Palabras clave hindi. del hegemonía la surgió fuerzas de rrelación co esa de ycómo ypolítico social comportamiento adeterminado asociaban se idiomas sendos de características las cómo exploramos artículo este En paradójica. ocasiones y en compleja bastante es religiosa eidentidad lengua entre relación que vemos la Congreso, del Partido del que adoptó ‘izquierda’ la postura ala Atendiendo ymusulmanes. hindúes entre conenfrentamiento el parte gran en solapaban se ‘nacional’ oficial, lengua la como urdu o el hindi del 1930 de primacía sobre la los debates Pradesh y1940 décadas Uttar en las Durante Resumen Keywords of Hindi. rise the to characterise came behaviour and language between associations how these and behaviour, political and social of forms particular with were associated languages two of the characteristics which in ways the explore We will paradoxical. sometimes and complex was antagonism to religious tion in rela the rolelanguage of that suggest period this in Congress the of ‘left’ the on figures of However, politics the Muslims. and Hindus between antagonism of communal politics a with to interface assumed widely been has language ‘national’ apossible about debates in Urdu and Hindi between relationship of the question the 1930sIn Pradesh, 1940s and Uttar Abstract RETHINKING RELIGION AND LANGUAGE IN NORTH INDIA: IN LANGUAGE AND RELIGION RETHINKING Revista Canaria de Estudios Ingleses Estudios de Canaria Revista : Communalism, Hindi, Language policies, Urdu. policies, Language Hindi, : Communalism, RISE THE AND DISPUTE HINDI-URDU THE : Hindi, Política lingüística, Sectarismo religioso, Urdu. religioso, Sectarismo Política lingüística, : Hindi, DOI: https://doi.org/10.25145/j.recaesin.2018.76.03 DOI: OF RIGHT-WING POPULISM University of Leeds University William Gould William , 76; April 2018, pp. 29-44; ISSN: e-2530-8335 ISSN: 2018, pp. 29-44; , 76; April - -

REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 76; 2018, PP. 29-44 29 REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 76; 2018, PP. 29-44 30 common knowledge about non-religious/non-communal the largely associations despite issue, late colonial ‘communal’ increasingly an Hindi-Urdu became divide of how supposed but the presents asurvey themselves, of languages the terms in for example, Rai 1984; King 1994; Rahman 1999; Faruqi 2001 1999; Faruqi 1994; Rahman 1984; King Rai example, for in India. national language sequent literature exploring it. exploring literature sequent Urdu by sub itself, and reinforced been Hindi has, between arguably, division the Congress. National Indian the as such institutions political mainstream alongside and within both that workedtrend Hindu a with revivalist aligned The more sideclearly other was histories. composite of India’s nature social and essentially the embraced political that aproto-secularism accommodation, community of apolitics religious with (explored associated largely Sampurnand below), sideand was Hindustani the of thelikes of writings theTandon evidentin also is as Throughout, Hindustani. than side rather the of Hindi tended itself, press to which take Hindi the through conducted and in Abohar, was and of sessions HSS 1938-41 Banaras, at Simla, the through andraged peak Thereached its debate,which Sharma. Balkrishna P.D. Tandon, forscript, example, was, and V.N. Tiwari, Babu Sampurnand, competition with in Urduin effectively Nastaliq alanguage script, as Devanagri Bajaj. other On side, the the promoting in Hindi Jamnalal and Rajagopalachariah, Kalelkar, Vinoba Nehru, Bhave, Kaka Jawaharlal Prasad, of Rajendra likes the included This Urdu and conjoined of Hindi as languages. bases vocabulary and scriptural mixed the recognized which group, promoting alanguage ‘Hindustani’ one On the side split camps. a into was two vernacular— national ofidea asingle to sought promote that sphere the culture —the world’ of and ‘Hindi politics the as describe we might What 1930s, of script issue language. the and around mid by the media of country’s the mainstream north the emerged in clearly had debate that —a ofIndia late divisions colonial political most important HSS), (hereafter Sammelan Sahitya Hindi the within Devanagri— and —Persian scripts both in culture was violent, brutal and harking back to the days of Muslim empires? of Muslim days to the back harking and violent, was brutal culture whose foreign and motherland, their Iran and who considereddestroyers, Arabia come Sudha to terms, non-violent only land.’ worshipers who their considered India How image it could of protecting, cow ‘sansrkit’s language was the and it daughter Hindi, claimed, would ‘cremated’. be and costume Muslim half half-rustic, to put awkward on an would haveof it poor Muslims’. Hindi pious reported, of wishes Gandhi’s Because 3 2 1 And commentary. the subjectacademic extensive been of has divide This of Sudha reaction image-laden The 1936, to attempts promote toOn Gandhi’s 6January reaction in Hindustani

The literature on the Hindi-Urdu debate is extensive but can be explored in depth. See See depth. in explored be can but extensive is debate Hindi-Urdu the on literature The 1936. Sudha January 6 as a Hindi promoting organization principal —the Convention’ Literature The ‘Hindi 1 the newspaper Sudha newspaper the argued, with the communalist language of cow-eating image image of cow-eating language communalist the with argued, 3 This article will not revisit this well-trodden terrain well-trodden terrain this not revisit will article This described the Mahatma as a ‘blind devotee a ‘blind as Mahatma the described provides asnapshot into one of the 2 - here was, at least from the late 19 from the at least here was, more below, argue of accuracy lack the Iwill As rulers. of regional courts or shifting spoken it beyond permanent the was that sense the term, in amisleading But was ii Alam of Shah of court the mythologies and literary associations. It became a recognized language of poetry of poetry language arecognized It became associations. literary and mythologies Urdu time, develop same historical did its the own At Mughals. by the to India brought Urdu somehowpromoting that idea the language was ‘new’ ‘foreign’ —a and the variable roots of modern Hindi and Urdu and of roots modern Hindi variable to 12the relate scholars Most linguistic origin. of linguistic myths on certain drew themselves more complex afar reality, but obscured hagiography, histories of these nationalist most examples with As developments ofmobilisation to apure dialect. historical nationalist their belt tied Hindi the below, in see publicists political we will key as and of literature; ‘invention purposes of tradition’, aesthetic the served which adeliberate was this cases, many In contexts. to historical deeper references made promotion a‘Hindu’ as project. Hindi shaped that nationalism generated of forms cultural also ofregions India— most significant politically —the of India northern parts dominated protest that moment. right at the Secondly, a common of vernacular forms anti-colonial the promotion to the protest brought urgency populist anew and of of anti-colonial the forms Specifically, Urdu and of about debates Hindi in language. polarization the shaped period late colonial the in change of forms political particular that argue P.D.and will article The Pradesh. of Tandon state Uttar Indian northern the in of Sampurnand work the writings and particular possible, in exploring this made who andindividuals agencies the examine will article the of Thesecond part period. late colonial the in more community to closely related history, religious became which of India’s readings Urdu and political Hindi were which onto mapped in particular explore the ways will we article the of part first the In division. this accompanied on script, that explore but politics based the it will language to a bifurcated then and of dialects overlapping arange provenance with distinctive has that language at a we arrive by which means at the not look It detail in will language. each with Deccan in the 17 the in Deccan the in different times— at areas different in flourished which Dakhani, Rekhta, developed —Hindvi, forms shifting of temporally arange From languages, these Brajbhasha). and (Awadhi city of that East to the courts regional the and Delhi of courts the in origins certain ‘Hindvi’), had as describe scholars (what language Urdu became then eventually What of contexts. a range in use to related their also time, that from dialects variable These Brajbhasha. and were Awadhi east, further centuries, those of (Orsini period languages 2009). that in literary The Delhi spoken around language —a Boli developed to Khari eventually which dialects, Much of the debate around language, and specifically Hindi and Urdu,Hindi specifically and Much language, of debate the around The word ‘Urdu’, latethe in first appeared 18 which DEFINING HINDI AND URDU ORIGINS URDU AND HINDI DEFINING I. th Century and then in Delhi by the 18th. by the Delhi in then and Century of Delhi, was derived from the Turkish derived from the was of word Delhi, ‘camp’. th Century a deliberate nationalist construction, in in construction, nationalist adeliberate Century th and 13 and th Century in the writings writings the in Century th Century Prakrits and and Prakrits Century

REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 76; 2018, PP. 29-44 31 REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 76; 2018, PP. 29-44 32 used Urduused late 19 the in generally Samaj Arya the as such Hindu revival, the with associated organizations 29-37). (Metcalf Importantly, even overall language the of the significance affected novel, the and which journalism in used much more ofbecame aprose language, Urdu became It for elites. to educated Punjab, across this from Bihar India, north For levels. more and local at provincial vernaculars the and levels highest at the it English replaced with and of governance language the Persian as with dispensed changed in relation to government is crucial —in the 19 the —in relation to in government crucial is changed language extentthe which issue to of of This elites. language the as Persian itself gradually displacing, fact in currents, Persian literary with enriched was which India’s 2011). (Parekj histories Muslim misreadings in based misconception a popular was a ‘camp’A Grierson, Urdu language, largely that was G (1802), initially and ‘Bagh-o-Bahar’ Khan by up by Sir Syed later taken Ahmed in Amman assumption Mir of The into its dialects. other languages assimilated which distortion. 95%is a of This UrduSanskrit/Prakrit, in their haveroots verbs Turkish. Persian and Arabic, of as such invaders languages the with association via ‘changed’ been had that atongue and of governance somehow alanguage largely Urdu ideathat the was reinforced associations literary and social poetry. But these including of arts, the of rennaisance aperiod the was some this In ways, Deccan. the in earlier it Lucknow, flourished and had of although cities Delhi the in especially (Robinson 1974). (Robinson Urdu and of Hindi principle the equality script, of to an establish devanagri the movement in growing the writing publicists among took decision the to recognize of century.Provinces), 1900, In the turn at the Macdonnell Anthony Macdonnell United (later decisions of Lt Governor the the in of NWP the most directly this see We too, can on question of the language. to grafted be came community religious of position, politics the that from this it was And advance. reform or constitutional of political discussions acommon point of all reference became in setting, lingual ‘use’ a multi- in informal and its formal with of language association then, the of Century. From stage the turn the this on around ground the administration power its and colonial in transformations therefore corresponded critical to the debates language these in phase project crucial the The in of governance. languages ‘vernacular’ 1880s decisions took around and debates place onwards, dominion over India. their north to establish began British the as of governance although in many respects this was an invented an or ‘pseudo’ was this ancestor. respects many in although relationship to to 18th have‘Persian’, thought the a specific in was Century, which administration. What David Lelyveld describes as ‘language repertoires’ —the use use repertoires’ —the ‘language as describes Lelyveld David What administration. district of theits bases andsought rationalize to fiefdomssomerootin cases, out local attempted to of administration, 31), rules (Metcalf formalized state colonial the as older Nawabi an ‘decadent’ culture with Urdu to more be associated clearly came Far from being ‘foreign’ then, Urdu was an example of a local language, language, of ‘foreign’ alocal example then, from being UrduFar an was It was through the late 19 the through It was from the complex formal and increasingly power became colonial But as language Urdu most important then, the doubtless Persian script the in was, In the 18 the In th Century, Urdu emerged as a highly developed language of poetry, developed language Century, Urdu ahighly emerged as th Century. (Jones 1976). Century. (Jones th Century, and into the early 20 into early Century, and the th Century, the British British Century, the th Century, that Century, that none of these developments created a uniform or broad sense that the interests of interests none the developments or that broad of sense these auniform created 1997). (McLane Hindu-Muslim divide of apotential suggestion Nevertheless, the create still could Allahabad, tion applied of slaughter, cow to as such cities they as preven the as such issues local 1888the Congress, National session of Indian the of 1900s leaders 1910s. the and and publicists of some political of key the in And on horizon the something promotion to the certainly connected be was of Hindi might Hindu follow. community the that that idea the Certainly, of arguments the theme key form the will consideration. were How sustained they careful warrants and important extremely is about why at controversies all such and appeared came as this to competitive. The how question communally as representedbe earnest in 1920s the movements foruntil example, that, to for promotion the began of Hindi or controversy. antagonism Urdu not not Itand did generate was lasting to Muslims, onto to map, Hindi ‘Hindu’ for the it example, began community although tures, caste Vaishnavite belief (Dalmia 432-434). Vaishnavite (Dalmia belief caste Hindu to community, the high and unambiguously Hindi Sanskritised he linked andHindu identity defining in important were territory all and religion literature, language, journalist, based endeavours. For Banaras educational the and lishing pub through Hindi promotion his in Bharatendu of anationwide standardised Harischandra as such were led Nagri, by in figures language dominant and clearer promotion and around debates the in of Urdu. a to define Attempts Khan Ahmed 4-5). herewas Syed figure (Naregal Acentral promoted India across vernaculars the literati that to this reaction in it and was English, with associated literacy ‘high’ the were developed through hierarchies Colonial of rule. alanguage as power of English present ever the moreover, took against place of promoting issue the vernaculars endeavours, and therefore of centre at the these was Print culture about language. wereable to pursuits, open debates up such to literary publicise finance and skills the with those possible. And or of forms about debates new literature, language made tract and newspaper The journal, scale. developed on alarge journalism and publishing national and projects of the regional as just intense then particularly became or administration, for courts education, the or India, commerce, across courts. the and of administration to consider languages its power, it need the attempted as and to rationalize Indianisation, administrative anticipation colonial in of growth a accompanied 2005).also music They (Bhakle and literature included writing, and cut across which communication, of cultural promoted These forms new Gurukuls. the as such institutions, of revivalist a range movement, movements,versity but Khan’s also epitomized Aligarh by Syed Ahmed uni and —school institution were publics, of forms new educational reading new Alongside vehicle for the its discussion. became propagation, but also for language medium not physical the only created journalism and of subjects publishing and outputs the in Increases technologies: communication in to changes responding also was concerned, was change social autonomous as not an far being as entity 107-117). (Lelyveld imperialism of high phase this in hardened became Thestate, functions, different or for different places or in of Urdu, Hindi or dialect another For most up of period 1910s, to the the promotion litera the of vernacular region particular any in should used be aboutlanguages Debates which - - - -

REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 76; 2018, PP. 29-44 33 REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 76; 2018, PP. 29-44 34 tions between Hindi and Urdu consider and its relationship Hindi also therefore, we might between tions associa community religious ‘invented’ largely the exploring In reach. spatial and by Hindi’s demographic limited always was language it a‘national’ constituted that of politics regiontension over the with nation. other words, In its proponents’ claim country. the around colleges other in for teaching syllabi Hindi into for centre development the the of astandardised BHU slowly of developed too Hindu culture. heart the itself, considered atown as Banaras of significance and religious symbolic the to related This other institutions. not itto found brought be in with qualities education that ‘national’ and cultural of kind a particular to impart designed it was Aligarh, Like India. central and north belt, India’s through among Hindi the across interests raising Hindu landed fund of aUniversity.result of the establishment was the for University finance The the just than in off wider a significance had as a that projectBHU1905 started University, Aligarh to the similar a manner In Malaviya. Mohan by Madan driven project, Hindu University (BHU) Banaras by the furthered also was literati Hindi 141-142). (Dalmia language anational as of and Hindus of cause language The the as of Hindi cause the forwarding in were important by Babu Radhakrishnadas) Bhatt), Anandkadambini Hindi and patrika, Pratap (edited by Balkrishna Ksatriya Brahman, journals the Harischandra, as well As made. was Devanagri in publicising Hindi in progress some perhaps of most important that the literature and journalism However, of Hindi Hindi. cause the through it pushing was in Anglo-Vedic instrumental were also Dayanand the Colleges as such institutions, educational Samaj Arya The Pradesh. Uttar in courts of law the alanguage as Hindi promoting in end at the of century institution the a crucial was Sabha Pracharini 4-26). The Nagri (Kumar come out of had Samaj for Sabha the the of ameeting the idea that claimed Das, Sundar Shyam secretary, whose first Banaras, in based Sabha Pracharini Nagri the project, was this in Samaj Arya to the institution, linked important An controversies some of mostthat ofimportant raged. period the the of script issue the around it and was of Devanagri, use the script, particularly around entirely devoid nor Hindi, ofIntr.) was one Persian influences (Orsini that belt would have spoken Hindi neither the astandardised as to known be came what in that speakers most despitethefact was This of Hindus. language or ‘original’ of project the for rejuvenation the part as of ‘true’ Hindi, the sanskritised a highly concentratechose him, to the on promotionlike of figures and Dayanand period. theinterwar debates of laterlanguage defined and important, was intellectuals these 2-3). ch. (Jones by chosen form of Hindi Moreover, language national particular the to promote a desire the leaders as Hindi of other Bengali arange and Sen Chandra Keshub with shared Samaj, founder the of Arya the Saraswati, Dayanand revival. Hindu script were of centre project at the the of late nineteenth-century Devanagri the and about nation. For the Hindi tered example, discussions into broader political existed uniformly across the entire subcontinent. the across uniformly existed differences that such or difference; of religious by ideas defined be might populations The promotion in executedand always relationship to its Hindi of Urduwas revolved element A key promotion of century Hindi late nineteenth the in However, over en 1910s, up period the the increasingly of language issue the (edited - - - and the use of tradition to defend ‘national’ culture. to of defend tradition ‘national’ use the and of modernity,of acritique mobilization, anti-western of presupposed structures the to notions theissue language of wedded easily politics a Such difference. of cultural power the with endowed cosmopolitanism, vernaculars centre of at the urban placed was English which in hierarchies, of acontext in language politicization of mass or Urdu expression. developmentRather, the for were vehicles communal inherently Hindi that isargue This not to difference. of ethnic issues and questions, religious themes, developmentthe on rhetoric community more drew of that clearly political in autonomy. assisted offorms cultural of vernaculars use the other On hand, the encouraged vernaculars how promotion and the of particular language ‘national’ about debates new created India, of north societies and structures political new the in question one On the of the for Hindi’s hand place, example, question of vernaculars. the in rhetoric drew of itself political medium the because not least language, around poor (Gooptu 2001;workers to some landless and the extent, Intr). 2004: Gould blue —collar traders, small communities, of agrarian but increasingly years, previous of interests urban were Most notschools. importantly, representatives of they large the medium vernacular through educated or been had organisations, district and city the in teeth theirpolitical cut had leaders These districts. and into provinces the 1920s-30s the of foci power the pushed of as moremobilisations, dyarchy system or Urdu Hindi in tion political of of working publicists took place provincial the Simultaneously, genera anew were vernaculars. the communities of these languages 1978). (Pandey leverage anti-state and strength The electoral of building a means as or swallowed co-opted it increasingly had that worker and organisations peasant FromPresidency cities. 1920, not if much with earlier, pace forced to keep it was of elites the movement English-speaking cosmopolitan by dominated the been had that of workers. and language The peasants to doors open to the fees ship wealthy lowering its member constitution of Congress, the the rewrote 1920, Gandhi M.K. more In intensely political. became also question the of language Congress, National movement petitioning of Indian the beyond initial the expanded and extended ism national anti-colonial As assemblies. the and of streets politics the away from the 268-270). (Naregal of municipalities the dominance caste tamasha, the as such public performances non literary used which led by Phule, Samaj, Jotirao Satyashodak low by the —caste sphere challenged was educational and intelligentsia’s position literary the in caste intermediary high the 2001: 232-235). (Naregal vernaculars the and English in But both Pune, in ture officialdom, in of printed a corpus producing colonial litera and centres of urban intelligentsia the local between intermediaries as acted Society. organisations These Scientific and Students’ Bombay Literary earlier Society, the Education the and as such associations, by voluntary were furthered of politics bilingualism the and ture litera promoted, being Marathi was Hindi that period same the Over intellectuals. Bombay in presidency, pursuits Brahman literary led by Chitpavan high in place adominant late 1870, acquiring from the for was example, India western Marathi In of India. movements other parts in language parallel with to, similarities and This was important context then,contextthe for developmentimportant controversy was political of This never far was of journal politics the the period, late colonial the in India In to contest high to contest high - - - - -

REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 76; 2018, PP. 29-44 35 REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 76; 2018, PP. 29-44 36 December 1920, in Gandhi 1972: 22/25, vol. 1920, pp. 84-89. Gandhi in December 13 Calcutta’, in on Non-Cooperation Speech ‘Gandhi’s See Hindi. particular, in and vernaculars, of of knowledge terms in communities peasant rural and educated India’s urban between gulf the the politics of disadvantaged. politics the the with India in powerful politically by the more associated commonly was pursuits literary Perhapsthe sphere media. most significantly, popular of in vernacular and affairs, cultural in hierarchy of forms colonial recreated also India, in governance elites. literary and social the among bilingualism of complication the of because not least states, of most European experience the to different Intr.) very development was the spheres India in Certainly, of literary public private (Orsini and both matters overlapped unevenly between that beliefs and practices sphere ‘customary’.and to related cultural ‘customary’ For this Orsini, private layers —public, ‘private’, of three terms in society consider we Indian might of of atwofold division ‘public’ sphere, instead that literary and Hindi toence the refer with argued has for Orsini, example, Francesca modern period. the in society model of public at the European sphere looking in presented by Jurgen Habermas However, to sought complicate traditional India. the in haveways also most scholars the idea inof new public defined space which enterprises publishing and institutions public, who developed voluntary idea ofpresents the a hegemonic —class middle of ideaof ‘public the the use 2001). sphere’ (Orsini Naregal 2009; framework This have frequently made scholars literary and historians India, century twentieth early into terms Sanskrit. of English translation unnatural for like a like and of Urdutheinvolvedcleansing’ fromlanguage, an also ‘ethnic This language. natural bolster a artificially and to change, used was which abstruseness, deliberate led to This India. in elites —speaking by sidelined English being of idea the Hindi quite modern, to a response something and actually was Hindi idea of ‘sanskritized’ a fiction. The somein also, respects, was one.in ‘Sanskrit’ The idea of based being it therefore, but a‘national’ not easily language regional large avery was and ‘language’ epicentre, to morph commercial at the into a speakers and mass enough had that alanguage Bhojpuri. was then as such Hindi up of made dialects related it still is speaking: Hindi uniformly not actually was belt’ The regions. ‘Hindi those itself lingua franca the but by helped no it to had presence means establish, was British thelarger that space extended the ‘national’ It to fill had language. national truly a as a role it fulfilling ever against arguments were there many that sense the 4 with association and its language, power thesymbolic English The of and late nineteenth in politics about development the writing In of language in inherent to related limitations, also its was aroundHindi The debate

HINDI, HINDUISM AND CULTURAL EXCLUSIVISM CULTURAL AND HINDUISM HINDI, II. This was a constant refrain of M.K. Gandhi in the 1910s and 1920s, who associated the in associated 1910sandwho Gandhi 1920s, M.K. of refrain constant a was This 4 And just as appeals to the grassroots were often grassroots to the appeals as just And in all of all in - and V.N. and promoted often publicists and forms political editors of These Tivari. P.D. Malaviya, M.M. K.D. Paliwal, Tandon, like publicists included and leaders This derived from Hindi’s popularization. that nationalism of forms cultural towards leanings with some in career, cases and a political with often journalist/publicist, Urdu).(which was Hamdam displaced which of riot the and aresult there as started which (1930) 1924 the were Lucknow, published. In after riot we have Arti Aaj from here it that and was papers, for Hindi city a key was Sabha home Pracharini the of Nagri the Banaras, from Agra. daily) 1920, founded around all Sainik K.D. Paliwal’s and Adhars and two branches of language. the branches two the between conflict the defining ways, itself, but important in language the and aregion belt as of Hindi the importance political growing the up with catching sense this —in to expand started dailies and however,onwards weeklies Hindi the of From 384. acirculation ones of 1910s with 2050, the 8Hindi circulation and 1870 In governance. in were there for 15 example, language Urdu a with papers to 19 mid —P.D. particular Tandon, in leaders Babu Sampurnanand, and of two thinking and writings political the via and press the and symbolism religious via that look will at paper the of part final out. This widening mobilisation was 1930s, from the emerging ideaof the non-constitutional exclusivism as just cultural form of aspecific we see idiom too, of that Hindi However political the it via is (Gooptu cities and towns 2001). the in mobilisation of the lower and Gooptu castes work region, the of via Nandini idiom this of in politics popular urban about an talk 1999). (Orsini 3; Rajagopal ch Bihar and Pradesh Equally, we can Uttar Eastern Sabha movementKisan in the and Saraswati Sahajanand as such ofpolitics figures the mobilisation, via out about opening of forms peasant also was For this Orsini, India. in divide English/vernacular dualistic this alongside runs ofpolitics Hindi the argue, also Rajagopal A. and Orsini as sense, this ofIn politics. structures tional constitu outside idiom formal the used —an development vernacular of apopular state. Indian free imagined approach to their an shaped communities ‘culture’,and whole were to too, the tied institutions of such process how different arts the literature, of power, state shape as well future the as were concerned with movements language as identities. of Insofar collective kinds particular of asserting as a means building and organisation institution reinforced definition,which and involved projects of standardisation vernaculars Finally, promotion the of particular mobilisation. notions from western divorced deliberately of often secular was which mobilisation, presuppose political adifferent level of languages, or other regional Bengali, idiom, Urdu, of Hindi, areligious use too, so the via did Marathi, made Pratap, into1920s, the Abhyuday fortury example, (1913 from 1920), weekly, daily and V.N. Tivari’s These newspapers kindwere promoted of then,newspapers andThese supported by a specific Some key new publications were started from the early part of 20 the part early from the publications new wereSome started key In the early stages of journalism in the Indian vernaculars from the early early from the vernaculars Indian the in of journalism stages early the In the thepromotionabout which in was sense a also Hindi of Therewas th century, language use in the media clearly reflected the role each reflected of clearly media the in use century, language (Malaviya) in 1907; in (Malaviya) Vidyarthi’s Ganesh (1920) Jagaran, (1929), Jagaran, Hams and Bharat (1925 weekly, 1935 , Prabha, and and somewhat somewhat

Vartman, Vartman, Anand, Anand, th cen - -

REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 76; 2018, PP. 29-44 37 REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 76; 2018, PP. 29-44 38 cloth boycotts, especially during the early 1930s. early the during especially boycotts, cloth as such protest to to support events activities tie for anti-colonial of local occasion the used (Gould newspapers 2). ch these today, other respects, In Hiranyakashyup India in existed about of demon still Holi the terms in that talked Allahabad, in Abhudhaya the and paper this blood. of Both his splashes with would bureaucracy dye the —Gandhi edge of political given akind was symbolism of religious imagery of the Holi which in beginning at the of articles a series ran Sainik For Paliwal’s mobilization. example, aform of popular as movements, to events national local and festivals tied which nationalism cultural tion to Hindu culture and society: Indian society, he argued, had historically been been historically had society, he argued, Indian society: and tion to Hindu culture about rela nation in the ideas organicist were his to this Added Europe. western by long ancient India before known aphenomenon, believed, as Sampurnanand on ‘secularism’, take important generated an It also India. role in the of democracy including issues, political larger of range on a writing his informed This Purusha). (Virat notion the oversoul of universe and of the an traditions, Hindu religious cohesion and in were rooted, specifically, equality notionsVedantic ofthat social (Gould 2).was ch socialism, implicationshis The of characteristics Indian north distinct had philosophy interpretation of that an that it was although socialist, gress to 1930s mid early the in aCon known as was Sampurnanand Ministry. Provinces 1938 in and United the in Congress, appointed education was minister Banaras the 1930, April lecturer. In university and appointed ateacher of heas ‘dictator’ was worked career early his in and sect Radhaswami the of idea the joining toyed with and to yoga drawn He was Hindi. him on teaching insisted but father his speaking involved representation the of decline. Urdu and of decadence terms in it cases, both In rights. citizenship for full a framework as should seen be Hindi form of standardised of aparticular Tandon, which in about ways case the was this for of promotion nation. the In the the view allowed of Hindi of aHindu organacist use the that was this see, we will as of Sampurnanad, case behaviour. the In political of forms and rights of boundaries, kinds certain of expressing ameans became itself language the use thevernacular, of community. religious Through and modernity pre- with associated of poor was politics the the which in overall, society of Indian theabout colonial idea interestingly,organisation idiom. This, took peculiarly on a forms folk or a religious through via vernaculars be could reached commonThe man offorms mobilization. of vernacular society, efficacy presupposed the which Indian about—P.D. assumptions applied leaders certain Both Tandon Sampurnanand. and Pradesh in Uttar prominent relation to in two figures explore this of will paper the part most prominentdebate was —Thefinal The Pradesh. Unitedor Provinces Uttar thethefromwhereHindi regions andparticularly the period, in leaders specific ideology, mobilization/political by of exploring forms anti-colonial with of Hindi Babu Sampurnanand was from a kayastha family and would have Urdu and been family from a kayastha was Babu Sampurnanand promotionthe in dual We these processes morelook at might effectively III. SAMPURNANAND AND TANDON which was published was which published in Agra, published Agra, in - - like Maharashtra, Gujarat and Bengal. Gujarat and Maharashtra, like from other regions of speakers for sake the language, the in retention of Sanskrit thereandthe should pointbe a that and made Urdu, Hindi between differences too about qualitative the talked Sampurnand Sabha, Pracharini Nagri Kashi at the 1962: (Sampurnanand 88-92). 1938 language’ end the of At a national August as about Urdu, he found which to ‘unacceptable... be not and suitable to adopted be views own Sampurnanand’s in reflected was of amedium education. This as of Hindi much on promotion very the focused and aone-sided of history view organisations, province. Thescheme the scheme tendedto across to Muslim present,according the in Minister andEducation decided as he UP, to implement office in the Wardha 1939). (Sampurnanand groups more ‘confident’ was Hindu culture when that these not by influenced suggested He andChristianity. Islam like semitic by whenreligions influenced at its weakest tember 1938.tember Papers, Centre of South Asian Studies, Cambridge (hereafter SAS). (hereafter Cambridge Studies, Asian of South Centre Papers, April1945, of half Aprilfirst 1945 19 the forFrampton Report Report’, Fortnightly ‘Confidential was often channeled through the HSS. the through channeled often was below, see which webut will politics, combined as it aform of majoritarian with language, promotion the interest in anational akeen as of Hindi maintained also spin-offHindu with organisations. Tandon to associated be he came years, earlier these in Congress the in 1930s.radical and as a theseen although Throughout 1940s, of 1920s protests the Gandhian involved 1906, main in the in was and Committee Congress India All the at Allahabad 1900s.to the therepresentedof Hecity first back spanned 1950, ofin Patel, career Vallabhai but political backing the his with President as of Congress Nehru the to Jawaharlal challenge successful for his known thethe citizen. idea on of influences P.D.Indo-Persian cultural best Tandonwas Tandon Das rejection contemporary, the of it and leader entailed Purushottam But Congress for key on another culture. education and focused main, the in was, 161). (Jaffrelot institutions educational in of instruction language minority government for promotion the to allow Central from the of Urdu a instructions as only policy, cemented a Hindi— over-riding that policies of —level state a range 1954 between of 1960, UP and Minister Chief he helped As ence. to implement Independ after for Sampurnanand campaign Hindi focused and to amore direct to Urdu.the backdrop formed Minister of Education This the about attitude the more Jamiat-ul-Ulema— the generally as such others, promotion and of Sanskrit, thethe and schemeon up,Wardha specifically picking —some organisations lim activities for him, and it is here that the significance of this politics for the for politics idea of this of significance it the here for and is him, that activities The wider implications of Sampurnanand’s politics was seen when he was when seen was he was politics widerimplications The Sampurnanand’s of Sampurnanand’s promotion of a mono-linguistic culture in north India India north in promotion culture Sampurnanand’s of amono-linguistic 6 5 Tandon’s of other cultural into a range of ‘Hindu’ linked espousal unity among Urdutowards Mus led to a reaction Thepolicies Sampurnanand of

‘Appreciation of the Political Situation’ (hereafter APS) 11 1945; APS) May 25 1945. May (hereafter Situation’ Political ‘Appreciation of the 5 Sep Gandhi, to Sampurnanand Archives), Regional (Varanasi Papers Sampurnanand 5 6 - - -

REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 76; 2018, PP. 29-44 39 REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 76; 2018, PP. 29-44 40 to Gandhian non-violence. Gandhian to opposition about his vocal Tandon again of Saharanpur was district UP western the who argued for a ‘pure’ and more sanskritized Hindi. See Orsini 2009. Orsini See Hindi. more sanskritized and a‘pure’ for argued who the Sammelan in those group opposed Urdu. This from drawn vocabulary embraced which vernacular of a national idea the favoured who period, colonial late the to directly question the citizenship rights of Muslims, including an All-India Refu All-India an including of Muslims, rights citizenship question the to directly grief. worse would experience they not did doors open to of Muslims, the they Hinduism if that of and Hindus sins due Assembly, past to the was UP Tandon partition that argued the In revolved Hindu culture. around monolithic nation,of naturally this which thefailure for of illustration country thean China.”of Thepartition Tandonwas have done they in like civilization and culture totherefore, “own had Indian the Tandon’s in having, everyone in words, ‘one civilization’. and culture Muslims, theory.instead lay to country’s two-nation support The continuing be the salvation Dal and RSS, and contained speeches criticizing the Muslim League. Muslim the criticizing speeches contained and RSS, and Dal 19and of Mahabir representatives the May 1943, its alumni amongst entertained simultaneously. For Tandon’s example, of 31 the chairmanship espoused and promotion related, position were on of directly amajoritarian Hindi the and oppositionactive to out. plays between The Pakistan relationship citizen the Frampton Papers, SAS. 1945, of April 19 1945half SAS. April Papers, Frampton pro-Urdu policy at All-India Radio. pro-Urdu at All-India policy of the Sammelan, Provincial UP the criticism, via he supported Sampurnanand’s Jaipur, in Bhavan Sammelan Sahitya for aHindi 1945, funds collecting as well as the Socialists supported Urdu-inflected Hindustani, Urdu-inflected supported Socialists the If to India. loyalty Muslim of testing should ameans be of Hindi use that gested of spring 1948, the of in HSS the open meeting an Tandon At of citizenship. sug ideas into ethnicised exclusive and were developed most directly culture of Indian 1948). (“Samelan” should to go Pakistan not did to show want they loyalty, if that they old and policy same the following Union, were still Indian to they the were loyalty voicing their Muslims while that argued Das Govind Seth meeting, same that At different. was culture their that idea the encouraged had British the past the in that and language, national to the relation in Muslims attempt to satisfy an still was there Tandon that suggested had held HSS 1947, Bombaythe in December in by others attended among V.D. Savarkar, positioned thenation’s potentially difference At session open of denizens. linguistic which in concept developmentcitizenship of majoritarian exclusively defined, of an Tandon’s sought that shows support for organizations correspondence also 10 9 8 7 But it was shortly after independence that these totalizing representations totalizing these independence that after But shortly it was

‘Confidential Report’, Fortnightly Report for the first half of April1945, of half Aprilfirst 1945 19 the for Report Report’, Fortnightly ‘Confidential first the for 11Report APS 1945; May Report’, 25Fortnightly 1945. May ‘Confidential 21 1943. May 12 February; APS The promotion of Hindustani related to a section of the Hindi Sammelan Sahitya of section to a related Hindustani of promotion The 9 The the a forpromotion vehicle then, became Hindi of 8 In the same month at the Kangri Gurukul in in Gurukul month Kangri at same the the In , such as Tandon and Sampurnanand Tandon Sampurnanand as and , such 10 Tandon argued, they would would they Tandon argued, st HSS between 17 between HSS 7 In April April In in in - - Papers, File 301 National Archives of India (hereafter NIA). (hereafter of India Archives 301 File National Papers, our country.” our to loyal remain ever will poisonouswho the have breathed atmosphere of Pakistan doubt to “elements India the with that of returning accusations list up his summed Gidwani ordinance. the against agitation Jamiat-ul-Ulema the with charged and to Pakistan”, from India of crores of rupees to prevent a“drain failed had law property evacuee the that suggested loans, of refugee ofcomplained inadequacy P. of Choithram speech the at which Delhi, in Gidwani Conference Refugee India 301 NAI. 301 Worker, 1950, Tandon File Tandon. to Social Papers, 29 January Congress Ladhani, H. Gopaldas much open “appeasement” of Pakistan. who showed and too Muslim whose “culture” was aman as denouncing Nehru in no ire spared of Tandon’s dynamic key AIRA the and himself Nehru dispute with as a key supporter, with the Association seeking his help rent his in disputes, seeking supporter, a key Association as the with lobbied Prime Minister’s the compensation, directly Office. and seen Tandonwas foragitations property developed had outAssociation of refugee The P Gidwani. by headed Choitram organisation aSindhi-dominated (AIRA), Association gee poorly-provisioned Lajpatnagar Panchayat Settlement near Delhi which requested a a requested which poorly-provisioned Delhi Panchayat near Settlement Lajpatnagar Tandon’s seeking persons colonies of displaced other smaller the support, including of the All India refugee Conference, 29-30 July 1950, July 29-30 301 Tandon File NAI. Papers, Conference, refugee India All of the January 1950, 119, Tandon File Papers, January NAI. Pakistani authorities. Pakistani by the refugees on Sindhi issued demands of income tax recovery preventing the wanted help acquiring a shop in Kanpur in 1952; in ashop Kanpur in helpwanted acquiring from Sindh, who property, also one evacuee as P.R. such acquiring in Kishanchand, world correspondents Other tomajoritarian Tandon rights. of citizens’ help requested refugees”. or “deceived who had migrated, but properties retained who had government of Muslim servants provided lists The Panchayat Rajasthan. in properties mortgaging and from selling Muslims ing Jaipur, Camp, Dugapur in wrote to Tandon based Panchayat, for help prevent in 1950, In communities. of Muslim Hindu rights Refugee Sindhi the citizenship Tandon Papers, File 301Tandon File NAI. Papers, Conference, Delhi, 29-30 July 1950, July 29-30 134 NAI. Tandon File Delhi, Papers, Conference, the inadequacy of his call for properties. tenders for evacuee call of his inadequacy the and Sharma) (B.R. officer about arationing Corporation, Jhansi Refugee District the 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 this in state everyday the Tandon manoeuvre poor alike helped and rich the substantive on effect material a had The role these organisations of

Speech of Dr. Choithram P Gidwani, Chairman Reception Committee, All India Refugee Refugee India All Committee, Reception Chairman PGidwani, of Dr. Choithram Speech Choitram P Gidwani All India Refugee Association to Tandon, to 1952, July 23 Tandon Association Refugee India All PGidwani Choitram District Refugee Cooperative Society to B.R. Sharma, TRO cum R and R Officer, 9 ROfficer, Rand cum TRO Sharma, B.R. to Society Cooperative Refugee District From representatives of the Sindhi Hindu Refugee Panchayat, Jaipur, Durgapur Camp, Camp, Jaipur, Durgapur Panchayat, Refugee Hindu Sindhi of the From representatives Statement of the Displaced Income-tax payers’ association, New Delhi. Draft Resolutions Resolutions Draft Delhi. New association, payers’ Income-tax Displaced of the Statement P.R. Kishanchand to PDT, to 1952, 19 128 NAI. TandonP.R. December File Kishanchand Papers, All India Refugee Conference, 29-30 July 1950, General comments on the resolutions. resolutions. on the comments 1950, July 29-30 General Conference, Refugee India All 15 12 Indeed, his stance on refugees and Muslim properties was a was properties Muslim and on refugees stance his Indeed, 13 14 In 1950, In Tandon presided over All- the 16 or the letter of or letter complaint sent the by 17 This led to a host of This 11 and in in and -

REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 76; 2018, PP. 29-44 41 REVISTA CANARIA DE ESTUDIOS INGLESES, 76; 2018, PP. 29-44 42 migrant seeking help for his son who had been jailed as an RSS member. RSS an as help jailed son been for who had his seeking migrant one from aSindhi including missive on organisation, the ban the following service government in to reinstated be calling byTandon members of RSS the targeted was Papers, file 29,NAI. file Papers, against Muslim government servants in Delhi and Uttar Pradesh. Uttar and Delhi in government Muslim servants against ment men. of RSS treat to the Muslims apparent the “tolerance” compared letter shown to Pakistani training or work centre. training are littered with accounts of such alleged excesses. of alleged such accounts with littered are about complaints ‘Muslim’ papers brutality. His Tandon of partisan aforum became File 29,File NAI. 29, NAI. This letter described Hindu deaths near Wazirabad. near deaths Hindu described letter This 29, NAI. Tandon file Jammu), in Papers, Road, Old Hospital Samaj, of Arya roof the under shelter ent taking Crusade). (The Religious Passion of Josh-e-Jehad documentary 1952, Pakistani the March in India Film in against article anti-Muslim a strongly Patel, who of wrote Baburao voice acolumnist for likes the asympathetic even was described as homogenous or standardized in a way that distorted not wide only the distorted away that in homogenous as ordescribed standardized were nature, by their controversy. —based languages, Both community religious should have provoked explosion language interest in Urdu, in and this Hindi that spheres new ofrole public creating in debate. aspecific with India, north in particular in imbued questions Hindi toforms social of connection linguistic the and of forms symbolism, promoted:presses particular content the that forms of new linguistic the propagation, in but also for language medium the of providing terms in both to this, central was years interwar the in press more yet The urgent. appeared roleexpanding therapidly of of language issue the and more constituencies, and diverse larger mobilized politics offorms vernacular new, progressed, period Most the importantly, more patronage. as state popular and authority, community, political surrounding of building other institution issues range to awide connected language, putative thereby ‘national’ the and administration, and courts the of governance, should language promoted be principal the as nacular The verquestion which of of language. ahistory as Century of 20th the quarters 23 22 21 20 19 18 There was no necessary reason, given the very complex linguistic roots roots of complex linguistic thegiven very reason, no Therenecessary was third for second and politics the ofIt Indian possible is to ahistory write

For example, Statement of S S Bhasin, of district Campbellpur, 22 August 1947 (at August pres 22 Campbellpur, of district of SBhasin, Statement For example, Lajpatnagar Panchayat Statement, nd, Tandon Papers, File 301 Tandon File nd, NAI. Papers, Statement, Panchayat Lajpatnagar S. No 734, S.C. Sharma, Tundla, PDT to 1950,NAI. —24 July 28, Tandon file Sharma, Papers, S.C. No 734, S. L.H. Ajwani, Prof of English, Sind College, Karachi to PDT, to 21 1947, November Karachi College, Sind Tandon Prof of English, Ajwani, L.H. Baburao Patel to M.I. Quadri, 24 March 1952, Tandon file March 24 in Papers, 11,NAI. Quadri, M.I. to Patel Baburao ‘The responsible citizens of Ghaziabad’ to Tandon, September 21 1947,Ghaziabad’ of citizens Papers, Tandon responsible ‘The 21 Other correspondents to the leader sought support for complaints correspondents support sought leader for to Other the complaints 18 Supporting Hindu refugee organisations also meant that that meant also organisations Hindu refugee Supporting CONCLUSION 19 In extension of this patronage, patronage, of extension In this 23 22 Later, Tandon 20 Another Another - - - shaped ideas about the future Indian citizen. Indian about future the ideas shaped that of discussion parameters same very the inclusivism— versus about exclusivism adebate around movement to Hindi polarize the sense, came this In invaders. and it from foreign rulers distinguished that of life ways and practices set —a civilization the to aquest find with elements‘pure’ hand went in Indian forof Hindi hand standardization movementCongress thelinguistic in of The process itself. figures promoted populism, without of emergence of forms the new Hindi by a range andMuslims Hindus between onrelations effect an might nothave had differences these Butlife. social of modes different in were used ent languages of forms both Clearly, time. differ through but space, form also across and dialect in variations Revised paper accepted for publication: 2 February 2018 2February publication: for accepted paper Revised Reviews sent to author: 17 2017 author: to sent November Reviews -

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