substance, interests and goals. A situation like this obtains in the socialist scientists should look ahead to predict what will happen to articles countries, but not in the capitalist. made of this substance after they have served their term of use, As for worldwide measures to ward off an ecological crisis, for they must enter the natural geochemical cycles, either in the these can be implemented only in the conditions of detente and form of fertilisers, or as a kind of secondary material to be friendly cooperaticxr between. states with different social systems. recycled in new articles, or used as a building material. To avoid pollution of the natural environment, some scientists NOTES consider it necessary for man to go back to wide-scale utilisation of ' J. W. Forrester, World Dy'nami'cq Cambridge (Mass'), 1971. natural materials. We know, however, that it was precisely 2 D.H.Meadows and others, Tlre Li,mits to Groraf,h,, New York, 1972. :] M.Mesarovii, E.Festel, Manhirul at the T'urning Poi%c, .i\vew York, 1974, one-crop farming in the forrner colonies (now developing coun- a O. Kirrg, State of the Planet Statement. First Draft II'IAS, 1975' tries) that led to depletion and erosion of soil and to other adverse 5 W.Leontieff , Tlrc Futur"e of WorLd, Econom,y, New York, 1976. effects on the natural environment. u Scientists should bear in mind that not only qualitative changes 1. Tirb..g., and others, Reshaping the International Order.,A Repofi to tke Club of Rome, New York, 1975. but also considerable quantitative changes of elements in the 7 E.Laszlo, Goals for Mankind, New York, 1977. natural environment or their re-distribution over the earth's 8 E. K. Fyodorov, Interaction Between Man and. Nature, Leningt'ad, 1972 (in surface can upset the "balance of nature". Russian). The only way out is to develop principles and methods of n B.Co--on.r, The Closing Circla New York, 1972. reconstituting ecological chains, to develop new methods of 'o M. I. Budyko, Climate anil l-i'fe, Leningrad, 1971 (in Russian)

220 nev, o'cannot be advanced without the harmonious development of man himself".s This conclusion was further developed and concretised in the decisions of the 25th Congress of the CPSU. It VIEWS AND OPINIONS determined the whole complex of problems connected with the spiritual moulding of the individual and developing in hirn an active attitude to life. The question of self-perfection of the individual, of enriching his innei world, of irreconcilability to all manifestations of social st, a ProPrietor's attitude, erything human in man, is posed in a new waY i Spiritual and Moral Values of Developed Socialism

FELIX KUZNETSOV

under developed socialism the individual in his dialectical relations. relationship with iociety and with his grow-ing-spiritual and rnoral Only a revolutionary change of social relations can create the requirements has become central in the !i!e o{ society. This ls an conditions making for mankind's genuine moral development. But objective process of mature socialism which has found embodi- as he changes these relations, man himself changes. ment in Art. 20 of the new Constitution of the USSR: "In One of the most time-worn and widespread accusations accordance with the communist ideal-'The free development of that Marxism, and each is the condition of the free development of all'-the state and ethics, that pursues the aim of giving more real opPor- Soviet way of life tunities to apply theiicreat s, and talents, and to develop their personaliti-that juggling concePts, noted Lenin in his Marx defined it, This is nothing but with Communism, is, real tirne" He stressed that Communists deny only those morals which presupposes "the developrnent of the richness of human nature as l" ."a'in itself".r It ariies in the process of struggle and social transformative activity whose ultirnate PurPose is "to return man to himself as a sociai, that is, as a humane being".' This profound and truly humane rneaning of the cornmunist itself Soviet society. The ntoral code of the ideal cleirly'communism reveals in builder of is formulated in the Frogramme of the 'fhe Soviets' great achievernent have CPSU which states that. as Soviet society advances moral principles six decades of the Land of play an increasingly irnportant role. dernonstrated to the world the role and importance Comrnunists society and to the ' The sarne objetiive-enhancement of the rclle and irnportance attached to the spiritual and moral life of n conditions of rnature socialism, individual. Socialisrn not onXy became the bridge connecting the , to Promoting his inner best humanist h the present, t'l'; and preserving time; it is cultural documents of the 24th and zstt c.IJ#:k',ir",Y,:'t'$tlL enriching this- in great project-the building of comrnunism," said Leonid Brezh- development, is list content. ,t:t zXL The Fundamental Law of the Soviet Union codifies an accompanied by a growth in the ideological, moral and cultural o f: "The level of people this may lead, as was noted at rhe 25th CpSU S making C.ongress, to relapses into the philistine, petty-bourgeois mentality. s ral and That very same mentality that is today the rnain source of the a cultural spiritual poverty of the capitalist world. level" (Art, 27). The great attention paid by the Party and the A social requirernent of our life-and in this we see one of the government to literature and art, a priceless heritage. of the past, manifestations of the objective laws of mature socialism-is that io Soviet society's spiritual wealth is determined, in the final the more we concern ourselves with the question of our .,daily analysis, by the fact that the individual and his requirements are bread", the rnore should we concern ourselves with the entiri the focus of the whole of our social develoPment' complex of The course As is generally known, a new historical community of people, a towards sh under de- single Soviet people, took shape in our country during the years of veloped soc attention to socialist and iommunist construction. This still further extended the moral deal differs the intellectual horizons of society. According to UNESCO data, qualitatively from the spiritually shallow ideals of the so-cailed the Soviet readers are the most avid readers in the world. More consumer society. Soviet people go to cinernas, concerts, theatres and museums than citizens of any other country. In 1976 alone, 133 million people visited 1,323 museums of the country. Over 25 million-every .l<+r* tenth citizen-are involved in artistic activities. people began to take an active . Man's spiritual world is essentially his world outlook, the rvay the creators of cultural value he answers the basic questions of hnman existence. And his world report "The Great October '. "A new, socialist intelligents from the midst of the people, and has brought fame arld glory to their country with ou ts in science, technolo- gy, literature and art. st minds in history had dreamed of, the histo and culture, has taken place, In the history of our countrJ, in the history of world iulture, this marks an event of tremendous significance."4 A fundamental feature of the present stage of our social development, spelt out in the decisions of the 25th Congress of developed socialist society is indivisible. It unites at different levels, the Party and recorded in the new Constitution, is that the naturally, and in different forms, both the answers to the cardinal enormous opportunities of the new system are ever more fully questions of the human spirit and the vast reservoir of hurnan being used to raise the standard of living, to satisfy both the individual draws his spiritual wealth. material and spiritual requirements of Soviet people. The funda- determining man's spiritual world in mental difference between the developed socialist society built in ommunism, the theory and practice of the USSR and the so-called consumer society lies not only in the fact that the latter concerns itself primarily with the well-being of the select few rvhereas Soviet society concerns itself with the well-being of everyone, and everyone with the well-being of all. The fundamental difference lies also in the fact that for Soviet people- material well-being is not an aim in itself. This feature, sharp as a razar trlade, which separates the citizen from the philistine, socialism from the bourgeois consumer society, should always be borne in mind. If this feature is lost sight of, if the growth of material cpportunities will not constantly be

2U, 225 It is along this path that there is being overcome that scourge t>f mankind, engendered by the system of exploitation and oppression, which Marx called the alienation of man from society and from himself when for him work was merely a means of existence, a means of earning a livelihood. Under developed socialism, labour for an ever larger number of people is from a source of existence becorning a source of technical, social and, in the final analysis, historical creativity, a source of meaningful, inspired human existence, is becoming part of the life of the individual, an inner requirement. This is being accomplished not only by lightening labour rhrough mechanisation and automation, scientific and technological progress in its most diverse forms. Labour is becoming creative and meaningful thanks primarily to the deep-going social and democratic processes un- der way in society. The working man to an ever greater extent feels, as Lenin noted, "that he is not only the master in his own fac- tory but that he is also a representative of the country",6 regard- ing the interests of the factory, of the whole state, as his own. The unceasing concern shown by the Party for the development of socialist democracy, which has found such clear expression in the new Constitution of the USSR, and that everyone should be intere sted in the work that concerns the whole people and shoulder his share of responsibility for it, is yielding rich fruit not only political, but also spiritual and moral. This is the source of the spiritual wealth of the individual in the Marxist-Leninist understanding, The real spiritual wealth of the individual, Marx pointed out, wholly depends on the wealth of his basic relationships-active, revolutionary transforming labour relations with the world, with society, with people like himself. Relations in which the social, transforming nature of man most fully manifests itself. The Soviet citizen's increased civic social activity was seen during the countrywide discussion of the draft of the new Constitution. Ttris discussion still more clearly brought out the profound humanistic rneaning of the now widely known words of Leonid Brezhnev said at the 25th CPSU Congress: "Nothing adds so *<** much to the stature of the individual as an active attitude to life and a conscious approach to one's duty to society, when matching words and deeds becomes a rule of daily behaviour. It is the task of moral educalion to help people develop such an attitude."T This task is dialectically connected with the improvement of socialist democracy, with greater guaraniees for the working man to really feel himself a citizen. One and all-both the individual and society-are interested in the Soviet people acquiring a growing sense of being the masters of their own country, a sense of responsibility for augmenting its material and spiritual wealth.

,j26 The individual-because he sees in this the prospect for progress towards a life that is lofty, inspired, meaningful and truly creative. Society-because it sees in such a proprietary and highly moral attitude of the individual to work, to life, prompted by the SCIENTIFIC LIFE dictates of conscience, integrity and truth, even purely economic and material reserves for accelerating industrial progress. The Party constantly points out the importance of spiritual and moral factors for socio-economic progress. Such features as increasing responsibility, initiative, conscientiousness and intolerance of short- comings-"all belong to the moral and cultural sphere of the life and cannot be recorded in a plan or statistical report. of society BIRTHDAY But we know, and we have become convinced through our own ANNIVER.SARIES OF SOVIET SCIENTISTS IN 1978 experience, that these features of the communist character and communist consciousness possess an immense material force and are embodied in the increasing strength and wealth of our great By a decree of the Presidium of the Soviet Union to occupy a lead- Motherland, in the improvement of the well-being of the Soviet the USSR Supreme Soviet ing position in a number of divi- people, and in the growing defence potential of our Mother- Academician Anatoly Alexandrov, sions of atomic science, engineer- land." 8 President of the USSR Academy of ing and industry. Sciences, A conscious, moral attitude to one's work also helps to has been awarded the Since 1960, A.Alexandrov Order of Lenin for heads accomplish the tasks set by the December 1977 Plenary Meeting of his outstanding the Kurchatov Institute of Atomic services in the development and the CC CPSU of raising the efficiency of production and quality of Energy, USSR Academy of Sci- organisation Soviet of science, and ences, [Ie was elected member: work, of making rational use of the economic potential, of raising in connection of with his 75tlt the USSR Academy of Sciences in the productivity of labour and tighten the regime of economy. birthday. 1953 and in 1960 became a One of the main achievements of the six decades of the Soviet A. Alexandrov is a rlistinguished member of the Presidiurn of the state is the Soviet man-a man of the highest moral qualities and scientist in physics atomic and USSR Academy of Sciences where communist consciousness, social activity and readiness to fight for energetics whose works have re- he coordinated the activities of the and Party, the principles of ceived wide recognition the the interests of the people the for in USSR Academy of Sciences and Soviet Union and among good, truth and justice. This is our main social wealth. the world the academies of sciences the scientific community. of For many Llnion republics in the sphere of years now he has been directing NOTES research atornic science and engineering. In and development in November 1975, was elected I yol. atomic he K.Mo.*, Capital, IV, Moscow, 1968, p. ll8. science and engineering. President of the USSR Academy 2 'fhe of K. F. Engels, Worts, 42, p. 116 (in Russian). range of his scientific interests Mur* and Vol. is Sciences. 5 24th Congrro of the CFSU I97I, Nloscow, 1971, p. 100. extremely broad-nuclean a physics, solid-state physics, polymer A. Alexandrov's services to sci- L. I. Brezhnev, The Greal Acbber Relolution anil Human Progress, Moscow, 1977, physics. His researches in the elec- ence have been highly assessed by p. 7 (in Russian). the 5 trical properties of dielectrics, in Soviet state. He has three times V. I.Lenin, Collected Worfu, Moscow, Vol. l, p. 159. been awarded the u the theory of electric and mechani- title of Hero of Ibid., Yot. 27, p. 4oz. Socialist Labour and is a Lenin and 7 cal relaxation in high-polymeric L.LBrerhnev, Report of the CPSU Ceniral Committee and, the Im.med'iate Tasks of the materials and the theory of State prize laureate. in Home and Forei'gn Paltcy. 25th Congress of the CPSU, Moscow, 1976, p. 131 . Party polymer elasticity are widely A. Alexandrov is a foreign 8 L.LBrezhnev, Following Lenrn's Course, Ndoscow, 1975, p. 415, known. member of the Academies of Sci- Alexandrov's work connected ences of Bulgaria, Poland, Czechos- with theoretical and technical prob- lovakia and the GDR, of the Royal lems of nuclear energetics is of Swedish Academy of Engineering particular importance. The results Sciences and an honourary member achieved in this sphere under his ,""*arian Academy of Sci- scientific direction have enabled :lS.:

225 liedoseyev, Vice-President of the Deputy to the USSR Supreme Funda- heading the Chair of the LJSSR Academy of Sciences, for his Soviet, Chairman of the Commis- mentals of Radio Engineerrng rn ()utstanding services in the de- sion for People's Education, Sci- Institute By of the Moscow Energetics velopment of the social sciences, ence and Culture of the Soviet ol ce- and for the Past ten Years also the for his public and political Nationalities of the USSR SuPreme the in and of Chair of Eleitromagnetic Waves in connection with his Soviet, Chairman of the Board of Presi In- activities and Sciences, Academician Vladimir the Moscow PhYsico-Technical 70th birthday. the Soviet-Hungarian FriendshiP Kotelnikov, Hero of Socialist sdtute. P. Fedoseyev, Chairman of the Society. Labour, has been awarded the He Editorial Council of the "Social Fedoseyev is the author of many Order of Lenin and the second search Sciences Today" Editorial Board, is works, including the monograPhs: "Hammer and Sickle" gold rnedal scienti a distinguished Soviet scholar, a The Proilucti,le Forces and Producti'on ng services in the Since specialist in dialectical and histori- Relations in Socialist Soci.ety, The Soviet science and USSR AcademY of Sciences' Since cal materialism and in the theory Role ol the Popular Masses and, of tfu f scientists, and in 196?, head of the USSR AcademY of communist construction. He is Ind,i.uidual in History, Socialism and his 70th birthdaY' of Sciences' Council for the Auto' the author of profound studies in Humanism, Marxism and Voluntar- Investigations' V' Kotelnikov's mation of Scientific the methodology of Marxist- ism, V.I.Lenin anil Questiorts of the To commemorate been in labour exploits a bronze bust will For manv vears now he has Leninist philosophy, in theoretical Tkeory of Art, Communi.sm and, fot..usting an-d long- be erected in his home town' charge oi ih" problems of contemporarY social Philosophl (see review in our jour- belongs to the term" planning of scientific and development, sociology, in current nal No. 4, L972), Marxism in the V. Kotelnikov in the ealaxv of eminent Soviet scientists' technoiogical Progress problems relating to the building 20th Century" Marx, Engels, Lenin a wide colrntry. society and the and Our Age (see review in No. 4 of IIis siierrtific activities cover jour- of a communist He ii Editor-in-Chief of the education of the new rnan, to the our journal for 1973), The Dialectiu and nals Vestnih AN SSSR history of philosophy and to scien- of the Contemporary Epoch (see review is Radiotekhniha i elektronika and tific atheism. in No. 2 of our journal for 1977). Chairman of the USSR AcademY A full member of the Academy Social Sciences has carried a on of Sciences' Scientific Council of Sciences since 1960 Fedoseyev number of articles by P. Fedoseyev Radio AstronomY. carries on extensive scientific and treating of the main trends of in V. Kotelnikov is also active organisational work. He was Direc- research in the social sciences. of the His work The TheorY of Potential public life. He is Chairman tor of the Institute of Philosophy Many of the author's works have of the RSFSR since Noise Stabi,li$ brought him wide Srrp...t " Soviet of the USSR Academy of Sciences, been translated into foreign lan- is- a twice State Prize r973. Academic Secretary of the Depart- guages. farne, He the title laureate for his develoPment of In 1969, he was au'arded ment of Economics, Philosophy P. Fedoseyev has been elected an s)'stems during of Hero of Socialist Labour' and Law and subsequently of the honorary member of the Hun- new communication a foreign the Great Patriotic War. V' Kotel- V. Kotelnikov is Departrnent of Philosophy and garian Acaderny of Sciences, is a in the field of the member of the Polish and Czechos- Law of the USSR Academy of foreign member of the Bulgarian, nikov's ideas and of of weak signals served as lovak Academies of Sciences Sciences. In 1962, P. Fedoseyev was Polish and Czechoslovak reception'basis of the the for the emergence of a the AcademY of Sciences elected for the first time, and in Academies of Sciences and of the scientific trend-PlanetarY GDR. He is'an honorarY member 1971 for the second time, Vice- Academy of Sciences of the GDR' new Institute of Elec- radiolocation. For radiolocation in- of the American President of the USSR Academy of From 1973 to 1977, was Vice- Venus, Mars and trical and Electronics Engineers Sciences and Chairman of the So- President of the International So- vestigations of of the Meriury he was awarded a Lenin and Doctor Honoris Causa cial Sciences Section of the Pres- ciai Science Council. Prize in 1964. For fundamental Technical UniversitY of Prague' idiurn of the USSR Academy of researches in the theory of com- Sciences. He combines research 'X{'+ munication and radiolocation of **{' and organisational work with pub- the PoPov lic and political activities. He was By a decree of the Presidium of olanets he was awarded of bY the Presidium of Bv a decree of the Presidium Editor-in-Chief of the journals BoJ- the USSR Supreme Soviet bold Medai the title AcademY of Sciences' the USSR SuPreme Soviet sherik and Partiinaya zhizn. From Academician Boris Rybakov has the USSR Labour and V. Kotelnikov devotes much at- of Hero of Socialist 1967 to 1973-Director of the been awarded the title of Hero of and "Hammer tention to the training of scientific the Order of Lenin Institute of Marxism-L,eninism Socialist Labour and the Order of cadres. For more and Sickle" gold medal has been under the CC CPSU. He is now Lenin and "Hammer and Sickle" and engineering Academician Pyotr than thirty Years now he has been awarded 23I 230 gold medal for outstanding services awarded Lenin and USSR State irr-Chief of the newspaper Praudq A. Okhladnikov is the author of in archaeology and historical sci- Prizes and is President of the a member of the Editorial Board generalising studies in history of ence, in training scientific cadres USSR-Greece Society. of the journal Bolsheuik. For many primitive society and primitive cul- and in connection with his 70th years headed the [nstitute of Mar- ture, in Paleolithic and Neolithic birthday. xism-Leninism under the CC art, in the history of Siberia, the A prominent Soviet archaeolog- CPSU. Since 1967, a member of Soviet Far East and Far North ist, historian and public figure Academician Pyotr Pospelov has the Presidium of the USSR from ancient times up to the 18th Rybakov is a professor of Moscow been awarded the Order of Lenin, Academy of Sciences. century. Many of his works have State University (since i942), Di- by a decree of the Presidium of the been translated into foreign lan- rector of the Institute of Archaeol- USSR Supreme Soviet, for his ;{. rt * 8ua8es. ogy of the USSR Academy of long-standing public and political Ftre is a twice State Prize laureate . Sciences since 1956 and a member activities and for his services in the By a decree of the Presidium of Is a foreign member of the Mon- of the bureau of the History De- development of historical science the USSR Supreme Soviet the title golian Academy of Sciences, an partment of the USSR Academy of and in connection with his 80th of Hero of Socialist Labour, and honorary member of the Hun- Sciences. Ftre has been engaged in birthday. the Order of Lenin and "Hammer garian Academy of Sciences, a Cor- archaeological investigations since P. Pospelov is a prorninent Soviet and Sickle" gold medal, has beelr responding Member of the British 1932. Rybakov's main works are historian and public and political awarded Academician Alexei Ok- Academy and Doctor Honoris devoted to the socio-economic and figure. He has made a significant ladnikov for his outstanding services Causa of Poznan University (Po- political history of the Eastern contribution to the elaboration of in the development of archaeology land). Slavs and Old Rus, the history of major problems of Marxist-Leninist and historical science and in training {'*+ old Russian handicraft and culture, theory and history, has written specialists, and in connection with paganism, metrology, epigraphy, extensively on problems of the his 70th birthday. Academician Anatoli Yefimov, chronology, the epos, etc. He is the history of the CPSU, the history of Alexei Okladnikov, member of leading Soviet economist, speciaiist author of the following works: The the Great October Socialist Revolu- the Editorial Council of the "Social in problems concertring improve- Early Centu'ries of Russian Ftristory, tion and the building of socialism Sciences Today" Editorial Board, is ment of the organisation and plan- Cosmogany arril Mythology af the Cul- in the USSR. His works P'roblems of an eminent Soviet archaeologist, ning of socialist production, is 70. ti,uators al the Aeneolithic Age, "The ITistory, Lendnism-Marxism of the historian and ethnographer and a His name is closely associated with La4 of lgor's Campaign" and Its Cantemporary Epoch are widely member of the Presidium of the the establishment of the Research Ti,mes (see revierv iir No. 3 of our known. Fundamental researches on Siberian Division of the USSR Institute of Economics under the journal for 1973), Russian Chronic- the history of the CPSU, on the Academy of Sciences. Professor USSR State Planning Cornmittee lers and" the Author of "The Lay of problems of industrialisation, on and head of a chair at the whose director he was for over 20 Igor's Campaign", Russian Maps ol the history of the Great Patriotic Novosibirsk University since 1962. years. the lith-Early 16th Centuries Muscouy War and also a scientific biography Director of the Institute of History, Under his direction a series of (see review in No. 3 of our journal of Lenin were prepared and pub- Philology and Philosophy of the investigations were carried out to for 1976), Herodotw' Scythia. A lished under his direction, Siberian Division of the USSR develop methods of analysis and trIistorico -Geograpki,cal Analysis. ln 1972 the Presidium of the Academy of Sciences since 1966. planning of inter-sectoral ties and Many of B. Rybakov's articles USSR Academy of Sciences Has conducted field work in the sectorai structure of tlre nation- dealing r,r'ith the history of Old awarded its highest decoration in Siberia, the Soviet Far East, Central al economy, and the drawing up of Russian handicraft and paganism the social sciences, the Karl Marx Asia, Mongolia and in several other inter-branch balance sheets. This have appeared, in Social Sciences. Gold N4edal, to Pospelov for his countries. Discovered and studied: work was awarded a State Prize in B.Rybakov is a foreign member major contribution to the elabora- the remains of Neanderthal man 1968. Many of A.Yefimov's works of the Bulgarian, Polish and tion of current problems concern- and his culture in Uzbekistan, have been translated into foreign Czechoslovak Academies of Sci- i.g Marxist-Leninist thenry, the Paleolitic in the territory of Mon- languages. His researches con- ences, Doctor Hanoris Causa of history of the CPSU and to prob- golia, primitive cliff drawings on ducted over many years are Jagiellonian University in Cracow, lems of home history. the shores of the Lena and Angara generalised in his work The a member of the Executive Com- A Hero of Socialist Labour and rivers, in the Amur area and in Economics anil Planning of Souiet mittee of the International Union USSR State Prize laureate P. Pos- Mongolia. In 1974, headed a Ind,ustry. He was Editor-in-Chief of of Prehistoric and Protohistoric Sci- pelov combines research with ex- group of Soviet archaeologists in the fundamental three-volumed ences and of the trnternational tensive political, public and joint Soviet-American explorations Economi,c Encyclopaedi,a. Indwtry and Committee of Slavists. He has been pedagogical work. He was Editor- in the Aleutian Islands. Construction,

282 2!S At present A, Yefimov combined of the USSR AcademY of Sciences. Istoriya SSSR; is a member of the the Central Editorial Board of the scientific activity in the Research Is a State Prize laureate. Editoriai Board of the journal Vop- multivolumed lTistory of the CPSU. Institute of Economics with work B.Piotrovsky is a CorresPonding rosy istori,i, For a long period D. Kukin was in the bureau of the Economics Member of the Bavarian AcademY M. Kim heads the HistorY of Deputy Director of the Institute of Section of the USSR AcademY of of Sciences, of the British Academy Soviet Society Department and the Marxism-Leninism under the CC Sciences, of which he is a member. and of the Acad6mie des InscriP- Sector of Soviet Culture in the CPSU; for over 30 years now, a tions et Belles-Lettres (France), is Institute of the History of the USSR, professor of the Academy of Social Doctor Honoris Causa of the Uni- Sciences ,:. CC CPSU. USSR Academy of Sciences, is ""0.: versity of Delhi and of Charles chairman of the USSR AcademY's Academician Boris PiotrovskY, University (Prague), and a member Scientific Council "The History of distinguished archaeologist and his- of a number of foreign scientific Socialist and Communist Construc- Vladimir Pashuto, CorresPond- torian of culture, member of the societies and institutions. tion in the [ISSR", professor of the ing Member of the IISSR AcademY Editorial Council of the "Social Academy of Social Sciences under of Sciences, is 60. He is specialist in Sciences Today" Editorial Board, is {. i( ,k the CC CPSU. the history of the USSR relating to 70. His researches laid the begin- the period of feudalism, in the ning of the develoPment of an Maxim Kim, CorresPonding *,1.* history of the foreign policY of entirely new division of historical Member of the USSR AcademY of Russia in the pre-revolutionarY science, that of UrartologY. The Sciences, noted Soviet historian, is Dmitri Kukin, CorresPonding period, in source studies and his- archaeological investigarions car- 70. The scope of his scientific Member of the USSR AcademY of ioriography. To his pen belong ried out under his guidance in the interests is very broad as also the Sciences, is 70. He is the author of many scholarly works, including 13 territory of Armenia and later of n the monographs, of which the most Egypt and of several other coun- e his- notable are Es.says on the History of trieJ hav. greatly enriched science" works Gali*ko-Volynshaya Rus, Alexander His works on the historY of the icy of culture of the Ancient East and the CPSU, its organising activities Transcaucasia-Kamir'Biur, The in the years of the Great Patriotic History anil Culturo Urartu, the Soviet working class, the collec- War, in the postwar period' He has Scythians in Transcaucasi,a-have"f tive-farm peasantry and the Soviet written on the historic significance ists- Pseuilo-Historians orf Russia. In been translated into manY foreign intelligentsia, of the socialist trans- of the Second Congress of the these monographs and also in a languages. formations in the USSR and na- Russian Social-Democratic Labour number of articles Pashuto has the In his works of recent Years (On tional-state construction in Party, on the leading role of the elaborated a set of theoretical and the Soviet USSR, the formation of Party in the period of the PrePara- specific questions relating to the people as a new historical com- tion for and the carrying out of the formation of early feudal societies munity, the history of the cultural Great October Socialist Revolution. and states and their evolution in revolution in the USSR, Problems the epoch of developed feudalism, of Soviet culture. His fundamental as well as a comParative-tyPological works include: The Communist characteristic of the said Processes. the author makes an attemPt to Farty-Organiser of the Cultural Re- His writings have been Published identify and investigate the general uolution in the tlSSR, 40 Years of lems of sociaiist construction. In in foreign languages. laws of the historico-cultural Sotiet Culture, Historl and, Commun' recent years he has been centering V. Pashuto is the author and ism, The Sottiet PeoPle-a Neu His- editor of .Essals o/ the History of the -Process. his attention on the elaboration of Since 1964, Director of the State torrcal Community of People. Fonna- problems of develoPed socialism. USSR. Period, of Feud.alism 9th-14th Hermitage Museuml since 1966' tr,on and, DerteloPment. ManY of his Ma.ry of his books have been Ceniuries, of the multivolumed His- head of ihe Chair of the HistorY of works have been translated into translated into foreign languages. tory of the USSR, World, HistorY and' the Ancient East, Leningrad State foreign languages' D. Kukin is a member of the of textbooks for higher schools. University. Is Chairman of the M. Kim is the initiator of the editorial boards of many scientific V. Pashuto heads the Sector of USSR Academy of Sciences' Scien- nublication and editor-in-chief of and political journals, of mul- the History of Ancient States in the tific Council "The HistorY of i-rrr*.ror. collective works and tivolumed publications on the his- Territory of the USSR, Institute of World Culture" and a member of multivolumed publications. He was tory of the CPSU and the historY the History of the USSR, USSR rhe bureau of the HistorY Section the first editor of the journal of the USSR, is Vice-Chairman of Academy of Sciences. N 235 Today" Editorial Board, a disting- the history of late antiquity, is 60. Transition from One Socio- uished Soviet orientalist, a specialist Her works include a Iarge number Economic Formation to Another", Alexander Samsonov, Corres- in the history of international rela- of studies into general theoretical Professor of the Chair of the Mid- ponding Member of the USSR tions, and diplomat, is 60. He is problems of feudalism, the socio- dle Ages of the History Depart- Academy of Sciences, eminent widely known for his researches in economic and political history of ment of Moscow State University, Soviet historian who has made a the history of China, of Russian; Byzantium and of the countries of Editor-in-Chief of the yearbook significant coritribution to research Chinese and Soviet.Chinese rela- South-East Europe, as well as Vizanti.isky arernennik and of the into current problems of home tions, the foreign policy and inter- studies into problerns of ideology journal Vestni,k dreunei istorii, history, is 60. His main area of national relations of China. Is the and culture and historiography. Chairman of the Russian Palestine research is the history of the Great author of many scholarly works She is the author of 13 chapters in Society. Patriotic War. A veteran of that and publication, and also the editor the collective work A History of Z. Udaltsova is Vice-President of war Samsonov devoted his first of monographs on these subjects, Bgzantium, of the monographs the International Association of monograph, From the Volga to the including Mod,em lli,story of China. Souiet Blzantine Studies Duri.ng 50 Byzantine Studies, foreign member Baltics" to the army corps in which S. Tikhvinsky is Deputy Years, Ideological and, Political Stiag- of the Scientific Committee of the he served, His fundamental works Academic Secretary of the History gle in Early Byzantium (Accord,i.ng to International Center for Research include The Great Battle of Moscow Section of the USSR Academy of Data of Historians of the 4th-7th in the History of Byzantium Cul- and, trts Militarl-Political Si,gni.ficance ; Science, first Vice-Chairman of the Centuries). Her works have been ture in Southern Italy (Bari). The Great Battle of Moscou. 1941- National Committee of Historians translated into foreign languages. 1942; The Collapse of Fasci.st Aggres- of the Soviet Union, Vice- Z. Udaltsova combines her wide- *** sion. His history of the battle of Chairman of the USSR Academy ranging research work with organ- Stalingrad occupies a special place of Sciences' Scientific Council "His- isational, pedagogical and public The Editorial Council, Editorial in his creative biography. His fun- tory of the Foreign Policy of the activities. She heads the History of Board and staff of "Social Sciences damental work lhe Battle of Stalin- USSR and International Rela- Byzantium Sector in the Institute Today" warmly congratulate the gratl. From Defence and Retreal to the tions", Editor-in-Chief 'rf the jour- of World History, USSR Academy Soviet scientists on the occasion of Great Victory on the Volga received nals Nouaya and, noueishaya istoriya of Sciences, is Vice-Chairman of their birthday anniversaries and high appraisal. .A,. Samsonov's and. Kitayeaeileniye. the ^Academy of Sciences' Scientific wish them good health and new works are translated into many He successfully combines scien- Council "The Objective Laws of creative achievements in their foreign languages. tific work with diplomatic. For Social Development and of the noble work for the good of science. For nearly ten years the Director many years held important posts in of the USSR Academy of Sciences Soviet representations in China, Publishers (now the Nauka Pub- Great Britain and Japan. At pres- Iishers), A. Samsonov was the in- ent S.Tikhvinsky is Chief of the THE "LtrTERARY MONUMENTS'' SERIES itiator and scientific editor of the Historico-Diplomatic Department series 'fhe Seconil Workl War in of the USSR Ministry of Foreign The "Literary Monuments" Trauels Across Tkree Saas by Afan- Researches, Rerniniscentes and, Docu- Affairs, member of the Collegium series was founded in 1948 on the asy Nikitin. In 1947, he invited two menw, the publication of which (90 of the USSR Ministry of Foreign initiative of Sergei Vavilov, the eminent Russian historians, books) greatly enriched the his- Affairs. Holds the rank of Ambas- then President of the trSSR Academician B. Grekov and V. Ad- toriography of the Second World sador Extraordinary and Minister Acaderny of Sciences, He conceived rianova-Perets, Corresponding War. Plenipotentiary of the USSR. For it as wide-ranging series of "rnonu- Member of the USSR Academy of A. Samsonov is Editor-in-Chief of six years was a member of the mental" works meant to meet the Sciences, to prepare the volume, the journal Historical Transactions, UNESCO Executive Council from growing intellectual interests of the and they, in turn, enlisted the and Deputy Chairman of the Editor- the Soviet Union" Soviet reader and appearing under assistance of orientalists and ar- ial Board of the series "Literary the Acaderny's imprimature. The chaeographers I. Petrushevskv, Monurnents".* texts would be carefully checked B.Rornanov and N.Chayev. The * * for authenticity and provided with book came out in 1948, in a Zinaida Udaltsova, Correspond- thoroughly researched comrnen- remarkably short time, considering Sergei Tikhvinsky, Correspond- ing Member of the USSR Academy taries and notes. The volumes the cornplications of the early post- ing Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences, a specialist in the would appear at brief intervals. war period. There thus began a of Sciences, member of the Editori- history of the Middle Ages, in And Academician Vavilov unique venture in publishing and al Council of the "Social Sciences Byzantium and Slav history and in selected the inaugural volume, in literary studies.

286 The Trartek contained the Old such immense damage to material not only "peaceful assimilation" of ry, the historian M. RadovskY, Russian text, a translation into and cultural values. It was in this world culture, but also the no less Cand.Sc.(Hist.). But as time went modern Russian and several arti- situation that the Academy decided important cause of enriching the on, and as more books were being cles on the author and the book's to issue a series of books contain- world's literary exPerience and prepared, it became necessary to background. The second volume, ing the literary values of all the broadening intellectual perception. appoint an editorial board com- likewise published in 1948, was oeooles of the world. That is one The Russian classics hold an posed of specialists in various li in" series' most important dis- place in the series' And fields. The first scientific secretary, -Julius Caes important They se all tinguishing features-it is opposed that is understandable, for the Radovsky, was succeeded bY the subsequent ed to all national exclusiveness, treats books are meant primarilY for present holder of the Post, D. Oz- to give all les of the cultural morruments of dif- readers in our country and for nobishin, D.Sc.(Hist.). Other his- and cornm xt, ePochs. It was Russian readers in other countries. torians, too, have joined the editor- and not to treat different questions horne to the But we make a point of selecting ial board. in a single article but rather in mankind's cul- Russian classics that provide a sa- The time came when the Presi several shorter ones. The uniform tural development, its common lient picture of the national dent of the AcadernY could no structure worked out for the Com- heritage. The "LiterarY Monu- specifics of Russian literature and longer handle the project alone. and mentaries linked them closer to the *e.rtsn are internationalist its respect for other peoples (Bot- The Academy's Vice-President, then text. All this was codified in a set humanistic by their verY nature. kin's Letters fram SPain, The Trauek Academician Volgin, was of rules drafted under the supervi- The choice of Trawls Across o.f Russian Ambassadors, Orlov's TIre placed at the head of the Editorial sion of Academician Volgin. TheY Threa Seas was significant in this Surrmd,er of Paris, Tolstoy's Cossacks, Board and upon his death was have been faithfully followed over resPect, for it is a veritable monu- A.Turgenev's Diaries of a Russian, succeeded first by Academician me.rt to friendtY intercourse of Alexand,ria).Future volurnes will in- Konrad and then by the Present countries, to the friendlY and re- clude Karamzin's Letters of a Rus- head of the Editorial Board, the spectful attitude of one of the first sian Tra ov's The Fri.- author of this article. Europeans to visit India, a country gate 'iPa New DescriP' Each succeeding Chairman of then totally unknown to Russia. All tions of and Letters the Editorial Board, working in col- the "Monuments" are, in a waY, from the Bosphorw. close cooperation with his book. He wants much more, he "travels" to new countries,for they The "Literary Monuments" leagues, extended the Project wants to understand its meaning bring the reader into contact with should not be seen as an antholo- begun by Academician Vavilov. In and implications, its historY, its the literature of other nations. gy, still .less as a chrestomathy, but this respect, a very important con- author, the situation in which it They serve the cause of Peace. iather as the "material" embodi- tribution was made by Academician things, was written, its literary and cultural That cause, the Promotion of ment of the world Iiterary process' Konrad, who, among other background. In short, he wants the mutual understanding and closer as a m€ans of cultivating in the was the first to theoretically con- auth;ntic scientificallY checked knowledge of the literature of reader resPect for all PeoPles and ceptualise the series in an article text, with detailed and readable other nations, is Promoted bY our all epochs and their literary values, published in 1967 and in another, commentaries. In this we have a own, Russian, "LiterarY Monu- which have retained all their im- written with D. Likhachev, in 1973' reflection not onlY of the higher ments" provided with articles em- porrance for our own and future Our aim of giving the reader level of our reader, but also the phasising and explaining their_.in- generations. researched monumental works respect shown him bY the scholals iernationalist essence and impiica- Ours is a project that covers from all parts of the world in their who are investing so much effort tions. (In this context, we attach more than thirtY centuries of national and historical aspects, has into the "LiterarY Monuments". special importance to articles that human culture. It gives the reader been consistently Pursued but, been Of cour'se, not every reader is so help evaluate foreign literarY a feeling of appreciation for all needless to say, there have (exactingness increases mo.r.rmettts bY the Russian reader that man has created, and not onlY mistakes and miscalculations. Not exacting in with the cultural level), but the fact and testify to the interest displayed in one country or bY one PeoPle, all the countries are represented that there are so manY soPhisti- in Russian culture abroad.) but demonstrates the magnificent our series and it is hard to say cated readers had to be taken into 'fhe "Literary Monuments" have advance of the peoples as they wherr this will be achieved. For rhe account by the AcadernY. done much to bring together the carried forward the banners of task is a formidable one, requiring It is in a way significant that the culture of diverse nations into a their culture, their finest works of the collaboration of leading special- idea of putting out the "LiterarY single whole, thereby contributing literature. ists on all the literatures of the Monuments" came after the Great to internationalism, and not only in Academician Vavilov was at world. We cannot even say that the Patriotic War, which had caused its cultr,rral aspects. This facilitates first assisted only bY a secreta- series covers all the continents-

2t8 are still too few books from with a Russian translation, and scientific publications in this and (published in 1964), Poem of the Cid, there othcr South America and Africa and these are detailed explanatory countries. (1959), The Gilgamesh Epic (1961), none from Australia and New Zea- notes and a map showing Sof- What do we understand by the The Elder Edda (1965), The Younger land. More serious still are our roniy's travels through the country. ternr "literary monument"? There Edda (1970), to name a few titles is no one-dimensional shortcomings in historical aspect of This way the Bulgarian reader answer. First out of a longer list. Russian titles the project. received a photostat copy of the of all, we must reckon with the include The Tales of llya Mu,romets changing conceptions It is only logical that the "Liter- manuscript. and also aids to its of literature (1958), Dobrynya Nikitich and as a whole. should be addres- reading. The same method was There is a period in the Alyasha Popoaich (1974). ary Monumentsl' history primarily the Soviet reader applied to Adam Mickiewicz's of every culture in which As noted above, we concentrate sed to literature gain authentic and Sonets, a monument of Polish and was not yet an indepen- mainly on the classics. But an who wants to dent knowledge of all Russian literature, first published field of endeavour, a period, understanding of literatures in all comprehensive short, that is best in the literature of the in Polish in Moscow in 1826. We in when Iiterature had not their geographical and historical yet become world. On the other hand, we must decided to reproduce the original conscious of itself as aspects requires going beyond the literature. That was reckon with the fact that skilled Moscow edition in full, followed by so, to cite one classics. And we have been doing historians of a number of translations into Rus- example, in Russia up to the lTth that by including in our serie: such specialists, translators, century. literature etc., are not always readi- sian. This enables the Polish and This period-it lasted Russian almanacs as The Polar Star, more than six centuries-literature ly available, and those that are, Russian reader not only to trace The Physi,alogl of Petersburg which was part of civil religious are not always able to spare the time. and study the different approaches or writ- have become landmarks in the ing, which, however, included ele- can there be, of the translators, but also ap- history of Russian literature. In There are no, nor ments rigid rules for the publication of preciate the love and attention what we novr call literature. response to requests we have pub- Our "Literary Monuments" con- lished a cycle of Ietters that helped the literary works of different Mickiewicz's Sonets have enjoyed in tain countries, periods and genres. In Russia since their publication I50 texts that do not, strictly reader understand the develop- speaking, come within the category ment of one or another author or some cases we need only one exp- years ago. .of "literature": ianatory article, in others we need Some our books, notably first the reports, for literary period, In this category example, Russian several. Some books require not editions, have made a substantial of Ambassadors belong such works as the corres- which we published separate only the literary, but also historical, contiibution to science bY rePro- in a pondence between Dostoyevsky volume 1954, were "literary and textological interpre- ducing all the best known original in not and his wife, Anna (1976). But we linguistic monuments" texts. It can be said that orientation in our understanding avoid collections or anthologies un- tation (if the history of the text the cannot be comtrined with literary on the exacting reader has stimu- of term. But their interesting less they belong to some noted I descriptions of what seen other cases we print lated more thoroughly to research they had author (Charles Perrault, Hans i criticisrn). In in various the text in the language of the and this in iome instances led to countries and of the Christian Andersen, Afanasyev) negotiations they conducted, original and in translation. Ancient scientific discoveries and new in- and are united by a single theme. played an outstanding part in the The very word "monument" ./'Russian texts are given in the Old terpietations. Our books are Pub- and modern Russian, the latter lished for so-called slorv reading, emergence of Russian literature of evokes memories of the past, the 16th and lTth centuries. The memories that are relevant serving as a commentary to . the the heuristic importance of which to our term "literature" usuaily refers to (see, instance, Pouest are- was first elaborated in Russian tirne. Accordingly, one of the text for written works, mennlkh let-A Tale of Bygone philology by Academician ShcherLa but we have pub- criteria in selecting works for our lished also folklore-in an series Years-the l2th-century Russian on the basis of the ideas enun- facr, was their importance for our com- by Potebnya. entire cycle of folklore and re- time, our cultural development. chronicle). Some of the more ciated corded require special atten- Flowever it has not all been oral verse and prose of For it is not our prlrpose to repub- plex editions various tion. One example is the Lit'e of smooth sailing. There have been times and regions. Folklore lish old editions, though mosr of played a prime the or.lr Solronfi VTathansky, a rnonument of defects and shortcomings, but theY role in books are not "first editions". emergence literature has Renaissance and a are corrected in the new editions. of and And so, we are putting out old the Bulgarian been landmark in the development of The Editorial Board is greatly in- the cornpanion of liter.ature "monuments", but all of them We to Soviet and world philolo- throughout its developmenr; a rela- have something new; either a new, the Bulgarian language. debted tionship a photostat nf the original gy for the many critical reviews from which both have fuller and more scientifically re- printed benefited, which is in the Leningrad State and summaries that have appeared searched and interpreted text, or a Library and a self-portrait in various journals. In fact, our That is why we have inclutled new translation (if the old one Public tl-re great folklore the author in colour'. The Bul- "Monuments" have served as a of the feudal proved not entirely satisfactory) or of period, such as The garian text is printed side by side basis for a number of popular and Song af Raland, new commentaries that comple-

940 241 ment the text, etc. we want every not include works of modern liter- they existed. The Soviet members of which still had remains of food. of ar- new book to be a "cultural event," ature. This has to be stressed the expedition included Amidst the human graves there duPli- chaeologists Moscow, even if not alwaYs a major one' because our series must not from were burials of rams. In one of The question of translations is cate the work of other Publishing Ashkhabad, Dushanbe and Tash- these burials along with the skele- one of the rnost comPlicated' I organisations, the Sovetsky pisatel, ken t. ton of a ram there was a clay pot have already mentioned the fact foi instance, or Khudozhestven- The expedition has conducted with the rib of another ram. The that in some cases we give the naya literatura Publishers. In this field work annually since 1969, and pot was evidently uscd in a rite original text (Old Russian, Bul- context, mention has to be made of the following is a brief survey of its reqtriring sacrificial food as in the Latin or our inclusion in the series of Alex- results. case of human burials. saiiat, Polish, sometimes Amidst 6reek) accompanied bY a Russian ander TvardovskY's narrative Poem the sands extending Two monumental structures in along Amu (Dashli translation. But as a rule we give Vasi.\ Tyorkin. We Put it out the left bank of the III) were dug up near thjs Darya, A. (Moscow), onlv the Russian translation, or 1975- for the 30th anniversarY of Vinogradov settlement. One of them, a rectan- who specialises (84 ."rlral translations. What is our the Victory over fascism. BeYond in Stone Age ar- gular structure x 88 metres) criterion of selection? There are all doubt, it is a literary monument chaeology, discovered several an- with a large courtyard in the mid- about the principles of our tirnes, of the Great Patriotic cient camping sites with Paleolithic, dle, numerous rooms, halls, and different views it Mesolithic, of translation and there are many War. Written during the war, and Early Neolithic corridors, might have been soldier stone implements. finds palace. has ^ schools of translation. We do not was on the liPs of everY These It a wall and a moat fighting in defence of his Mother- make it certain that man appeared that held water in antiquity. The Una. ti is not a poem "about" the I in these areas at least 30,000 years moat is up to ten metres wide and soldier, but a poem of the soldier, ago. three metres deep. The second and, undoubtedly, the most PoPu- Between the towns of Andkhoy structure was circular with nine Iar pie and Khulm V. Sarianidi (Moscow), towers linked by a passage. It had is why who specialises in Bronze Age ar- many rooms and a wall forming a chaeology, discovered oases new translations where there are Vasily four square and having a total length of ranks that were densely peopled in an- over half a kilometre. In front of and heroic monuments of world cient times. In the Second Millen- the wall there was a deep ditch. literature. niurn B.C. these were flourishing The central circular building had Much time will Pass before all settlements of land-tillers and pot- high clay altars shaped as fire- the written and oral literature of ters, with villages surrounded with places. This was possibly a fire the world finds its Place in our sunbaked brick walls and large temple. These two monumental books. But we can confidentlY saY circular towers, and rnonumental buildings were the administrative that the aim we have set ourselves cult structures. The Iargest excava- and cult centre of a large agricul- will be attained. tions were conducted east of the tural-artisan district of a Bronze town of Akcha. A square fortified Age oasis. Academician settlement christened Dashli I by Surveys near the town of Shibar- Likhachev archaeologists, discovered ghan produced evidence that new for the rnodern reader, but theY d,-; D. was there under a small sandhill. Its tribes penetrated this area at the defensive walls were three metres close the Second the begin- ARCHAEOTOGICAL EXPEDITION of or SOVIET.AFGHAN thick, and the corner towers had a ning of the First Millennium B.C.; this ir diameter of six metres. The entire a feature distinguishing them is A joint archaeological expedition'by mplish 'o.gu"i."a in 1969 the ar- space within the walls was filled their use of painted pottery. They *uu 9ond,111 with dwellings of Archaeology of th. in presently with interesting clay covered their clay vessels with di- f.r.titrrt.' stones-fire-places the smoke from verse geometrical Academy of Sciences and were vrrgln drawings in black USSR which passed through pipes the General Directorate for Ar- ground for archaeologists and in and red. Excavations in one of the walls. In the latter the Tillya-tepe, .tu.otogy ?r:d Conservation of t-hereby reconstruct the history of half of their settlements, Historical Monuments of the the human settlement of these Second Millennium B.C. the settle- brought to light a thick clay wall areas. It was necessary to excavate ment was abandoned and the ruins surrounding a settlement sited on a sites dating to different epochs in of the houses were turned into a high artificial clay platform. Settle- order to learn when ancient settle- graveyard. The graves contained a ments with tlie sirnilar-type painted ments sPrang uP and how long large number of clay vessels, many pottery are known in Turkmenia

248 242 and in Iranian Khorasan. But this vated in full. The two small eleva- yielded additional material in sup- new towers, and thicken and re- is the first time that Powerful tions in a desert hiding the ruins o{ port of that assumption. A temple structure the walls. The latest re- fortifications have been found these palaces were called Altin-IO. with frescoes portraying the Dios- pairs on these walls date from the around settlements of tribes rnan- One of the palaces, a rectangular curi, the Greek divine twins, was last Kushan kings, while after the ufacturing this type of Painted building with a colonnade along its discovered in Dilberjin. This tem- town's conquest by the Sassanides bY fire. It is pottery.- walls, was destroyed ple was rebuilt in the lst Century in the 3rd Century A.D. the walls Extremely interesting relics of a not to be excluded that it was A. C. and converted into a dynastic and towns slowly fell into disrepair. later historical period have been razed by fire during the Greco- temple of Kushan kings, One more Life in the town ceased gradually found. It is known that Bactria, Macedonian invasion of Bactria temple, built in the reign of the under the Ephthalites in the 5th which was situated in Northern The second palace was a squar( first Kushan king, was possibly Century. Afghanistan in the mid-First Mil- building with a courtYard in the linked with the cult of the goddess In Dilberjin, the most important lennium 8.C., was part of the vast middle, a corridor running round Arrahit. Ther"e was also a Buddhist discoveries of the $oviet-Afghan Persian dominions of the it with 27 rooms symmetricallY tempie and a complex of cult expedition includes a marble slab Achaemenides and paid rich tri- situated along its perimeter. structures with wall paintings of with remnants of a monumental bute to the Persian king. Darir.rs Considerable significance is at- various cleities of the local panth- inscription dating from the famous lII, the last of the Achaemenides tached to the discovery of the fire eon and temporal personages. Ex- Kushan King Kanishka made in kings, was defeated in 331 B'C. bY temple bv the Tashkent ar- cavations of the town's main gates the Bactrian language. This unique Alexander the Great, and Greco- chaeologist Z. Khakimov in a desert and keeper structures brought to inscription may be compared with Macedonian trooPs overran Bac- east of Altin-Diliar in 1977. In the I light a soldiers' temple with a the celebrated inscription in Surkh tria. The many settlements, for- temple, a srnall rectangular struc- sculptrrre of the Greek hero and Kotal, whose discovery gave scho- altars, tified towns, temples, and Palaces ture, there were several fire god Fleracles. The defensive walls lars their first glimpse of the Bac- discovered by the exPedition be- one of which, very large with claY of the town were more than 8.5 trian written language, The many tween the towns of Akcha and walls and standing on a high Plat- metres high. The defensive walls frescoes that have been discovered Daulatabad date from Achae- form, was found in one of the far around the citadel in the centre of indicate that there was a local menides times. rooms. Legend links Zarathustra, the town were even higher. The school of painting. The alternation Some features of Bactrian ar- founder of Masdaism, who lived in oldest of these walls were built in of subjects in the paintings of chitecture and fortification of the the ?th or 6th Century B'C., with Achaemenides times, The first de- different periods is evidence of the Achaemenides epoch have been Bactria. However, no fire temPle Iensive walls of the town itseif were change of religious cults brought identified by the exPedition. The dating built later, under the Greco- by new rulers. The small and large evidence of excavations in two cir- found Bactrian king Eucratid in the 2nd sculptures that have been found cular buildings (Kutlug-tePe and The Century B.C. Their partial destruc- show that there was a flourishing Akbar-tepb) situated far from each erable 'tion made the Kushan rulers, who art culture in the town. other and at a distance frorn the town dating from Greco-Bactrian seized the town after the fall of the Dashli-trIl temple is that the ancient and Kushan times, i'e', the last few Greco-Bactrian kingdom, renew Bactriair architectural tradition of centuries B.C. and the first half of the fortifications repeatedly, build I. Kruglikova erecting circular buildings was long- the lst Century A.D., whose ruins Iived. There was a circular lay-out were discovered near the village of also in the Achaemenides town of Dilberjin 70 kilornetres northlvest Altin-Diliar (near the village of of the town of Balkh (ancient Farukhabad), and in the later town Bactr-the chief town of Bacria). of Emshi-tepe (near the town of l\rchaeologists have called this Shibarghan), which existed until town Dilberjin, after the narne of the 4th-5th Ccnturies A.D. the nearest village. Its monurnental Prior to the work of the Soviet- walls and Iarge size lead to the Afghan expedition no rnonurnents assumption that it lvas a large were known of the Achaemenides Greco-Eactrian toIAn, perhaps Euc- period in Afghanistan. TodaY ar- ratidea, wtrich is mentioned bY the ihaeologists have studied extremely Greek geographers Strabo and interesting structures. Of these two Ptolemy. Further excavations bY suburban palaces have been exca- the Soviet-Afghan expedition have

244 for the correlation of social forces tion of forces in our time is to a Cangresses - Conferences.Sy*Fosiums concept. Such attempts, he said, tremendous extent determined by reflect the desire to perpetuate the the unity, cohesion and coopera- transitional state of human society tion of all the elements of which it and, consequently, the capitalist consists on the two opposing sides. system on a considerable part of Consequently, the internationalist the globe. slogans of the Manifesto assume Marxist-Leninists proceed from today a still greater significance the fact that the correlation of than 130 years ago. social forces is only one of the T. Timofeyev clevoted his report indicators determining the progres- "The Manifesto of Scientific Com- sive development of society, the munism and the Present-day Re- rates and course of social progress. Working-Class Move- THE ISOTH ANNIVER.SARY OT TIIE COMMUNIST MANIFESTO volutionary Changes in the correlation of ment" to some methodological forces depend on many objective problems and trends in the studies intensification of factors, on the of the international working-class the internal contradictions of and communist movement, in par- A scientific session "Current in our country, which ensured the capitalist society, the manifestation Problems of ttie Development of conditions for a new and higher ticular to the growing trend to- of the advantages of socialism, and wards an interdisciplinary ap- the World Communist and Work- type of civilisation. the struggle of the popular masses. ing-Class Movement" was held in The main report "International- proach to the study of the work- And to stop the development of ing-class movement and the February 1978 in Moscow to mark ism of the Working-Class Move- impossible. these processes is reasons for this. He noted that this the 130th Anniversary of the Com- ment and Correlation of the Class at the The speaker noted that was to be observed not only in the muni,st Manifesio by K. Marx and Forces in the World Today" was present stage of world develoP- Zagladin. USSR but also, in varied specific F. Engels. The Session was spon- presented by Professor V. forces is a ment the correlation of forms, in other countries as well. sored by the USSR Academy of He emphasised that in the Manifes- global category, a universal one Sciences' Scientific Council on the to, Marx and Engels formulated both in the geographical and social The methodological problems of mankind's Integrated Proliqm "The History the conclusion about sense. It is of a complex nature as the study of the international of .!he International Working-Class transition in the epoch of capital- it embraces not only the material working-class movement were also and National Liberation Move- ism from development on a local (military, economic) sphere, but discussed in a number of other ments", the Scien..ific Council of scale to development on a the ideological sphere, which is reports: "The Working Class-the for also the Institute of the International worldwide scale, and, thereby, a direct result of the continr.lous Vanguard Fighter for Democracy: Working-Class Movpment of the the first time raised the question of internationalisation of social life. At Traditions and Our T'ime" by forces USSR Academy of Sciences jointly the correlation of the class the same time this category is not B. Koval, "The Historic Mission of with the Moscow State University of the bourgeoisie and of the static but dynamic, for each given the Working Class and the Prob- and a number of other scientific proletariat on an international correlation of forces is a result of lems of Studying the Political Be- " was harmonious concept or$anisations. scale. It a struggie, the activities of a haviour o{ the Proletariat" by for the In his opening speech the Vice- of the working class' struggle great number of opposed forces. A. Galkin, "The Communi,st lulan- Chairman of the Scientific Council the uhity of all revolutionary and That is why today the correlation ifesto on the Proletariat's Historic and Director of the Institute of the democratic forces in the struggle of forces concept includes the poli- Mission and the Working Class of International Working-Class Move- against the rule of the bourgeoisie, cy and the initiative of world social- Existing Socialism" by E. Klopov, ment, T. Timofeyev, Correspond- a concept of international solidarity ism, of the forces of the working- "Some Methodological Problems of ideas and principles ing Member of the USSR Academy inspired by the class and national liberation move- Studying Proletarian International- of Sciences, noted that the theory of proletarian internationalism. ments, which ensure the continuity ism at the Present Stage" by of scientific socialism and the prin- In this connection, the speaker of the struggle and the further V. Borzunov. These rePorts ciples of th€ strategy and tactics of criticised the attempts by bourgeois I preponderance of forces in favour showed once again the heightened the Communists substantiated by and opportunist ideologists to sub- Soviet scholars in the 1 of the camp of peace, democracy interest of r:f maintain- the founders of Marxism in that stantiate the necessity and social progress. methodological problems of the world programmatic document found ing tlre status quo in the Hence the following conclusion study of the international working- their practical embodiment in the today by substituting the concept of major importance: the correla- class movement and were a positive first victorious socialist revolution of the military correlation of forces 241 246 contribution to the solution of S, Agayev, A. Weber, L. Moskvin, building of socialist society as well Papers were delivered at the many of the problems discussed. and P. Shaposhnichenko dealt with as the possibilities for further coop- plenary sittings also by G. Pyriov The Session also focused on the ideological and practical aspects eration and coordination among (Bulgaria)-"Psychology, a Funda- sorhe socio-economic aspects of the of the activities of the working psychologists of socialist countries. mental Science of Man"; A.Pet- development of the working class class' political and professional or- At the plenary sitting, the main, rovsky (USSR)-"Socio- in the industrialised capitalist coun- ganisations, particularly with some introductory paper-"The Ways Psychological Problems of the Col- tries. L. Karabanova, Yu. Berezina, problems of the correlation of re- and Means of Promoting Psycholo- lective"; G. Martinez (Cuba)- A. Salmin and I. Faleyeva dealt with form and revolution in the strategy gy"-was delivered by B.Lomov, "Methodological Study of the Indi- the impact of the scientific and and tactics of the Communist par- Corresponding Member of the vidual"; Pham Mihn Hac (Viet- technological revolution and of the ties of industrialised capitalist USSR Academy of Sciences, Presi- nam)-"The Principle of Activity further aggravation of the general countries, and some aspects of the dent of the Society of Psychologists in Psychology"; J. Linhart crisis of capitalism on the interna- cooperation between the Comrnun- of the USSR, and Director of the (Czechoslovakia)-"Activity of Re- tional working-class rnovement, on ists and other workers'parties at its lnstitute of Psychology of the flection, Occupation, Teaching"; the changes in the structure of present stage. The factors making USSR Academy of Sciences. Noting G. Tomaszewski (Poland)- capitalist society, and on the social for the growth of the role of the that in combination with specific "Cognitive Processes in the Regu- dynamics and reproduction of the trade unions and the working-class distinctions in the developlnent of lation of Activity"; A.Kossakowski working class. The participairts movement in forming the anti. psychological science in each social- (GDR)-"The Role of Orientative noted that along with a decrease in monopoly coalition were discussed ist country, the common Action for the Development of the number of people engaged in as also questions of the anti-war philosophical and methodological Independent Actions by the Indi- agricultural production, there rvas stuggle within the working-class approach provided a good basis for vidual". an increase in the numerical and democratic movements in the cooperation in the study of pres- There were two round-table sit- strength and proportion of the capitalist countries of Europe, sing problems of psychological sci- tings. At one of them, devoted to working class in the social struc- The Session unanimously came ence, he characterised the role of problems of cognitive psychology, tures of the capitalist countries to the conclusion that social de- psychology in socialist society. the main paper was delivered by with the middle strata remaining velopment during the 130 years Psychology, he said, was develop- F. Klix (GDR). The second, held at relatively stable (though their inner since the publication af the Com- ing in parallel with the develop- the initiative of Soviet psycholog- structure showed- considerable munist Mani,festo bears out the vital- ment of a new type of social ists, was devoted to the practical changes). In This conneciion, the ity and tremendous creative power relations, with the study of man application of psychology. Session disc.rlssed the problems of of the ideas embodied in this under new social conditions-the Most of the work of the confer- an ailiance,of the working class and programmatic document of the revolutionary, transformative prac- ence was conducted at eight sym- the middlb strata in the struggle Communists. tice of building a society of social posiums: "Levels and Components for restrrlcturing capitalist society, The materials of the Session will equality, genuine democracy, and of Psychical Regulation of Activity and corresponding strgctural be published under separate cover. true humanism, Lornov reviewed and the Methods of Analysing changes lin the system of sdch an the development of psychology Them"; "Concepts, Methods, and alliance. i S. Agayev today, saying that the application Results of .A,nalyses of Cognitive of the results of psychological Processes"; "Regularities and Con- study in practice was yielding a ditions of Psychical Ontogenesis"; FOR.UM OF PSYCHOLOGISTS OF SOCIALIST COUNTRIES considerable econornic benefit, "Cognitive and Motivative De- helping to promote the growth of velopment of the Individual in the Representatives of Bulgaria, purpose of this conference was to labour productivity and enhancing Process of Study"; "Socio- Cuba, Czechoslovakia, the GDR, discuss basic methodological and efficiency in production and rnan- Psychological Foundations of the Hungary, Mongolia, Foland, theoretical problems of the further agement. It was helping to protect Development of the Individual and Rumania, the USSR, and Vietnam development of psychology in the health and capacity for work the Collective"; "Structure and attended the first conference r.rf socialist countries on the basis of and develop the creative poten- Dynamics of the Individual"; psychologists of socialist countries Marxism-Leninism and to critically tialities of every person, and im- "Psychical Health Protection- held in Potsdam in March 1978 on analyse the standpoints of Western prove relations between people. Diagnostics, Therapy, Prevention"; the initiative of the academies of psychologists; to discuss the results Lomov considered questions of the and "Problems of the Historico- pedagogical sciences and the and methods of psychological study development of the theory of Psychological Study and Criticism societies of psychologists of the helping to promote the efficacy of psychology and noted the signifi of Modern Schools of Bourgeois GDR and the Soviet Union" The social psychology in the further cance of the systems approach. Psychology".

248 249 Let us stop in some detail on the Psychology" (H. Biittcher-GDR), problem of individuality. A view- posiums by the Soviet psychologists rvork of symposiums at which and others. point on the psychological found- K. Abulkhanova-Slavskaya (the problems of social psychologv were The socially important questions ations of behaviour modifications methodological aspect of the link considered. of readiness for labour and profes- in the development of the indi- between the individual and activity, At the symposium "Socio- sional training were discussed at vidual was given on the basis of and analysis of the aims and modes Psychological Foundations of the experimental data by M. Vorwerg of including the individual into Development of the Individual and and other GDR psychologists. This reality), and by N. Menchinskaya the Collective", V. Kuzrnin (USSR) symposium discussed the following and E. Faraponova (aspects of the spoke of the meth problems: the life of the individual individual's cognitive and educa- ples underlying (T.Pardel-Czechoslovakia), the tional activity). psychology as dis K. Timpe (GDR), T. Trifonov (Bul- link between personal and socio- At the closing sitting of the ern. the role of garia), P. Wendrich (GDR), and psychological characteristics international leadership of the con- proach, and the modeiling of the others. (J. Strelau-Poland), the role of ference the work of the conference itructrrt"t and dynamics of the At the symposium "Structure self-assessment (Pham Hoang was approved and practical meas- individual, small grouPs, and col- and Dynamics of the Individual" Gia-Vietnam), and, the stability ures outlined to promote coopera- lectives. The problems of introduc- E.shorokhova (USSR) read an in- of the individual (B. Pyrvanov- tion among psychologists of social- ing psychology in the life cf society teresting paper showing the Mar- Bulgaria). ist countries, and a recommenda- were dealt with by F. Genov (Bul- xist understanding of the socialist Various aspects of the theme of tion made that the next conference garia). Interesting theoretical prop- way of Iife, characterising tYPes this symposium were considered in should be held in the Soviet Union. ositions on circles of association, a.nd spheres of the vital activity and the above-mentioned papers deli- which ailow understandilrg man as structure of the waY of life, and vered at plenary sittings by G. Mar- a subject of association, were for- highlighting the psyctrological as- tinez and A. Kossakowski, and also K, Abulkhanova-Slavskaya, mulated by A. Bodalev (USSR). pect of that problem. K. Obuchows- in the papers read at other syrn- E"Faraponova Sorne scholars discussed the prob- ki (Poland) raisc,i the imPortant lem of assessment on the basis of questions of the developing struc- experimental research: in connec- ture of the individual and the CHRONICLE structur€ in tirne, tion with success (G. VorYerg- properties of ihat * GDR), specifics of the preserilation ind characterised its programming Th" iril Cont'erence oJ the Vice- munist and Workers' parties also of the bbject of a characteristic system. K. Jaro (HungarY) dealt Presid,ents of the Academi.es of Sci.ences took part in the Conference. (K. Loeschner-GDR), sPecific fea- with the so-called PsYcho-econ- of the socialist countries on social Theoretical problerns of the de- tures of a small grouP omic concept of the individual, a sciences was held in Budapest. It velopment of research in social concept that distinguishes as a was attended by delegations from sciences in accordance with the dynamic eletnent of the individual's the Bulgarian Academy of Sci- requirements of socialist and com- structure the selection of a method ences, the Academy of Sciences of munist construction were debated to influence the modification or Cuba, the Czechoslovak Academy on the basis of a report submitted preservation of the pattern of rela- of Sciences, the Academy of Sci- by the Hungarian Academy of iions in his social environrnent, ences of the GDR, the Hungarian Sciences. A report by the Czechos- (Czechoslovakia). namely his positional self- Academy of Sciences, the Academy lovak Academy of Sciences on the Problems of social PsYchologY determination. of Sciences of Mongolia, the Polish results of the work conducted by were also dealt with in the above- An original concePtion of the Academy of Sciences, the Academy the Problem Commission "Ideolog- bY mentioned PaPer bY A. PetrovskY individual was ProPosed of Social and Political Sciences of ical Struggle and the Coexistence at a plenary sitting and in PaPers Rumania, the Academy of Sciences of the Two World Systems" was delivered at other sYmPosiums: I [H,'u]:".' of the USSR and the Committee also discussed. "social Experience and the Forma- relations that on Social Sciences of Vietnam. The Conference noted rhe grow- tion of the Individual" (G. Iolov- . A. Prangish- Representatives of the Central i.g importance of ideological Bulgaria), "Forrnation of Vital vili (USSR) presented the views of Committees of a number of Com- struggle at the present stage and Perspectives Among Young PeoPle the need for intensilying research and Their Determination" (M. Tysz- This review covers the events of Feb- in this field. kowa-Poland), "Enrichment of ruary-May 1978. The venue is Nfos- The report submitted by the Clinical Psychoiogy by Social cow, unless stated othcrwise. Academy of Sciences of the GDR

260 251 rational distribution of the produc- and V, Kelle, D.Sc.(Philos.), "Mar- joint re- of the joint research. P. Fedoseyev, dealt with the results of tive forces and broad introduction xist-Leninist Principles of an the Vice-President of the USSR search conducted within of the latest achievements of sci- Analysis of Scientific and Tech- prog- Academy of Sciences, leader of the frameu'ork of the long-term technology, said nological Development". delegation, noted in his ellce and ramme of multilateral cooperation Soviet Academician A. Alexandrov, Presi- institutions of speech that in recent years the between scientific t dent of the USSR Academy of * A session of the Section of social sci- bilateral cooperation between the ioint the socialist countries in Sciences, Following Lenin's instruc- Socral Sci,ences of the Presidium of the discussed Academies of Sciences of the USSR ences. The Conference tions, Soviet scientists actively USSR Academy of Sciences and the specified further tasks and the GDR was successfully de- the report, helped realise the GOELRO Plan, Seclion of Social Scr,ences of the examined veloping in the field of the of such cooperation, and the country's industrialisation and Acad,emy Sciences Byelorussia humanities. A number of monog- af of a proposal of the Academy of socialist transformation of ag- was held in Minsk. Taking part in raphs have been jointly prepared the Sciences of the GDR on instituting the present stage of the session were A. Kuzmin, Secret- topical problems of the riculture. At an International Prize for out- on the the scientific and technological re- ary of the Central Committee of joint histories of both nations and world standing achievements in re- volution the research carried on by the Communist Party of Byelorus- sciences. A group history, elaboration of the funda- search in social the Academy contributes to a suc- sia, P" Fedoseyev, Vice-President of this mental problems of philosophy and for further elaboration of cessful solution of many important the USSR Academy of Sciences, sociology, socialist democracy, the question was set up. The vice- economic problems. For one, scien- N. Borisevich, President the state and law, problems of the of presidents accepted an invitation tists have made substantial con- Academy of Sciences of Byelorussia Academy of intensification of and increase in by the Czechoslovak tribution to the elaboration of a and Corresponding Member of the 4th, the efficiency of social production, Sciences to hold the next, programme sci- fundamentals of Marxist- comprehensive of USSR Academy of Sciences, vice- Conference in the first half of the entific and technological progress presidents the Academies of Leninist linguistics, the history and of 1980 in Czechoslovakia. and its socio-economic results. Re- Sciences of Moldavia and Estonia, modern development of literatures ports were delivered on "Lenin's academicians and corresponding * of represen' of the USSR and the GDR. The A ,onuultatiae meeting Ideas About the Rational Utilisa- members of the Academy of Sci- Sciences of bilateral cq::iirnissions of historians, tatiues of the Academi,es of tion of the Natural Resources and ences of Byelorussia, and represen- participating in philosophers, economists, as well as sociali,st countrtes on the Development and Distribution tatives Party, government and Commission on the Theory of the actiai,ty nternation- the Productive Forces in the organisations, report on and History of the International of the public A al organis d at the USSR" by Academician A. Sidoren- the development of social scientific Working-Class Movement have Presidium AcademY ko, Vice-President of the USSR research conducted by the was at- been working fruitfully. Reports of Sciences. f,he meeting Academy of Sciences; "Lenin and Academy of Sciences of Byelorussia Bulgaria, were delivered also by Academician tended by scientists from the Problems of Integration of was made by N. Birillo, acting H. Bartel (GDR)-on the activity of Cuba, Czechoslovakia, the GpR, Natural, Social and Technical Sci Academic Secretary the Section t-he Commission of Historians of of Hungary, Ppland, R.umania dnd ences" by Academician of Social Sciences and Member of exchanged the GDR and the USSR-and the USSR. $iews were P. Fedoseyev, Vice-President of the Academy of Sciences of Academician A. Bayev (USSR)-on the about the prospects of developing USSR Academy of Sciences; "On Byelorussia. Academician ques- cooperation in the field of molecu- international'qcientific ties;,a Realisation of Lenin's Ideas in the P. Fedoseyev delivered a report on lar biology. The session also discus- tion was discuised, arnong others, Development of the Mining Indus- the urgent problems of society's sed problems of forecasting the on participating in the activity of try of the USSR" by Academiiian and the tasks of social development of fundamental re- the International Council of Scien- N. Melnikov. ff::[::.", tific Unions (ICSU). search in social and natural sci- * * At u pLenary session of the Commit- An international conference * Acad,emy Sci- A ,errirn of the of tee of the Sotiet National Association head,s af institutes and societies stud,y-"f USSR * A meeting dcaoted to the 60th ences of the GDR and the of the History and Philosophl ol ing tke labour moaememt held in d,euoted ta tuent, annioersary of Lenin's plan of scien- Academy of Sciences Natu,ral Sciance and T'echnology an Mexico City was attended by more technical uorh uas held at the years of cooperation belween these tuo tific and introductory speech was delivered than 70 scholars frorn Bulgaria, Berlin. Presid,ium of the USSR Aca.demY of institutions took place in by Academician B. Kedrov; reports France, the GDR, h'eland, Italy, bY Sciences. the "Draft Plan of The session was opened In made by A. Koltsov, Mexico, Foland, Spain, USA and (GDR), Technical Work" were Academician U. Hofmann Scientific and D.Sc.(Hist.), "On the 60th Anniver- USSR. The Soviet delegation in- mapped out a grand who highly assessed the results of Lenin Prog- sary of Lenin's Work 'Draft Plan of cluded the Director of the Institute reconstruction of the this cooperation and cited exam- ramme of the Scientific and Technical Work"', of International Working-Class ples of implementation of results country's economy on the basis of a 253 2t2 Movement T. Timofeyev, Corres- ation and their agreement with its GDR., and the USSR. The particip- * A scientific con{erence "Marxism- ponding Member, USSR Academy Charter adopted by the Confer- ants listened to and discussed 17 , Leni,ncsm-a Uniforrn International (head delega- ence. E. Su1rez Gaona, Director of Sciences of the of papers on the following problems: Theary" held at the Institute of I)eputy Director the insti- the Mexican Centre for the Study tion); of the social and economic reasons of Marxism-Leninism under the Cen- tute B. Koval, D.Sc.(Hist.) and as- of the Labour Movement, was l iconoclasm in Byzantium; the tral Committee of the CPSU and sociates of the institute I. Rybalkin elected President of the Executive ideological platforms of conflicting devoted to the 160th birth anniver- V. Balmashnov. Among the Council of the Associhtion. and parties; the Middle-Eastern and sary of Karl Marx u'as attended by speakers at the Conference were Moslem roots of Byzantine iconoc- scholars, veterans c;i Lhe CPSU and A.Todorov (Bulgaria), M.Launay * iconoclasm An intrrnational scientific confer- lasm; new sources of representatives of Soviet youth. and M. David (France), fine art ence "The Significance of Fred,erick polemics; architecture and The Conference $ras opened by T.Timofeyev and B.Koval (USSR), the Engels' work 'Anti-Dilhring' Sci- during the iconoclasm period; Academician A. 1 egorov, Director A. (Spain), for Elorza Dominguez ence and, Education of Our Epoch" influence of iconoclasm on Byzan- of the Institute. Three main papers Golembiowsky (Poland), Swift J. J. was sponsored by the Ernst I\{oritz tine-Slav relations; heretic move- read: "Marxism-Lenin- (Ireland), Ferndndez Anaya and influ- were J. Arndt University in Greifswald ments and iconoclasm; the ism, the Theoretical Founda- H. (Mexico) and Ph. Monteon (GDR). Scholars from Finland, Fr- ence of iconoclasm on trVest Euro- of Building Communism" Foner (USA). tion ance, the GDR, Ftrungarl', Poland, pean artistic culture. V. Bychkov, (G.Bagaturiya), "Marxism-Lenin- T. Tirr"ofeyev emphasised in his associate Institute of the USSR. and Yugoslavia took part an of the ism and Proletarian Inter- speech the interdisciplinary charac- USSR Acaderny of Sci- in the Conference which was Philosophy, nationalism" (I. Anoshkin), and ter of the study of the labour opened by the Rector of the Uni- ences, delivered a paPer "Some Urgent of Ag- movement problems, pointing out As- Questiorrs versity W. Imig, D.Sc. (Philos.). "Philisophical and A,esthetic rarian Theory Which Is an In- in particular that such an approach The plenary sessions and meet- pects of Byzantine Iconoclasm". alienable Part of l\{arx' Economic been typical Marx, Engels had of ings of six panels heard and discus- Theory" (A. Malysh). Participants Lenin who had created a and sed more than 70 papers and in the Conference emphasised that investigating * definite tradition in communications bearing on impor- At the Souiet-French colloqui.um Nlarxism-Leninism is the consistent this question. He said that Soviet tant problems of interdisciplinary "Reoson and, Culture", held in Lille, scientific outlook of the working scholars in their works creatively character. The Soviet delegates Soviet participants presented the class, that has become a great force use method.elaborated by the the submitted following papers: following papers: "The Logic of for mankind's social progress. Loy- Mtixism-Leninism' for the classics of "The Problem of Dialectical Unity Discovery as the Logic of Establish- alty to Marxism-Leninism is an history the studying both the of of the Objective, Relative and Ab- i.g Ner,v Truths" (Academician earnest of all successes in the labour move,,ment and the present- solute Truth" (I. Yessin), "The B. Kedrov), "The Semantics of Re- struggle of the working class, all day situatiorl of the working class. Dialectics of the Word and World levant Logic and the Problem of working people for peace, democ- B. about principal Koval spoke the Outlook" (N. Komlev), "Frederick the Nature of Logical Laws" (Pro- racy, socialism and communism. lines of research conducted by "Science, Engels and the Concept of Scien- fessor E. Voishvillo), Soviet scholars into the labour tific Ideology" (E. Meskauskas), Technology, Culture (on the Prin- movement problems of Latin * sclantific session deooted "Language and Personality in the ciples of Methodological Analysis)" A iubilu .America. Other participants in the oJ Light of the Ideas of Historical (A. Zotov), "Systems Categories in to the centenary of the liberation Conference dealt mainly witl-r the yoke, Materialism" (Yu. Rozhdestvensky), the Logic of the Development of Bulgaria from the Osman held activities of the scientific centres "The Problem of Reflection of Science" (V. Kuznetsov), "On Con- in Sofia by the Bulgarian Academy studying the labour movement, jointly for Space and Tirne in Language" stituting the Reason. Diversification of Sciences with a number which they represented. In conclu- or- (G. Sentyabov), and "The and Confiict of Rationalism in An- of scientific, state and public sion a decision was adopted on the (N. country, was Economic Laws in F. Engels' Anti- cient Philosophy" Kuznetsov), ganisations of the organisation of the World Associa- 24 Diihringl' (A. Yablonsky). "Hypothesis and Explanation of attended by 85 guests from tion of Institutes and Societies for Reality" (L Melvil), "Problem of countries of Europe, Asia, Africa Studying History and Social Prob- * Art and Morality in Leo Tolstoy's and America. A delegation of lems of the Labour Movement. A sctentific conference "Byzanti;ne Aesthetics" (M. Ovsyannikov), and Soviet scientists was headed bry Representatives of Finland and IconxLasrn. Social and Economic Pre- "Reason and Culture of the Academician Yu. Bromley. The Japan who had been unable to requisites, IdealogicaL B asis, I:tri,storicaL Rationalists and Theoreticians of plenary session heard papers by attend the Conference in Mexico, Consequences" held in Greifswald the Natural Law of the lTth Cen- Bulgarian scholars: "On the expressed their willingn€ss to par- (GDR) was attended by scholars tury and the" Historical Significance Character and Significance of the ticipate in the activity of the Associ- from Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, the of These Concepts" (V. Sokolov). Russo-Turkish War" (Academician zil 255 I

,l

D, Kosev), "Russia, Western Powers on the Socio-Economic Develop- I "Emergence Historical and the Liberat.ion of Bulgaria" ment of R.ussia (Foreign Invasion of Ap- Revolution) and Bourgeois Revolu- proach" (K. Faber), "Modein (A. (Academician Kh. Khristov), "SIav as a Factor Accounting for Subse- tion" Kahn), "Establishrnent of { Tre phy in the Capitalism in Russia" (p. Literature Dealing with the Libera- quent Under-Developrnent) " Fed Rynd- Bulgaria (I" Germany', zyunsky), "Some Problems of the tion of from Osman Grekov), "Second Edition of J (W. Domination" (Acadenrician Serfdom European I al Attitudes Developrnent of Agrarian Capital- and Market" of the German E. Georgiyev), "The Russo-Turkish (I. Kostiushko States to the French ism in Latvia (Second Half oi the and V. Zelenin), and Hegemonistic ..Swed- Wars and the Balkan States" (Cor- "Premises for the Genesis of Policy (Betrveen 19th Century)" (M. Kozin), Adaptation and Resistance),' responding Member of the Bul- Capitalism in Lagged Non- ish Trade Capital and Sweden,s (E. Weis), "Historical Problem of garian Academy of Sciences N. To- European R.egions (Largely by the Trade with Russia in the l8th dorov), "On Russi:r', the Wars of Liberation in 1813- Century" (I. Shaskolsky), "The In- Military Art Example of India)" (V. Pavlov). 1814" (FLBerding), in the War f,or the Liberation of "New Order dustrial Revolution in Russia', in Europe in l8l5 Between (A. Bulgaria" (Lieutenant-General * Mo." than 40 scholars took part the Solovyova), "soviet-Swedish Re- Revolution and Restoration', lations A. Mitev). Messages of greetings in a colloquium of historians of the in 1933-1939" (V. Sipols), (K. Freiherr von and "Soviet-Swedish from the heads of loreign delega- and, Aretin), and Relations in USSR the FRG held in Munich. "Constitutional-Political and tions were read at the plenary The Soviet delegation Sncio- 192l-1923" (R. Karpova). Swedish was headed Political Reforms and Projects session. Then work proceeded in by Academician A. in scholars delivered the following Narochnitsky. Germany Under the Influence the panels of history, literature and The West German delegation-by of papers: "Srvedish Genrry in 1626- Napoleonic France" (E. Fehren- 1865" (S.Carlsson), att, and military history. Soviet Professor G. Ritter. Scholars from "Landlordism bach). Historians frorn West Berlin Before scholars delivered papers and com- West Berlin also took part. Profes- ancl After the Reduction in delivered the report "Economy munications at the panel meetings. sor K. Erdmann, President 1710,' (A. Loit), of the and Economic Policy in Germany Acadernician Yu. Bromley pre- International Committee Histor- Serving in Rus_ of and Russia in the Conditions pererson), sented Academician A. Bolevsky, ical Sciences, actively participated oi (C. British Blockade and French President of the Bulgarian in the proceedings. Two main sub- pitalism in Swe_ Counter-Blockade" (W. Fischer Academy of Sciences, with works jects were discussed: "Historical and den" (M. Isacsson, R. Lundstr6m, A. Simsch). L. by Soviet historians devoted to the Approach and Modern Science of Magnusson), "swedish-soviet liberation of Bulgaria. History" and "Europe Between Foreign-Policy Relations in 1920- the 1930" (lV.Carlgren), Revolution and Restoration, 1797- "The Soviet * policy Hirto.irr,, f.o- l6 countries, 1815". The Soviet side submitted View of Swedish Foreign Between including the GDR, Hungary, Po- the following papers: "Revolutio- the First and the Second land, the USSR and Yugoslayia, nary Historiography World Wars" and in Rr:ssia and "Swedish took part in rhe 10th Sciwce Modern Soviet Historiography" Ilemo Be- Relations", the Soviet delegation tween the "Weeh", "De:pelopment and, t)nd,er- (I. Kovalchenko and O. Sokolov), Two (A.- was headed by I. Kovalchenko, S. Kdlvemark). Deuloltment in Europe anil Outside It "Formation of Flistorical Approach Corresponding Member, USSR the 13th Century to the Ind,ustrial in Russian F{istoriography the from in Academv of Sciences, the * ,,Results Reuolution. It was sponsored by the l8th-First and A scienti,fic conference Half of the lgth Cen- Swedi Professor Francesco Datini Internarional In- tury" (A. Sakharov), "Political At- and Prospects of Slau and Balkan S. Car pants deli- Slu,lies: stitute of Economic History in titude of lLuss.ia and Gerrnan Questions of Coord,ination',, the vered rs: "Sr,r.ed- Prato, Italy. Participants heard and States to the French Policy of gponsored by the Scientific Council ish Nobility and R.iksdag in the on discussed more than 30 papers. I{egemony" (d. Narochnitsky), the Integrated Froblerns of Slav Beeinning of the'Era of Freedoms' The Soviet scholars submitted the "Soviet Historiography and Balkan stuclies of the USSR About His- (172A-1730)" (G. Nekrasov), "No- follorving papers: "The Concept of torical Significance .Academv of Sciences and the Insti- of. the l8l3 bility and the City in Sweden in the tute I)evelopment and Under- War of Liberation" (V. Milyukova), of Slav and Balkan Studies of 14th-l 5th Cenruries" (A. Svanidze), the Development as a Fiistorical Categ- " f,he Ecrrnomy and Economic USSR A.cademy of Sciences was Poli- "Nobility-the Social Pillar Ab- ory" (A.Chistozvonov), "Prog:.es- of held in Zvenigorod, attended by cy of Germany and Rus-oia During solutism in Russia in the l8rh about sive and Regressive Trends in the the 100 scholays fr.om 38 re- Contincntal Biockade" Century" (A. Yukhg, "The Origin search Socio-Economic Developrnent of (8. Tupolev), a.ncl "Progressive centres-insritutes nf the of Nobility as a Class-section of IJSSR .Acaciernv Toscana in the 13th-l5th Cen- Russia and Europrean R.eaction of Sciences ancl Feudal Society" (S. Kovalevsky), the Acadenries turies" (L. Kotelnikova), "The after 1815" (O"Orlik). Wesr Ger- of Sciences of the "'I'he Development of Capitalism Iinion republics Mongol Invasion and Its Infiuence man srholars presented the papers: and higher educa- in Sweden (before the Industrial tional estabiishments. The plenary 256 257 * Ministries of cratic Movements in the Late 19th- Th. First Souiet-Indi,an semi,nar of session heard the following PaPers: soonsored bv the early 20th Centuries", "The Na- economists on "Ma,nagement State the DeveloPment oi Com- t'igt and specialised secondary of "For ". tional Liberation Movement of the Enterprises in India and the USSR Darative Historical and Com- education of the USSR and the " Slav Peoples", "Development Prob- held in New Delhi was opened by Research in the Field of Ukraine, the Institute of Slav and trehensive Iems of the Slav Peoples in the K. Rehsh, representative Studies" (D. Mar- Balkan Studies of the USSR \ a of blav and Balkan Epoch of Feudalism", and "Prob- India's Corresponding Member, Academy of Sc Planning Commission. The kov, lems of the Development of Slav Soviet delegation was headed by of Sciences), "The of the History USSR AcademY Studies". More than 230 papers V. Cherkovets, Deputy th Industry of th Director of ences of the and communications were heard the Institute of Economics of the Con- and discussed at the panel sessions. USSR Academy of Sciences. and e Donetsk State University. The also attended bY scho- the Indian delegation was headed of ference was i lars from Bulgaria and Poland' At by G. Bhalla. Soviet scientists sub- * Participants the plenary sessions PaPers were in the "Barthold mitted the following papers: "Srate read by G.Yerkhov-"SixtY Years R.eadings" of 1978 devoted to com- Enterprises in Social System of of the Great October Socialist Re- modi,ty-money relations in the mediaea- Public Production" (V. Cherkovets); volution and Socio-Economic al Ori,ent heard and discussed 43 "System of Indicators and Stan- papers. The regular all-Union sci- dard (A. "Results and Pros- Transformations in the Donetsk Norms Used in Planning and Mvlnikov), entific conference scholars the Cultures Region"; A.Manusevich-"The of of Stimulating of Production Associa- oects'of the StudY of the Orient sponsored annually by (Er.rterprises)" of Central and Great October Revolution and Its tions (V.Ivanchen- Lf th. Countries the Section of Written Monuments ko); "The Role EuroPe" (V. ZlYdnev), Role in the Historical Destinies of of Price Formatiorr Southeast of the Peoples of the East at the in the Work of Socialist Enterprises Place and Role of Central the Peoples of Central and Sorrth- "The Institute of Oriental Studies of the and Corporations" (A. Gusarov); EuroPe in lnterna- east Euiope"; N.Chumachenko- and Southeast USSR Academy of Sciences has "Enterprises' Material at the First Stage "Economii Integration-the Basis Supply and tional Relations been given the narne "Barthold Output Realisation" (A.Deryabin); General Crisis of Capitalism' of Cooperation of the Socialist of the Readings", in honour of the out- "Cost Manage- Research" (V.Vol- Countries"; V. Vinogradov-"The Accouting and The Tasks of standing Russian scholar the (V. Qn Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878 of ment" Starodubrovsky); "Fi- kov), "Soviet Orient, Acadernician W. Barthold nance Cons the and the Liberation of the Balkan and Credit Interrelations Socialist (1869-1930). The Conference an- Between Associations and Enter- Emergence an ofl Peoples from the Osman Yoke"; itY"l I.M'elnikova-"DeveloPment of nually discusses, according to a prises and the State" (V. Rybin); Socialist programme elaborated be- "Workingmen's Role and "Ttre Present Research into the HistorY of the in the Man- (A. Nedorezov),i forehand, pressing and least ex- agement of Socialist Enterprises in and Imrrlediate Tasks of Re- European Socialist Countries in the itate arnined problems of the socio- the USSR" (V. Zhamin). HistorY of Slav Acadimy of Sciences and Higher Indian search into the economic history Middle economists Then' the Educational Institutions of the Uk- of the presented the papers: Studies" (V. Dyakov). East. In the centre attention of in sev- raine"; V. Karaseva-"A Course of of "The Role of Public Sector in the Conference work Proceeded this Conference panels-"The Ethnogenl' of the History of Southern and West- were division into Indian Economy" (H. Paramjapae); eral .University periods of the economic develop- "Management Balkan PeoPles", ern Slavs in Education of State Enterprises the 3h, and ment of individual cities and reg- India" (D. of the Formation of System". Then the Conference in Narula); "Public En- "ProbJems ions; intra-urban, inrerregional and terprise in the Indian Economy" Nations in Central and Southeast w'ork p.oceeded' in eight Panels: transit trade; marketability of ag- (L. Narain); "Price Policy State "Problems of the HistorY "The Great October Revolution of Europe", riculture and urban-rural trade; Enterprises (G. of the Slav and and the Slav PeoPles' Problems in in India" Bhalla); of the Culture marketability of women's handi- "Performance of Public Enterprises PeoPles", "The Slav and the Period Between the Two Balkan crafts; money circulation; trade and in India" (S. Bhattachar/ya); "Flan- in the SYstem of World Wars", "Construction of Balkan Peoples usurious capital; taxes on handi- ning in Project Appraisal Relations", and "His- Socialisrn in Foreign Slav Coun- in India" trnternational crafts and trade; the social structure (N. Desai); "Employee Participation toriography and Source Studies"' tries", "CooPeration Between in the Construc- of the urban population; the or- in Management" (N. De). In con- Ail in ali, more than 30 PaPers and Socialist Countries over ganisation and form of govern- clusion Professor S. Chandra, communications were read. tion of Socialism", "VictorY Fascism and the Establishment of a ment in cities. The speakers drew Chairman, University Commission ripon the most varieri sources: writ- of India, winding up the Seminar's * alt-lJnion confetence of scho- People's Democratic SYstem An "The ten, nurnismatic, epigraphic, and proceedings, highly appraised lars of Slau historY took in Foriign SIav Countries", --in Piace archaeological, lndo-Soviet cooperation in various Donetsk (the Ukraine). It was Working-Class, Socialist and Demo- 259 258 spheres of science and tech- tion modelling of economic proces- the overall system of planning cal- America" was read by the Deputy nology. ses; methods of optimisation oI ma- culations of the national economic Director of the Institute of Latin ny-equation and hierarchic systems development. American Studies, A. Glinkin, * and their utilisation in decision- A nreeti,ng of the Scientific Council * D.Sc.(Hist.). Other participants in on Problems of Africa of the USSR making in planning. The Seminar A., i.nternational scientific s1m- the Conference touched on the Acailemy of Sciences under the was sponsored by the Institute of posium on problems of disarmament following questions: dependent chairmanship of the Director of Economics and Organisation of In- held in Kishinev by the Vienna capitalism-the economic basis of the Institute of African Studies of dustrial Producticin of the Siberian International Institute for Peace, the foreign policy of Latin Ameri- the USSR AcademY of Sciences, Division of the USSR AcademY of with the collaboration of the Soviet can countries; specific features of An. Gromyko, D.Sc.(Hist.) heard a Sciences, the Central Economics and Peace Committee, was attended by the foreign policies of countries of DaDer ''soviet-African Economic Mathematics Institute of the USSR prominent scientists and scholars dependent capitalism; the concept iteiations" delivered by S. Skach- Academy of Sciences, the Institute from 19 countries of Europe (in- of a new world economic order kov, Chairman of the State Com- of Economics of the USSR AcademY cluding Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, an

260 261 (D. Viehweger); D.Sc.(Philol.)-"Aini and Uzbek Africa"; E. Tarabrin-"Inter- which was also attended bY Pragmatics" nationarl Relations of African guests-literary scholars from Bul- "Psycholinguistic Aspects of Mean- Literature"; I.Braginsky, Corres- (M. Bierwisch); "What Is the ponding Member of the Tajik Countries at the Present Stage"; garia, the GDR, Poland and the ing" Sentence?" Academy of Sciences-"On the N.Kosukhin-"Achievements of Soviet Union, The Conference Logical Forrn of a (E. Lang); "On Theoretical Princi- Results and Tasks of the Studies of Science in Studying African heard more than 50 PaPers and Soviet of Generative Semantics" Aini's Works". Writers also spoke Society, Policies and Ideologies"; communications about Czech and ples Struggle of the (J. Zimmermann); "Semantic As- in the discussion. LVitukhin-"The of Word-Formation" African PeoPles for Their pects South (W. Motsch). There was a working * Th. Institute of Oriental G. MirskY-"The Liberation"; group "Aspects and Directions of Studies of the USSR Academy of Problems of Choosing the Path of Nlodern Semantic Research" and Sciences organised a scientilic con- Development". At the meet- Panel panels on psycholinguistics deuoted. to the birth centenary of ings some 50 papers and communi- ference "semantics and Communication", the great poet of the Orient, Muham- caiiorrs were heard and discussed by the "Struggle for "Word, Sentence and the Seman- mad lqbal. It was opened on the subjects: "Experimental Director the Institute, Corres- Independence", "Eth- tics of Text" and of Economic Semantics". ponding Member of the USSR Froblems of Africa", Methods of Studying nolinguistic participants Academy of Sciences E. Primakov. Relations", "Social European socialist countries In toto, Symposium "International thall The papers were presented by the "Problems of (S. Sherlaimova), Czech and Slovak heard and discussed more Policy and Ideology", the Tajik Academy of short stories (S. Belza), publication 120 papers and communications. Pr"esident of the South of Africa". Member of Czech and Slovak books in the Sciences, Corresponding * mnference USSR Acaderny of Sciences, USSR (S. Nikolsky). A scientifit-theoreti,cal of the ileaoted. to tho birth centenary af Sad- N{.Asirnov-"Nluhammad Iqbal * Th. Institute of Linguistics of rid.d.in Ai,ni, tke outstanding Taji,k and the Soviet Union"; the USSR Academy of Sciences Soazet utriter, found,er of Taji.k Souiet E. Chelyshev, D.Sc.(Philol.)- literature and, one of tha af "Results and Prospects of Studying Law, was attended bY about 60 and the Scientific Council on the faundnrs Sotiet literature, scholar and' Muhammad lqbal's Work in the scholars from 24 countries, Theory of Soviet Linguistics of the Uzbek legal pwblic sponsored by the Soviet Union"; A. Sukhachev- the Hungary, Po- USSR Academy of Sciences organ- figure was iniluding GDR, Litera- "On Farticipation of Soviet Scho- the Soviet Union. The ised a syrnposi,um on the subiect "Prob- Gorky Institute of World land and USSR Academy of lars in the Celebrations of Muham- general report bas.ed on the 24 lems and, Ivlethods of Semantic Inttes- ture of the Sciences, the Institute of Oriental mad Iqbal's Birth Centenary Held national reports stibmitted was tigations", in which Philologists Studies of the USSR Academy of in India and Pakistan". The Con- made by Professor S. Trechsel from the GDR, Hungary and Viet- Sciences and the Union of Writers ference lvas addressed by the Am- (Switzerland). The attention of the nam took part. At the PlenarY the USSR and the Tajik Repub- bassador of India to the USSR, participants in the Colloquium was sessions Soviet scholars read the of by I. K. Gudjral and the Ambassador ientred on implementation of the following papers: "OntologY and lic. The Conference was opened Member of the of Pakistan to the USSR, S. Hyder. humane and democratic Gnosiology of Meaning" (A. Leon- Corresponding PrinciPle Academy Sciences of the presumption of innocence' tiev); "The Place of VocabularY in USSR of * G. Lomidze. Papers were read by Ser.rty scholars took part in a A department head of the Institute a General Description of Lan- President of the Tajik general meeting of the European As- of the State and Law of the USSR guage" (A. Ufimtseva); "Semantics the Academy Sciences, Colrespond- sociatian Experimental Soctal Academy of Sciences, V. SavitskY, of the Act of Word Formation" of ing Member of the USSR Academy Psychology"f (EAESP) in Weimar D.Sc.(Law), delivered a on (E. Kubryakova); "On a PsYcholing- PaPer Sciences M.Asimov-"The Sig- (GDR), on the subject "Modern the principle of the presumption of uistic Approach to Linguistic Tasks of nificance of Sadriddin Aini's Scierr- Development of Social Psycholo- innocence in Soviet theory, legisla- in Semantics" (V. Pavlov); "Seman- Z. Kedrina, gy". They represented about 20 and legal practice emphasising tics and Communication" tific Heritage", tion Historicalness including Bulgaria, principle is now legallY (E. Tarasov); "Development of D,Sc.(Philol.)- "The countries, that this M.Shukurov, Czechoslovakia, the GDR, Hun- in Articie 160 of the new Semantic Structures in On- of S.Aini's Noveis"; reflected Evolution of gary, Poland, Rumania, the Soviet Constitution of the USSR. togenesis" (A. Shakhnorovich), and D,Sc.(Philol.)-"The "Psycholinguistics and a Study of the Concept of 'Hero' in Aini's Union and Yugoslavia. Professors Director the Pushkin G.Andreyeva, I.Kon and V.Yadov * I., Libli.., near Prague scien' the Meaning of Words" (A' SuP- Works"; of Institute of Linguistics of the represented the Soviet Union. tific conference on Czech and Sloaah run). Scholars from the GDR deli- M. Koshchanov, There were seven symposiums dur- literatures in 1948-1978 r,r'as held, vered the papers: "Semantics and Uzbek SSR 263 2G2 ing the Meeting: "General Prob- Methodological Problems of Problems of Ethnographic- torio), Hungary (G.Dienes, I.Vit- lems of Social Psychology", "Social- Psychology's Relation to Medicine", Archaeological Studies of the anyi) presented three papers de- isation", "Integration of Social In- " Medical Psychology, Pathopsychol- Peoples of Central Asia (on the voted to the theme "Culture and formation", "Language and Com- ogy, Neuropsychology", and 40th Anniversary of the Chorasmia Social Structure". Then a pilot munication", "Structure of Social "Social Psychology and Medicine". Expedition)" (M. Itina), and "In- study "Cultural Activity in the Interaction", "Intra- and fnter- * vestigations of Soviet Ethnog- Framework of the Family and group Relations", "Specific Prob- Mo.. than 200 scientists took raphers in Oceania in 1971" Transmission of Culture" was dis- lems of Social Psychology". The part in an all-Union session deuoted, (V. Basilov, D. Tumarkin). Then cussed. participants in the Meeting heard to the results of fi.eld. ethnographi,c and, the work of the Session proceeded and discussed about sixty papers. antkropolagical research in I 976- I 977 in the panels: "'Ethnogeny and * held in Yerevan and sponsored by Ethnic History", "Modern Ethnic * M"r. than 100 Finnish scholars, the Department of History of the and Cultural and Everyday Life Th. Geographical Congress of the as well as Buests frorn the GDR, USSR Academy of Sciences, the Processes ,{rnong the Peoples of GDIi devoted to the 25th anniver- Sweden and the USSR took part in N. Miklukho-Maclai Institute of the USSR", "Family and Everyday sary of the Geographical Society of the 4th Congress of Psychologi,sts of Ethnography of the USSR Social Life", "Problems of Ethnog- the GDR, held in Dresden on the I'inland, held in Tarnpere. Four Academy of Sciqnces, the Depart- raphic Typology of Culture. Inter- subject "Geography of Foreign symposiums were organised within rnent of Historical and Economic relationships of the Cultures of the Countries", was attended by more the framework of the Congress: Sciences of the Armenian Academy Peoples of the USSR", "Religious than 1,000 delegates, including "Cooperation Between Finland and of Sciences and the Institute of $eliefs of the Past and Their Over- representatives from Bulgaria, the USSR in the Field of Psycholo- Archaeology and Ethnography of coming in Present-Day Life", Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Mon- gy", .. "Philosophical and the Armenian Acaderny of Sci- "Folklore. Folk Music and Dances. golia, Poland and the Soviet Union. Methodologicai Foundations of ences. ,A,pplied ,A.rts", some 170 Nine papers read at the plenary ,'Psychology where Psychology", and the At the plerrary meetirrgs the par- papers and communications were sessions dealt with theoretical, Environment", and "Psychological ticipants heard the papers: "The heard and discussed. methodological and general prob- Consequen(es of the Change in the Constitution of Developed Social- lems of geographic investigations Professiona,l Structure of Society". isrn and the Tasks of Soviet Eth- of foreign countries. The head of I'here we;e also two panel meet- nography" (L Gurvich, R. Its, * .L ,rgulo, internationo,l cont'erence the Soviet delegation, Director of ings at. which young Finnish Zh. Logashova), "The Development for disansing a research project "Dz- the Institute of Geography of the psychologists reported about their of Armenian Ethnography (in Con- rectians and, Tmdcnci,es of Cultural IJSSII Academy of Sciences, research. The Soviet psychologist nection wittr the l50th Anniversary Deoelopment in Madern Soci.ety, In- Academician I. Gerasim

266 t67 Farty found the forces and means on the state at the Sverdlov Com- Manv pages in the volume tell of Very interesting are the numer- for organising a war industry capa- munist University (unfortunately Lenin's rneetings with representa- ous facts assembled in the volume, ble of supplying the Red Army the record of the second lecture tives of the Cornmunist parties and reflecting the constant attention with the necessary arms, munitions has not been found), published the other foreign progressive organisa- Lenin gave to the development of and equipment. Along with artend- pamphlet "The Achievements and tions, of how well informed he was a socialist culture, and especially to ing to daily, current quesrions of Difficulties of the Soviet Govern- about the state of affairs in the education, science, literature, art, organising the production of muni- ment", wrote the plan and synopsis fraternal parties, of his concern for book publishing and libraries, his tions factories, for example, the for a parnphlet on the dictatorship their unity on a principled basis. considerate attitude to prominent Tula plants, Lenin closely followed of the proletariat, and the article In the very difficult conditions of representatives of the intelligentsia, the developrnent of entire branches (not completed) "Economics and 1919, the Soviet Government con- including Maxim Gorky, the con- of the national economy and indi- Politics in the Era of the Dictator- tinued to pursue an active peaceful stant concern he showed for the vidual economic regions. ship of the Proietariat". foreign policy, a policy of peaceful working people, especially for their Naturally, not only the current In all these writings Lenin sum- coexistence of states with different children, for his relatives and needs of the national economy marised the nearly two-year expe- social systems. The materials in the friends. There is inforrnation about were in the centre of Lenin's atten- rience of the post-October period, volume show also this aspect of the occasional days-off often used tion. He carefully analysed the worked out in detail many major Lenin's work. Despite the openly for continuing stat€ affairs, scien- social processes under way, the prokrlems of the transition period hostile attitude of the irnperialist tific work, for meetings and talks changed attitude of workers and from capitalism to socialism, furth- powers to the Soviet Republic with workers and peasants. peasants to laboUr, to social prop- er developed the Marxist doctrine Lenin worked unremittingly for a All the lnaterials, documents and erty, to the state;: was quick to of the dictatorship of the pro- policy of peace based on recogni- facts that have gone into Volume 7 respond to all that rlas new, prog- letariat, showed its creative role in tion of the independence and of the biographical chronicle are a ressive and n's the building and consolidation of sovereignty of states. The diploma- new, important contribution to the brilliant insi nd the new society, in the establish- tic activity of the Soviet state, its study of the life and work of theoretician in rnent and developmel:i of socialist policy of equality of all countries Lenin, of the foreign and domestic the first subbotnik held !y the work- democracy as a higher and rnore and nations, big and small, won the policies of the Communist Party ers of the Moscow-Kl"an Railway perfect democracy than bourgeois Republic of Soviets the increasing and the Soviet state, of their efforts on April 12, anrl .jn the other democracy. sympathy of the working people to safeguard and consolidate the subbotnihs that follolved, an evenr of In all his theoretical works, and progressive forces, intensified gains of the Great October Revolu- enormous historical significance. In written in 1919, Lenin invariably their protest against the participa- uon. the pamphlet "A Great Begin- stressed the international character tion of capitalist powers in the ning", completed on June 28, of the experience of the Soviet anti-Soviet intervention. V. Fornichev Lenin described the subbotni,h as Government and the need to make "tbe actual. beginning of commun- this experience more widely known ism" for it was "a victory over our to the working people of capi- M. M. MAKCI4MOBA. CCCP u The coexistence of two socio- own conservatism, indiscipline, talist countries. At the same time he ruexdsluapoduoe economic systerns, Maximova notes, petty-bourgeois egoism" (Col,lected, closely followed the course of re- compydx'uuecmao. M,, u34-Bo does not rule out such an objective Worhs, YoL29, pp. 421 , 4\l). He volutionary events that were de- oMrrc.u,, 1977, i97 crp. reality as the world economy. showed that the enormous signifi- veloping in the West under the Whiie it helps to rnaintain ties M. I\,I.MAXIMOYA, The and cance of subbotnihs lies in the fact direct impact of the Great October [[,SR among states through internationai Intomati,onal Economic Coopera- that they teach workers a commun- Socialist Revolution in Russia, the division of labour, the world ttlon, Moscow, Publishers, ist attitude to labour, a conscious process of the establishment of Mysl cconorny is of a transitionai nature; 1977, 197 pp. discipline and lead to a higher Communist parties which gre$r its rnain substance is competition productivity of labour which Lenin noticeably stronger after the for- and cooperation, and its main ten- regarded as the most important mation of the Third, Communist This book is devored to the dency of development and most thing for the victory of the new International. FIe took a lively in- problerns of expanding and importalrt distinguishing feature is social system. terest in the course of revolutio- deepening international economic the growing rnight of the world Lenin's theoretical activity in the nary events in Bavaria and Hun- ties. of promoting diversified and socialist system. period under review was, as always, gary, hailed the news about the rnutually advantageous cooperation The book presents a well- very fruitful. On July I I and Au- formation of the Hungarian Soviet among all states within the argumented thesis on the growing gust 29, he delivered two lectures Republic. framework of the world economy. importance of foreign econornic

26r 269 ties to every country, and ernphas- deep and stable economic ties in The success of the policy of representation of Soviet economic ises that the world economie pro- the interests of the socialist nations. peace and security of nations and associations and organisations cess involves a struggie of ptogres- Using the example of the realisa- the implementation of the princi- abroad. sive forces for the dernocratisation tion of the Comprehensive Prog- ples of peaceful coexistence of The author describes in detail of the very system of world ramme for socialist economic integ- states with different social systems the structure and mechanism of economic ties, for the establish- ration and of iong-term goal- have served as the key prerequisite economic ties between the USSR ment in that system of the princi- oriented programmes, the author for intensive expansion of and the capitalist states, cites exten- ples of equality of states, mutual outlines methods of solving prob- economic ties between the USSR sive data on their trade and other benefit and renunciation of dis- lems of energy and raw materials and the capitalist countries. As forms of cooperation, and stresses criminatory measures. and coping with questions pertain- Maximova notes, the building of a that the further development of The author makes a detailed ing to multilateral development of treaty-based legal groundwork for this cooperation will depend largely study of such forms of internation- mechanical engineering, intensifi- political relations on the principles on whether the recommendations of al economic cooperation as large- cation of agriculture, re-equipment of peaceful coexistence was paral- the Helsinki Conference on Security scale investment programmes, in- of the material-technical base of leled by the creation of an approp- and Cooperation in Europe are dustrial projects, cooperation in the light industry, and rational riate international legal system for carried out. The book contains a production, and joint enterprises. development of transport systems. economic cooperation. noteworthy analysis of the objective These forms..are characterised by inevitably arise An important place is dedicated The book examines the main difficulties whictr extensive chaiaqter, completeness to the USSR's economic relations components of that system: the due to differences in socio-economic exchanfe advanced systerns and the of with the developing countries, complex of bilateral agreements on and which should be resol- know-how. Many qf these prog- and joint whose role in the world economy economic, industrial, scientific ved through efforts and with ramrnes are carried, out with the technological cooperation; long- due regard the peculiarities and international politics has for of help of foreign credirts to be repaid programmes develop- each system. grown considerably in these past term for the part the products the cooperation; specialised Maximova's study is marked by a with of of vears. The author shows the essen- ment of enterprises concerned. The very inter- rational approach to the problems tial difference between the assis- bilateral agreements; fact that the busin€ss world the governmental joint commissions corrcerned and by an explicit and in tance given to these countries by West readily undertakes such coop- set parity logical presentation of the material. the Soviet Union and the "aid" of and other bodies up on a with the USSR its is interest as eration points to the imperialist powers, and ples- basis; non-governmental orBanisa- It of to the specialist profitability and commercial advan- trade well as to the general reader the ents abundarrt factual material on tions for the promotion of in tages. economic cooperation; rep- USSR and other countries. the quantitative and qualitative and The monograph makes a com- resentation of foreign companies parameters of the USSR's prehensive analysis Soviet and banks the Soviet and E.Obminsky of the economic, scientific and technologi- in Union positions world Union's in the cal cooperation with the young economy, and describes the specific states. The socialist countries' ex- features relations of its economic panding ties with the developing with each the three groups of of states facilitate the restructuring of Ilpo6neum oxpyxatou4eil cpedw a to the utilisation of natural re- socialist, develop- states-the the the latter's economy and social life *rupoaoit, sKoltroMuKe u Mntc- sources has been carried out by the ing, and the industrialised capitalist along progressive lines, promote dyuapodu,wx ornwoweHltnx. Ore. authors of the book under review, states. the strengthening of their national pe4. P. A. Hosuxos. IU., usa- who are associates of the Institute The scales, forms and methods (MbIc Economy economies, especially the state sec- Bo b>, 1976, 359 crp. of the World and Inter- cooperation socialist of of the tor, and help to carry out the national Relations of the USSR countries among themselves manif- Problems af Ertuironment in the \lrorld general task of dernocratising inter- Academy of Sciences. relations fundamentally Econorny and, Intemational Rela- est of a national relations as a whole. The acute world ecological situa- new type. The rnain characteristic ti.ons, Ed. by R, A. Novikov, Mos- tion calls for the objective need of of these relations is that they rep- The book also deals with the cow, Mysl Publishers, 1976, 359 including the solution o{ this prob- resent an interrelated and regu- determination of the Soviet Union pP. lem in the system of national lated process of international and other socialist countries to trelp priorities of a number of countries, socialist division of latrour, the in- reshape international economic re- A study of a rvitle range of the actual success of the implernen- tegration of national economies lations through the abolition of all international aspects of environ- tation of the tasks set on both and evening of economic develop- types of inequality and the estab- mental protection and of the ap- national and international levels, ment levels, and the formation of lishment of a new economic order, proaches assumed by various states horvever, to a considerable degree 'i 270 I 271 depends on the social structures of disposal of the socialist srates. The A.O.flAIXflAM?IPOB. Hat4ua w most important feature of such iluuxocmb. a Eary, usA_uo "Dnu,, c,ooperation, the authors stress, is 1976,22G crp. that it is subordinate to the promo_ tion of the growth of the national A. F. DASHDAMIROV. The Nation ing of work- i and the Inditti.dual, Baku. Elm ialist country, Publishers, 1976, 226 pp. might of the to the effec- of resources as an important source of No less important today is economic growth. I another element of the methodolo_ I The same section shows the li_ gy by the aurhors, .used that is, mited.opportunities of the cooper_ thelr attempt to revea! the dialecti_ ation in the field of envilonmental community also belong cal interconnection between the to the indi_ protection, which is artificiallv con_ viduals it consists of, problem tal protec_ fined ana the prob_ to rhe frarneworks of NATO Iem was not treated whatsoever. tion on and strch and OECD. cardinal r times as attention to detente. The success of the meas_ in this field is connect its in plementation of the Final Act of in thc Conference on Security and lu- Cooperation in Europe. tions and documents. European congresses and inter_state confer_ The first section of the monog_ ences on the raph protection of environ- reveals the content and glob"al ment and the development scope of the problems of of environ- transporr and energerics might ment and natural resources, be discus- lmporrant landmarks along this ses a number of possrble ap_ road. proaches to their anaiysis: u."".d_ Of interest is the section dealing ing to their contenr, the functional with sorne non-Marxist norrns and geographical theoriei levels of trying to find their manifesrarion; and rhe sncio- economic preconditions for ecolog_ ical contradictions. ixrll,""ffi;1 The aurhofs countries concentrate on the and socio_economic suggesting wavs of overcoming ii. antl political aspec[s of the interna_ The analysis contained in the b"ook tional measures to protect rhe envi_ of these ecological theories, both answer. gradually, procseding ronment, which, in their view, are economic Irorn realisecl and foreign_political, general caregories of historical on four levels; global, reg_ convincingly prove$ ional, subregiona.l, " theii ciass nar- rnaterialism: social being, socio_ and Lilateral. rowness and their authors,incapa_ A special section is economic formation, rnodi of pro_ devoted to bility of finrlinq cardinal methods of duction. the structure and orientation of th such measures on socio_ In the structure of a socio- all the four a blems economic levels. It opens with an analysis forrnation as a social of th rotec_ the most e{fective forrns and rnethods of coopenation in environ_ mental protection, that are at the (l.Khozin

272 278 to the individual, as is often the National affiliation, however, ist national culture, the achieve- the individual and the nation to case, but regards them as various does not solve all the problerns of ment of actual equality of nations, widely use the ipternational experi- aspects of the individual's links the links between the individual their cornprehensive development ence. Under socialism, inter- with the national community and, and the nation. The question arises and drawing together on an inter- nationalism serves as the basis for in this tight, gives its detailed of the "degree of intensity" of the national basis, the formation of a the enrichrnent of national cul- analysis. links, their stability, etc. To charac- I new historical comruunity-the tures, for the individual's nraster- The individual's "national affilia- terise the intensity and stability of Soviet people characterise the basi- ing the cultural achievements of his tion" and "national definitiveness" the links between the individual cally new relations between the own and other peoples. The new are key notions used by the authol and the nation, the author uses the individual and the nation under society moulds a man of a new in giving a generalising characteris- category of the "individual's na- socialism. Carrying on profound socialist type, a patriot- tic of the links between the indi- tional definitiveness". It character- transformations of human social internationalist, to whom all man- vidual and the nation. National ises the peculiarity of the individu- relations, socialism frees man from ifestations of nationalism, national affiliation reflects the objective fact al's spiritual world to the extent to I all types of social, national and egoism and arrogance are alien of the individual's belonging to a which this peculiarity is derermined spiritual oppression, creates ever and the feeling of internationalist certain comrnunity with its system by his adoptiorr of natiorral culture. more favourable conditions and duty is a distinctive feature. The of links and relations and, at the The preservation and develop- prernises for his free and corn- author notes justifiably: "Ideology same time, his personal attitude ment of national culture is possible prehensive development. The au- and social practice of international- towards the fact. In other words, it oniy if and when it becomes the thor pays special attention to that. ism are, therefore, a most impor- has its objective and subjective property of the peoPle who form Under socialism, the individual's tant factor of the allround develop- asijects. The individual realises his the given community and if and social and national affiliation ment of the individual." national affiliation and identifies when it is manifested irr their gradually loses its meaning of a The author is confident when he himself with a certain national activities, attitude towards reality, barrier on the road of his social deals with the questions which he comm,trnity, as he himself is the social intercourse, etc. On the and cultural development, taking believes have been solved and, at vehic/e of the specific national fea- other hand, the nation becornes a into account the elimination of the sarne time, he spotlights the tures which distinguish one nation form of the individual's social social and national antagonisrns problems that are still awaiting frcim another. being when he rnasters its culture. and an ever broader drawing of solution, which adds to the favoura- National affiliation determines Therefore, the author concludes the nations in the process of inter- ble impression of the book. the individual's inclusion (mediated that it is "under the influence of national cooperation and develop- by his class affiliation) in the sys- national culture that the individu- ment. Internationalism obliges both V.Kelle tem of economic relations of the al's national definitiveness is taking given nation, whose specifics are a shape". major factor in moulding the per- In a short review it is difficult to sonality. The economy, of course, give a. detailed comment concern- B.I{. BEPHAACKIU. Pos,ilauuc- The works of the noted Soviet should be considered not in isola- ing all the notions used by the HUn rumypafiu cma. II pocmPaHcril- scientist V, Vernadsky, which con- tion but in unity with the socio- author in his comprehensive @ u apeMn a tcuaoil u rieJrcu@tt tain investigations of specific scien- political and cultural rievelopment theoretical analysis of the problems npupa&. M., usg-ao pa- are winning an increasingly impor- has a great role to play in its life. analysis; he is interested in the Jruqna. Haytuaa Jubtclb KaK Lfia- tant place in the arsenal of contem- For the individual, it is the habitat, practical significance of tliis or that HeruapH@ fl*leHue. M., usg-uo porary scientific knowledge and the rnotherland with which he is theoretical solution, in its connec- , 7977,197 crp. arousing a lively interest. The bound by a whole set of national tion with current protrlems of the V. I. VERNADSKY, Reflections of a books under review present rnateri- sentiments. The author ernphasises national liberation movement and Naturali;st. Space and Time in als from Vernadsky's archive, most that the specific national features natioilal development. Liuing and, Non-L'iai,ng No.ture, of which were not published be- ane formed also by the social milieu The last section of the book is Moscow, lrlauka Publishers, fore. I'or the first time we are able rvith its crwn traditions, nol fllsJ devoted to the relationship of the r975,173 pp.; V.I. VERNdDS- to familiarise ourselves with the values, etc. A rnan joins the nation- nation and the individual under KY, Reflections of a Naturalist. whole system of thoughts of the al life and culture by means of socialism. i-he elimination in the Scienti.ffu 'fhought as a Planetary scientist. This is particularly impor- national language, an inalienable USSR of social and national an- Phenomenan, Moscow, Nauka tant due to the encyciopaedic na- sign of national affiliation. tagonisms, the emergence of social- Publishers, 1977, 191 pp. ture of his activity-his investiga-

274 215 tion of problerns of natural science that embraces contemporary scien- put the emphasis not on the tenden- possibility and social methodological problems tific knowledge in the aggregate that human society may exist in a single context. and in all its completeness. for an infinite period of time as far as the necessary material and Throughout the course of his Vernadsky has not mar:raged to scientific activity Vernadsky paid create a methodologically perfect significant attention to the heritage theory on the noosphere: his pub- of the past, the object of his study lished works and archive materials being not only the works of natunal contain only rough drafts. How- scientists but of philosophers as ever, the publication of th,e new socrety. and the objective conditions for the well. FIis generalisation of histori- texts no dc,ubt makes for a deeper In tl]e early 1920s, Vernadsky irarmonising the man-nature rela- cal-philosophical or natural- understanding of his views on the was quite aware of the intensifica- tionship in the process of transforrn- scientific proLrlems is combin,ed noosphere. On the othc'r hand, the tion of the contradictions between ing the biosphere into the noos- with a pur"ely scientific approach" genesis and cleveloprnent of the { man and his environrnent. The phere, example, in exarnining the becorne, t way X'or concept of the noosphere t: out of the situation, he be- In Vernadsky's reflections the to concept of symmetry he turns in ourr view, more logical when we lieved, lay, in addition to the solu- concept of the noosphere of E. Le scientists i the works of natural come to the essence o[ another tion of the problems to be achieved Roy and Teilhard de Chardin is (L. Pasteur, etc.) as weil as to those concept of Verrradsky-the con- by socialisnr, in changing rhe forms given a significant rnaterialistic in- of Kant. It is his anal1,si5 of rnateri- cept of "the autotroPhic nature of of nourishment and sources of ter:pretation. Vernadsky em phasises al on natural science and mankind", This concept presents energy. He had no doubr that the fact that in the evolutionary philosophy, including data of a c,rrre of several possible ways of scienrific achievernents would facili- pro€ess rnan becornes a factor of historical nature, that brought Ver- removing the contradiction be- tate the practical implementertion geological anci global rnagnitude. nadsky to the corlclusion ttrat the tween the relative limiteriness of of his rdea. His assessment of the He attributes man's exclusive r.ole principle of symmetry is one of the thc natural resolrrces of the bios. possibility of synthetic production in nature to his rbason-a most fundamental principles crf the sci- phere, the growing requirements t'lf foodstuffs was quite optimistic. powerfill lever for transforming entific outlook. FIis rational combi- of social production, and the de- Re'cent investigatioris carried out the domain of the living. This nation of the natural-scientific and generati,/e changes in nature. under the guidance of, among phenomenon is interpreted by Ver- philosophical aspects of the prob- Analysing the prospects of de- others, Acadernician A. Nes- nadsky on the basis of dialectical grasp the m-eyanov lem enabled hirn to veloprnent of mankind from the showed that the probiem notions where man's reason is di, scientific category "lpace-tirne" of artificial of viewpoint o[ the evolution of his synthetic nour"ishrnent rectly linked with work. with refer:ence is not and its development attitude towards nature, Vernadsky so unreal zrs it seemed a few The scierrtist is ;iware of the to biological objects. comes to the conclusion that there difficulties obstructing the rationai One of the characteristics of is quite a real possibility of man forrnation of the noosphere. yet he Vernadsky's scientific outlook is his being transforrned frorn a socially trooks at the future clevelopment of urge not only to develop new ideas heterotrophic creature (i.e., depen- civilisation with the. optimism and concepts referr:ing to concrete dent on nature for his material and characteristic of him. He notes that century) appears as areas of natural science, but also to energy supply) into a sor:ially aut,ot- the dominant the 20th century is witnessing a factor for the long-term unify them in a conceptual context. rophic one (relatively not depen- supply of kind of scientific explosion which man with energy. other words, the scientist has dent on nature for his viability). If Practically speak- justifies mankind's onrvard march trn rngr conternporary treen systernatically searching for in the process of evolution autot- notious of the towards the noospher.e. This march atitotrophic nature contemporary rophic rllan{s adapted themselves of mankind are may tre delayed but not halted, for ways of synthesising l1o rnore than knowledge in natural science, en- to direct utilisation of inorganic a conceptual affir- the process of "rationalising" the mation of the thesis gineering and sociology. He is fully elernents of the biosphere, therr about the need biosphere is regarded by Vernads- for a fundamental transfonmation aware ihat the division of scientific autotrophic rnan must! for the ky as a natural stage in the trans- of society's technological knowledge as a whole into the same purpose, place between him- activity formation of human habitat. The for the purpose of preventing tech- prospects of science and technolo- r.raditional disciplines is inacXequate self and his environment the ap- nogenic regarcls the state of conternpor- propriate implernenrs of produc- pollution of human gy are considered by him for the as habitat. ary science. In his opinion, the tron. most part in the social context. He Vernadsky's problern of the biosphere and the In other wol'ds, to elaborate on conceptual theor.ies stresses time and again that the on the autotrophic noosphere is ;rn integral prnblern Vernadsl<.y's proposition, we should nature of man- concept of the noosphere which i

280 2tl ern cinema, the contradictory on the contrary, it enriches it; nationalist unity of socialist culture' Soviet people. The interaction and evolution of the bourgeois cinema international culture is not without The authors subject to criticism the mutual enrichment of national cul- are discussed in the report by national ties, even more, it rests on idealistic and reactionary theories tures is an integral Part of the A. Karaganov. the allround development of na- of "a national form". process of the formation and con- A central task of the allround tional cultures. Soviet scholars consistently come iolidation of the new historical st,rdy of culture is indisputably the Soviet artistic culture vividly re- 1 out against turning the national community, one of the main reg- elaboration of the relationship be- flects the dialectics of the interna- form of culture into something ularities of the emerBence and tween the international and the tional and the national in de- self-contained. Soviet culture, development of a single universal national in the socialist spiritual veloped socialist society. In the socialist in content, varied in its culture of the future communist culture of the Soviet people, of the collective work Interaction of Litera- national forms and internationalist socrety. dialectics of the flourishing, draw- tures and Artisttc Culture of De- in spirit, is a concrete expression of ing together and mutual influence aeloped Socialism the authors focus the historical communitY of the V" Kairyan of the culture of the socialist na- attention on the general problems tions and nationalities. This scien- of socialism's spiritual culture at its present stage and the functions of tific problem too attracted the in- B.M. IIOAEBOilI. Llcxlccmeo lPe- Greece as a particular phenorne- the future and terest of the authors of the works artistic culture in t4uu. T" l. nwP. M., non in the orbit of Byzantine art, the ,{peexuil discussed. their mutual enrichment, r.[34-Bo nLlcrycctno", 1970, while the modeln and contemPor- M. book socialist realism as a Kulichenko in his theory of 327 crp. r.2. CPednue aexa. M., ary art of Greece had never been Strengthenin! of the Internationali,st creative method of rnultinational tI3A-Bo ol4cryccrnor, 1973, the subject of a special studY. In literature. Unitty of Sauipt Society expiores the Soviet 350 crp. r.3. Hoaoe ePena.M., the volumes under review the au- problem of the economic, political, The wealth of developed social- H34-Bo xY4ox- thor traces the process of how the founda- ism's spiritual culture and the dif- "Cosercrufi ideological and cultural anr.x", L975, 445 crp. country preserved and multiPlied tions of the internationalist unity of fusion of artistic experience, the its artistic traditions. society, of the steady strengthening interaction and rr iutual enrichment V. M. POLEVQY, The Art of Greece, ln the opening chapters the re- of this unity in the process of the of literatures, the mutual exchange Vol. l. Tke Ancient World, searcher, relating the history of the gradual drawing together of na- of creative achievements on the Moscow, Iskusstvo Publishers, imitative arts to archaeologY, tions and nationaiities on the basis basis of the method of socialist 1970, 327 pp. Vol. 2, The speaks of the origin of art: {rorn of socialist internationalism and realism, the diversity of the aesthe- Mid.dle Agaq Moscow, Iskusstvo simple signs to symbols, to decora- mutual efforts in building com- tic contacts between the various Publishers, 1973,35O PP. Vol. tive designs and images' The au- munlsm. literatures are the subject of re- 3, Moilem Tirues" Moscow, thor; is not afraid to say franklY The author examines the spiritual search by G. Lomidze, Z. Kedrina, Sovetsky khudozhnik Pub- what the masters of olden or more foundations of the drawing to- Z. Osmanova and Ya. Elsberg. In lishers, 1975, 445 PP. recent times could do or could not gether of natiorrs and nationalities their articles B. Byalik, do. He finds the right tone, the Kuteinikova, N. Nadyarnykh and whose spiritual comrnunity is A. This fundamental research bY exact words for characterising the A. contemPorary characterised by the traits in the Khaitrov show V. Polevoy, D.Sc.(Art), is divided aesthetic quality of monuments. consciousness and culture of the Soviet literature's response to th€ into three volumes the first of Poievoy's work is, in our oPinion, a working people of all the development of tl"le Soviet man, to which is devoted to the ancient fine example of profound know- nationalities which have taken the changes in the forms, methods second to the Middle ledge of the subject being com- portray- world, the shape on one class basis, on the and aesthetic canons of his Ages, and the third to modern bined with a concise and often basis of internationalism. al in literature and also to the The pivotal theme in all elegant form of exposition. makeup. times. In his elaboration of the criteria changes in his spiritual three is the destiny of one country The sections "Frorn Primitive concerning the correlation of the The books reviewed explore a and one people, and its culture- Culture to the Culture of the international and the national in large complex of problems con- Here it is pertinent to note the Classics" and "Classical Antiquity", or another with the sphere of spiritual culture the nected in one way author's innovation: he is the first which occupy the bulk of the first problem national forms of author proceeds from the follow- the of to have written a general history of volume, are not only rich in infor- the different kinds of his- ing fundamental propositions of culture: Greek art from its incePtion to our mation, but also in the issues theY communities of people and Marxism-Leninisrrr: the really free torical times. Before that, there had been pose, issues not customarilY met socialist cultural re- development of nations; of every- culture; the a voiuminous literature devoted to with in literature. Polevoy gives an Soviet people-a new thing national does not in the least volution; the antiquity solely; books on the Mid- all-embracing definition of the en- run counter to the international; historical community; inter- dle Ages examined the art of tire inspired Greek "Golden Age":

2t2 289 i "All the laws of the world are in "Russian Art in Greece", which restraining communism adopted in The book has two distinct sec- the image of man." contains new materials from the 1949 for Eur-ope. The Korean War tions. The first one is of a prob- The high estimation given by the history of Russian-Greek cultural (1950-1953) and a system of ag- lematic character devoted to some gressive military and politicatr blocs irnportant aspect$ the {.IS Asian classics of Marxism-Leninism to the relations. It gives the reader a of significance ancient the were its main manifestations. That policy. The authors discuss in de- of art for sufficiently clear idea of the build- q development of human culture, ing and imitative arts in the t9th policy resulted in the arbitrary tail the evolution of this line of and their analysis of the historical and 20th centuries, right down to inclusion of Indochina in the Washington's international strategy, and cultural processes serve the the 1970s. The volume also tells of SEATO sphere of action in 1955 the discord among the US ruling author as a constant guide in his the period that was exceptionally and in the open US military inter- circles on Asian policy, the specifics research. unfavourable for artistic develop- ference in Vietnam in 1965. of American economic interests in In the second volume Polevoy ment; how even then Greek art The failure of that aggression Asia, the evolution of the policy of reasons objectively, thoughtfully and with preserved its faithfulness to was one of the main for blocs in that part of the globe, the tact scrutinises such challenging humaneness, truth and beauty. T'he the revision of the US Asian significance of the Pacific and In- problems as "iconoclasnn", actually author explores the irnpact of mod- policy. While R. Nixon's Guam dian oceans in US military strategy. an "anti-art movement"; the place ernism on the contemPorary art of I Doctrine (July 1969) substandated The second section analyses the US of Greek mediaeval art in the Greece. the "Vietnamisation" of the war as policy in relation to major states and framewort of Byzantine art and The concluding paragraph of a means of strengthening US allies subregions in Asia. Separate chap- the intercohnection of the art of the three-volume study is worth in Asia, G. Ford's Pacific Doctrine ters deal with the current state of the (I)ecember mediaeval Grilece and Ancient Rus, quoting; "Its path (Greek art) has 1975) was designed to IJS-Japanese and US-Chinese rela- The author 4lso writes at length been a glorious and difficult one. reduce negative impact of the US tions, Washington"s policy in the about architec{ure. This sizable In the great epochs it represented defeat in Indochina and to em- Middle East, South and Southeast part of his wor[ merits the highest the path of progress of world phasise that iri future Washington Asia, and Indochina. appraisal. Cogdntly, and with every culture, and mankind is grateful to will rely rnostly orr the US military Of key significance is the Iast attention to the ideological aspect, Greece for all that il has given to raight and US presence in the Far chapter of the monograph entitled Poievoy,' displaying a thorough the developrnent of human East, the Pacific, and the Indian "The USA and Some Current knowledge of the subject, speaks of thought and sensibilities.... The his- Ocean zone, as well as on the Problems of Peace and Coopera- urban, palace and church architec- tory of the art of Greece is not alliance with Japan, and an inten- tion in Asia", because the multilater- ture. over. It continues, oriented to- sified use of the "Chinese factor". al efforts of the recent years have The third volume is prefaced wards the future"" During the election campaign of resr-llted in the spread of interna- with an interesting "Introduction" Polevoy's fundamenral strrdy, re- 1976, President Carter made it tional detente over Asia. clear more than once that he where the scholar touches on the viewed here only in brief, natural- Asia's would remain faithful to the Asian As share in the I-IS global oft-debated question of East-West ly, is a landrnark achievement of policy constantly growing, the policy pursued by previous ad- is relations. Special chapters are de- Soviet scholarship. It was deserved- authors devote much space to voted to the folk and decorative- ly awarded a State Prize of the ministrations and, at the same time, would try to find more flexi- characterising Washington's policy applied art of later Greece. Of USSR in 1977. in the "post-Vietnarn" period. They indisputable interest is the chapter A. Sidorov ble ways to "stabilise" the situation in that part of the world. note that the growing might of the US economic penetration in Asia world socialist system and the US failure was especially intensive after the in Vietnarn have forced the Second World War. 'Ttre export of most far-sighted scholars and pnliti- Ilonwmuxo CIIIA a Aeuu. M., us4- in Asia and trace its evolutir:n be- cians in the United States to con- us nHayxa,, \977,272 crp. tween the end of the Second World state capital in the form of and sider seriously the neetl for changes War and the mid-1970s. economic aid between 1962 US PoLicy in Asi,o" Moscow, Nauka 1974 reached a total 35,300 in the traditiorral American ap- In 1945-1949, when the positions of mln Publishers, 1977, 272 pp. dollars about per proach to Asia. of old colonial powers in Asia or 70 cent of all (Britain, France, Holland) sharply the rnoney that the United States The Soviet ldea of ensuring spent ro aid the developing coun- peace an,:lsecurityinAsia through The monograph under review is weakined, the United States as- written by a group of associates of sumed an active role in the strug- trres. Between 1960 and 1974, di- the efforts by dsians themselves the Institute of US and Canadian gle against the national liberation rect Axnerican private investments has aroused great interest anrong Studies of the USSR Academy of movernent in that part of the globe in Asia grew frorn 2,300 mln to th,lse searching for a sourrd alter- Sciences. They analyse the US policy and applied to it the doctrine of 9,900 min dollars. native to the rleficient US policl, tt4 285 in Asia. R. Scalapino, R. Clough, Asian countries. In Asia itself, there E. Reischauer, G. Ball and other are also circles hostile to detente. eminent American politologists rec- An analysis of all that, neverthe- ognise possibilities of a construcrive less, gives the authors grounds for dialogue on these issues with the a conclusion that though the situa- BIBLIOGRAPHY Sovet Union and other Asian coun- tion in Asia differs frorn that in tries. Unfortunately, besides the Europe, the experience of the Con- positive trends, there are opposite ference on Security and Coopera- NEW BOOKS ON AFRICA forces in the USA that are looking tion in Europe can be successfully for modernised means of achieving used in Asia" the US traditional expansionist Below we publish annotations o with economic, goals, for new allies in the Maoist S.Tikhvinsky, socio-political, historical and interna f the continent, Sciences, in Chinese leadership and among the Corresponding Member, prepared by the lnstitute of Africa, of reactionary military in a number of USSR Academy of Sciences 1975-1977.

Afri,ca in Mod,ern and Contennpor- main tvpes of prog- ary Times. Collection of Articles, Ed.. lrjffir:"d by G.Nersesov and V. Subbotin, Struggle the Liberation of the Moscow, Nauka Publishers, 1976, lor Colonies i,n Africa. Collec- 212 pp. Portuguese tton of Artr,cles, Ed, by V. Solodov- The crrllection treats of the social and political history of Tropical nikov, Moscow, Nauka Publishers, 1975, 304 pp. Africa, focusing particularly on the articles this collection national liberation rnovement. The in are concerned with the problems of Africa: Froblems of Socialist Orien- the national liberation struggle in tation, Ed. by G. Starushenko, Mos- Angola, Mozambique and Guinea cow, Nauka Publishers, 1576, 477 Bissau. They have been contri- PP. buted by the African liberation The monograph examines the leaders A. Cabral, S. Mashela, ways in which the Marxist-Leninist A. Neto, General Secretary of the theory of non-capitalist develop- Portuguese Communist Party ment is realised in the African A. Cunhal, and also Soviet authors. continent in the most diverse sphe- res of life-political, economic, As Seen by African Histortans, Ed. ideological, etc., and analyses both by V. Subbotin, lvloscow, Nauka Pu- the positive and negative experience blishers, 1977, lb4 pp. of the countries concerned. The collection contains papers of eight African researchers devoted S. A. Bessonov, National Planning mainly to problems of modern and and Economtc Deaelopment of Africart contemporary history and to the Countries, Moscow, Nauka Pub- historiography of tire colonial lishers, l9?5, 408 pp. period, The author offers an analysis of the practice and theory of national L. V. Goncharov, Export ai Capital planning in the African countries to the DereLoping Countries of Africa, that have liberated themselves, its Moscow, Nauka Publishers, 1975, place and role in their econornic 342 pp. progress, surveys the system of The author investigates the es- state planning that evolved at the ence, forms, methods and consequ- beginning of the 1970s, i'.s organ- ences of the expor'" of capital in

281 conditions of the emergence of The author analyses the coun- M. A. Kuznetsova, East Africa: stitutions of a communal type in sovereign states in the place of try's economy in the colonial Problems of Integration, Moscow, Africa. former colonies, analyses a wide period, Portugal's policy towards Nauka Publishers, 1977, ll2 pp. range of problems now confront- Mozambique's economic develop- Economic interdepedence in the Organisation ,f African Unity ing the exporters of capital as a ment and its foreign economic framework of the East African (Collecti,on of Documents), trssue 3, result of the break-up of the colo- relations. community whose members are Ed. by R. Tuzmukhamedov, Mos- cow, Nauka Publishers, 1976, 279 nial system, the scientific and tech- History of the National Ltberati,on Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania, is PP. nological revolution and the Struggle of the Peoples of Alrica in discussed by the author from two change in the balance of forces in main aspects: the role and impor- The collection includes the resol- Iulodcrn Ti.mes, Ed. by M. Frenkel, utions and declarations of the As- the world arena in favour of Moscow, Nauka Publishers, 638 pp. tance of economic union in tackl- socialism. ing rnajor 'tasks of econornic de- sembly and Council of Ministers of The book is written b), associates the OAU in 1970-1973, the rnes- of the Institutes of Africa, Oriental velopment; the mechanism of East The Stole Sector in Cauntries ol African integratir r and its main sages of Soviet leaders to sessions Afric*, Ed. by L. Alexandrovskaya, Studies and World History, USSR. of the Assembly and other docu- Acaderny Sciences, jointly forms. .Moscow, Nauka Publishers, 1976, of with ments that have a bearing on the scholars of the German Democratic 296 pp" '\ Neocoloni.alism i,n Afri,ca i,n the OAU. This problem, a prr.rcial one for Republic and Polish People's Re- 1970s (Regulariti.es and Specifi,c public. For the first time in Soviet Features the Anti-Imperialist A. S. Pokrovsky, Monopoly Capital the developnrent of the Third "f World is the topic ,rof the book. It Iiterature facts are collected on the Struggle), Ed. by E. Kamenev, in the Countries of Southem Africq Africans against elaborates, actually-rfor the first time struggle of the Moscow, Mysl Publishers; Sofia, Moscow, Nauka Publishers, 1976, in Marxist literattire of Africa, pro- European expansion in the l7ttrr- Bulgarian Acaderny of Sciences 179 pp. century, showing the discloses nature blems as generalisation of the expe- early 20th Publishers, 197b, 437 pp. The book the early"sta8es political protest, the rience ofnationalisation in the coun- of In this joint work Soviet and and scale of the activities of the emergence class tries of this continent, the role of the of the working Bulgarian scholars, basing them- monopolies in the Republic of and its first actions, the activities of state sector in the national strategy selves on earlier scientific studies of South Africa, Rhodesia, Namibia, the press. Zarnbia, of their developrnent, as an analysis neocolonialist problems in Africa, Angola, Mozambique, of its structure, of the methods of its I. T' Katogoshchina, Tha Intel- examine these problerns in the Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland, and planning and financing and of in- ligentsia of N'igeria(Emergence. Role in 1970s, show their long-term ten- Malawi. The author discusses the issues terstate economic organisations. the Political Life of the Country), dencies and analyse the new histor- most topical connected with Moscow, Nauka Publishers, 1977, ical experience. the exploitation by transnational The Study of Africa i,n R.ussia (Pre- 238 pp. companies of the manpower and Reuohttionary Period,). Collectian of natural resources of Southern Afri- The author expl

288 28S Social Changes in thc Indcpendent complex of Soviet-African relations Countries of Africo. Collecti.on of in their initial stages and subsequent "Problerms of the Contemporary Woild" Series Articles" Ed. by L. Yablochkov, Mos- development. It summarises the cow, Nauka Publishers, 1977, 216 nearly l5-year experience of the PP. Soviet Union's cooperation with Dear Reader, This study aims to show the African countries in the political, The Editorial Board publishes mimeographed collections of correlation of social forces, struc- economic, scientific and cultural articles by Soviet scientists dealing with problems of current tural changes and socio-political sphere. interest and intended for scholars and research institutions. orientations the in the continent, Below we list the collections put out in 1976-1978 and those being essence of which may be summed prepared for press. up as society's emergence from the M. Social Thought colonial state. Yu. Frenkel, in We take this opportunity to thank our readers for the interest Briti^sh West Africa in the Seconil they have shown in the collections and for the comments and The USSR and Cquntries ol Afri- Half of the 19th Century Moscow, suggestions they have sent us on their content and topics. Nauka Publishers, 1977, 295 pp. The author traces the history of The Editorr the evolution of social thought in Already published: the British colonies of West Africa- Nigeria, the Gold Coast, Sierra 'tempt 1976 at a study - of the whole Leone, Gambia. Public Opinion in World Poli.tics-Entq., Fr., Ger., Span. Souiet Studies on the Second World War-Eng., Fr., Ger., Span. Time, Space and Poli,tics-Eng., Fr., Span. Souiet Geographical Studies-Eng., Fr. Zionism: Past and Present-Eng., Fr., Span. The Classics of Russian and Souiet Li,terature-Eng., Fr., Ger., Span. Non-Alignment: Its Friends and Adaersaries in World Politics- Eng., Fr., Span. Souiet Ethnography: Main Trends-Erg. New Indian Studies by Souiet Scholars-Eng. Mirand,a, Boltoar and Pd,ez i,n Soui,et Archiaes-Span.

le77 Philosophical Concepts in Natural Sciences-Eng., Fr., Ger., Span. The World Populati,on Tod,ay (Ethnod,emographic Processes)- Eng., Fr., Ger., Span. Theoretical Aspects of Li.nguisti,cs-Eng., Fr., Ger., Span. Soui.et Studies in US Hi,story-Ene., Fr., Span. French Studies by Soai,et Scholars-Fr. The Law of the Sea: Topi,cal Problems-Eng., Span. Ethnography and Related, Sciences-Eng. Resaurces and Econornic Growth-Eng., Fr., Ger., Span. Soaiet Studies in the Hi.storl of Sci.ence-Eng., Fr., Ger., Span. H ist oric al M aterialism : T he ory, M etho dolo gy, Prob le tns-Eng., Fr., Ger., Span.

291 Remaki,ng of Nature Und,er Soci,alisrn. Desert Deuelopment in the V. L Lenin Karakum Canal, Zone-Eng. The Great October Reaolution and, the World Social Progress-Eng,, Fr., Ger., Port., Span. r978 CONTRIBUTORS TO TIIIS rcSUE A.Samsonov, Pages From the History of the Anti-Fascist War-Eng., Ger. Bourgeoti Democracy and Human Rights-Eng., Fr., Ger., Span. P.FEDOSEYEV, Academician, Vice-President of the USSR Academy of Sci- ences; Chairman of the Social Sciences Section of the Presidium oI No! io Racism and, Apar'theid-Eng., Fr., Port., Span. the USSR Academy of Sciences; Chairman of the Editorial Council yorlih of our journal. Author of works on the dialectics of present-day in the Modern Socie$-Eng., Fr., Ger., Port., Span. social development, the interaction of the productive forces anil Frd:m the Histori,cal Experience of the Leninist Komsomol-Eng., production relations, the role of the masses and the individual in Fr., problems Span. history, and on of humanism. His main works are: Communism and Philosophy and Marxism in the 20th Century. Marx, Engels, Lenin and Our age. and the Youth-Eng., Fr., Span. ov, The Unity of Social and Sci,entific Progress

P. Zhilin, The Second World War and Our Time-Eng. T.Timofeyev, The Worhing Class and Soci,al Progress-Erg. V. Sofinsky, G. Bondarevsky, Non-Alignment: Its Fri,ends and Aduer- saries i,n World Politics-Eng., Span. (2nd ed., enlarged) Philosophy and, the Warld-Views of Modem Science-Eng., Fr., Ger., Span. V.AFANASY , Editor-in- Aestketi,cs and, the Deuelapment of Literatwre-Eng., Fr., Ger., Span. ur journal. including Constitution of the USSR: Problems of Theory and Poli,cy-Eng., Fr., nd Educa- Ger., Port., Span. The Development of Souiet Law and turisprudcnce-Eng., Fr. v.KuzMrN, V. Trukhanovsky, The USSR: Sixty Years of Struggle for peace (parts I and Itr.)-Eng. Soaiet Studies i,n Ethnograpfi1-Eng. Yu. Bromley, Ethnography and Ethnic Processes-Eng.

I.BLAUBERG, Cand.Sc.(Philos.), head of laboretory at the All-Union Systems Being prepared for press: Research lnstituts of the State Committee for Sclenc'e and Soaiet Studies i,n Soci,olo,g)-Eng., Fr., Ger., Span. Socialism and Human Rights-Eng., Fr., Ger., Fort., Span. Comparatiae Method in Soaiet Mediaeaal Studies-Eng., Fr., Ger.

firms and bookshops ing the firms listed at the to our subscribers by the

Editorial Office: 33/12 Arbat, Moscow, 12rcA2, USSR. OUR GLOSSARY

)

I G. SOROKIN, Correspo Socialist R r the USSR I including I \. Ptoblems '.. Economy.

the l9th century, the logic and methodology of science gradually isolated themselves from epistemology and traditionit formal logic and worked out their own specific set of tasks and problems, while in the 20th century they began to widely utilise the means of B.YUDIN, Cand study, characteristic mathematical (the sci of logic construction of in formal systems, analysis of the language of science, etc). an The Marxist concept of the logic and methodology of science Sc whose fundamental principles were elaborated by Marx, Engels and Lenin, uses materialist dialectics as the main method and theoretically and coherently reproduces the entire totality of concrete methods and Iogical means of modern scientific cogni- tion. In the logic and methodology of science we see a relatively isolated groups of problems, some of which are related more to E. KOVALEV, D. Sc. lnstitute of the Far East of the the study of the logical structure of science, while others are USSR lises in modern and contem' associated with zh analysis of the methodological nature of porary and ideology. ry scientific knowledge. The first group of problems includes the K. BRUTENT elaboration of the logical forms that express scientific statements b (special and general; statements describing the laws of rrature, I etc.), the study of the technique of proof in science (deductive d logic, inductive or probabilistic methods of reasoning), the logical substantiation of the forms of constructing scientific theories VI. AFANASY (axiomatic, hypothetico-deductive, constructive and other methods of constructing theories, analysis of the logical rules of verification and disproof (falsification) of scientific theories, etc. The problems Thought in the 1930s-1970s. of the methodological nature of scientific knowledge deal first and foremost with the definition of the general structure of scientific E.FYODOROV, Academician, Director of the lnstitute of Applied Geophysics of knowledge, the identification basic funcrions (descrip- the State Committee of Hydrometeorology and Environmental of its Control of the USSR. Author of numerous works on geophysics and tion,explanation and prevision); the classification of different types on the lntoraction of society and nature. of scientific knowledge (basic and applied); the ascertainment of mutual relations of science with other forms of human activity (chiefly with technology and production); the srudy of specific

295 concrete, the method analysed by Marx), on the questions of the char.acter and mechanisrns of revolutions in science, the determi- nation of conditions and criteria of rational scientific activity and the progressive development of science. SYSTEMS PRINCIPLE, SYSTEMS APPROACH AND THE GENERAL THEORY OF SYSTEMS are the forms of the theoretical awareness of the specific features, logical and methodological means of conducting systems investigations on a wide scale in modern science, technology and in the solution of current practical (industrial, organisational, administrative) tasks. Typical examples of systems research are the investigations of the global problems of the latter half of the 20th century that face various countries, regions and the world as a whole: provision of the world's population with the sufficient amount of fobd, control of environmental pollution, rational use of power and other natural resources, the creation of automated systems of the collection and processing of information, global computer com- plexes, etc. The systems investigations in science include the task of building a general theory of elementary particles, an integral theory of the human brain's activity, a theory of functioning and developing scientific knowledge, etc. In all these cases research (as well as projecting and designing) has as its object the systems (as a rule, super-complex systems)-large totalities of elements, inter- connected in a definite way and rnaking up an integral whole that enters into definite relationships with the environment and possesses its own laws of conduct and change. The broad introduction of systems research in science, technology and practical activities expresses a major feature of the contemporary scientific and technological revolution. If this research is to register success we have to elaborate its theoretical (philosophical and methodological) principles. The basic content of the philosophical principle of systems analysis consists in the fixation of the integrity of the world's

296 257 Our Mailbag

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