Introduction Authors: Jana Kus Veenvliet, Maarten de Groot, Andreja Kavčič, Aleksander Marinšek, Nikica Ogris, Dušan Jurc, Tim Adriaens, Rachel Farrow, Elena Tricarico 1 Invasive alien

THE INVASION PROCESS - FROM INTRODUCTION TO INVASIVENESS The movement of and plants invasive alien species. A variety of target goes far back into the history of groups is being informed of the negative humankind. For centuries, we have environmental impacts of invasive alien transported useful species between species and are encouraged to handle countries and continents, which, as a them responsibly in order to prevent result of their origin, are called alien their spread into the environment. species. Many of these species are still Unfortunately, data show that the important food resources. However, preventive measures are insufficient and during recent decades we have become the number of alien species continues Phase 1: an introduction Phase 2: the species is Phase 3: the species is spreading increasingly aware of a downside to the to grow. Within Europe alone, they of a new species which is established in the new quickly and causing damage to movement of species. Some alien species annually cause several billions of euros deliberately or uninten- environment, it is reproducing native species and ecosystems, have managed to establish themselves of costs. Massive levels of international tionally introduced to an area and forming permanent sometimes also to the economy - in natural environments and thrive trade remain a continuous source of new outside of its native range. populations - it is established. the species is invasive. without any human assistance. Having introductions. no natural enemies and diseases, they are able to spread and cause damage to Once alien species are established and the environment and to the economy. start spreading, eradication is often not These species are termed invasive alien feasible. To mitigate their impacts, an species. early warning and rapid response For many years, invasive alien species (EWRR) system should be set in place. did not receive much attention. Data on This increases the likelihood that new their distribution were not systematically alien species are detected at the early collected and they were recorded more or stages of invasion and that measures can less sporadically as interesting findings. be taken to prevent that these species In many countries the spread of invasive form permanent or expanding popu- alien species continued unnoticed and lations, which may cause damage. no measures were taken to prevent their spread. a) b) KEY TERMS However, in recent years our attitude towards alien species has evolved rapidly. Alien species: any living organism We have become aware of their presence which has been deliberately or and of their impacts on the environment unintentionally introduced to an area and the economy (figure 1). At the same outside of its native range which it time, it has become clear that, for the could not reach without the help of effective management of alien species, we humans. should pay more attention on preventing their arrival and spread. Various legal Invasive alien species: an alien instruments are now in place to prevent species that threatens ecosystems, introductions, for example a ban on the habitats and species. Many also have import and possession of some invasive negative impacts on the economy and human health. alien species. There is also complex plant c) and health legislation, imposing d) checks of consignments at borders with Native species: a species living within Figure 1. Invasive alien species have various impacts on forests: a) tree-of-heaven the aim of preventing the unintentional its (past or current) native range, even (Ailanthus altissima) overgrows forest margins, b) the fungal disease ash dieback introduction of alien species with if it is present there only sporadically. (Hymenoscyphus fraxineus) causes dieback of ash trees, c) Asian longhorn beetle goods. There are a growing number (Anoplophora glabripennis) bores tunnels in wood, d) bark stripped by grey squirrel of awareness-rasing campaigns on (Sciurus carolinensis).

2 3 Early warning and rapid response 2. Identification of alien species is TIPS ON EARLY DETECTION sometimes not straightforward because A DIAGRAM OF THE EARLY WARNING they may be new and unknown to the AND RAPID RESPONSE SYSTEM An "early warning and rapid response" Alien species can appear anywhere, observer. They are often not described (EWRR) system consists of several but because of their pathways and in local identification guides. This field activities: ecological characteristics, we should guide was developed to specifically especially pay attention: 1. Early warning can include active enable identification of alien species. searching for new alien species. This • in areas, where primary vegetation These are compared with the most is challenging, because it may not be has been removed and soil is similar other alien and/or native species. Discovery of an alien species possible to predict which new species partially exposed (industrial areas, 3. Reporting of data: EWRR systems appear, and where. In initial stages, construction sites, field margins); should enable fast and efficient reporting there are sometimes only few individuals • in forest clearings, especially where of data which are then collected in a present. This makes them difficult to the soil has been damaged by central system. This is usually done via detect. It is therefore imperative to set forestry machinery; web and mobile based applications. In priorities. We should pay extra attention some of these applications, data are to invasive species which are already • along roadsides and railroad verified by experts. This greatly improves spreading and which are likely to increase embankments; the reliability of data. their distribution. Species such as these • in the surroundings of airports and Identifying the species 4. Risk assessment: After the discovery may be placed on alert lists. harbours; of a new alien species, experts should In the framework of the LIFE ARTEMIS • in the vicinity of tree nurseries, perform a risk assessment, based on project, we compiled an alert list for botanical gardens, cemeteries and the available scientific literature and alien species in forests, which also in city parks, consultation with experts from other served as a basis for this guide. For this • on wasteland, disused quarries and countries. In this process, it is assessed app English edition, we have added several in their surroundings, how likely a species is to become invasive species which are relevant for European in an area and which negative impacts it temperate forests. Because this guide is • along rivers and streams, especially Reporting the finding through an may have. appropriate channel meant as a tool for early detection, many where banks are not entirely widespread invasive alien species are not vegetated. 5. Rapid response: When a species is included. discovered in the early stages of invasion We may suspect that an observed and the results of the risk assessment Priority areas to search for invasive species is alien to an area when we: provide evidence that the species poses alien species may be places where serious threat to the environment or the invasive alien species are likely to appear • suddenly see large numbers (clumps economy, eradication measures are set (see the box on the right), areas with of plants, groups of animals) that we out. If the species is already established Data verified by experts suitable conditions for certain species, did not notice before, and eradication is no longer feasible, mea- and protected areas where we aim to sures to control the species and prevent • find a species in the garden which safeguard biodiversity. These activities further spread should be determined. we did not plant; may be carried out by experts carrying When determining these measures, it is out phytosanitary measures, or who are • see a plant in nature, which we important that they are accepted by the in charge of biodiversity monitoring and know as an ornamental plant and is public, and are ethical and economically forest management. not native to the country; and politically acceptable. This requires In addition to this, for effective EWRR it is • notice the dieback of trees (dying efficient communication with landowners Conducting a risk assessment very important to have a broad network of leaves, necrosis, dieback of and key target groups as well as inform- of observers, who can provide random branches, cracks on the trunk and ing the public. observations from a wide area. Anyone branches, thickened calluses on interested can keep an eye on their bark); one tree species or several surroundings and learn to recognise may be affected; alien species. With the rise of new • observe mammals (especially technologies, it is now easy to report data squirrels) which are tame and do Implementing over mobile applications. This has given rapid response measures not run away. rise to many citizen-science initiatives. For an overview see pages 6–8.

4 5 SELECTED TOOLS FOR RECORDING ALIEN SPECIES Finvasive LIFE-project: laji.fi/vihko/MHL.53(selection of IAS) Natural Resources Institute Finland: lomakkeet.luke.fi/vieraslaji (invasive mammals) In recent years, many projects have emerged in Europe which use a citizen science approach towards collecting data on invasive alien species (IAS). Many FRANCE online portals and smartphone applications now exist to report observations, Faune France: www.faune-france.org (all species) at different geographical scales and with various taxonomic scopes. Observers EEE-EIF: eee.mnhn.fr (selection of IAS) have to carefully choose the tools they use to submit records, in order to Les écureuils en France: ecureuils.mnhn.fr/enquete-nationale (alien squirrels) maximize usefulness of their data for invasion research or management. INPN frelon asiatique: frelonasiatique.mnhn.fr (Asian hornet) AGIIR: ephytia.inra.fr/fr/P/128/Agiir (pest insects) The list below presents a selection of citizen science portals, mobile applications Observatoire de la Coccinelle asiatique en France: vinc.ternois.pagesperso-orange.fr/ and projects related to the invasive species and forest pests mentioned in this cote_nature/Harmonia_axyridis/ (harlequin ladybird) field guide. This selection only refers to live systems which allow the submission of records. The list was compiled by the AlienCSI COST action, see: https://alien- GERMANY csi.eu/ As this overview is probably not exhaustive, additional relevant recording KORINA: www.korina.info (alien plants) portals can be reported to [email protected]. Ambrosia Scout: lfu.brandenburg.de/info/ambrosia_scout (common ragweed) Berliner Aktionsprogramm gegen Ambrosia: ambrosia.met.fu-berlin.de/ambrosia/index. php (common ragweed) INTERNATIONAL DDA Monitoring: www.ornitho.de () iNaturalist: www.inaturalist.org (all species) Naturgucker: www.naturgucker.de (all species) e-Bird: www.ebird.org (all bird species) Artenfinder: artenfinder.rlp.de(all species) Observation.org: observation.org (all species) Deutschlandflora: deutschlandflora.de/dflor (plants) Flora Incognita: floraincognita.com (plants) EUROPE Invasive alien species Europe: https://easin.jrc.ec.europa.eu/easin/NewsAndEvents/ ICELAND DetailNews/391a026f-d9f5-4fce-8789-2028ea73f86d (species from the IAS Regulation) Reykjavik Bioblitz: www.reykjavikbioblitz.is (all species) iNaturalist – Invasive Alien Species of Union Concern: https://www.inaturalist.org/ projects/invasive-alien-species-of-union-concern IRELAND WeObserve: www.weobserve.eu (all species, environmental monitoring) National Biodiversity Data Centre: www.biodiversityireland.ie (all species) Ornitho.eus: www.ornitho.eus (birds) iSpot share nature: www.ispotnature.org (all species) European Ladybirds: european-ladybirds.brc.ac.uk (invasive harlequin ladybird) Report Invasive Plants in Limerick: invasivespecies.limerick.ie (selected invasive plants)

REGIONAL ITALY DanubeForestHealth: danubeforesthealth.eu (Forest pests and pathogens; Countries: LIFE STOPVESPA: www.vespavelutina.eu/en-us/what-can-you-do/Report-your-observation Austria, Croatia, Hungary, Serbia, Slovenia) (Asian hornet) LIFE EC-SQUARE: www.rossoscoiattolo.eu/en/what-can-i-do-project (alien squirrels) BELGIUM Life U-Savereds: usavereds.eu/it_IT/cosa-puoi-fare-per-il-progetto/ (native and alien Waarnemingen.be/exoten: waarnemingen.be/invasive_alert_view.php (a selection of squirrels) (potential) IAS) Life Csmon: www.csmon-life.eu/pagina/segnala/all (all species) Vespawatch: www.vespawatch.be (Asian hornet) LIFE ASAP: lifeasap.eu/index.php/it/component/content/article/2-uncategorised/201- That's Invasive: www.rinse-europe.eu/resources/smartphone-apps/ (selection of IAS) segnalazioni (selected alien species) Portail Biodiversité Wallonie Espèces Invasives: biodiversite.wallonie.be/fr/invasives. Bugmap: meteo.fmach.it/meteo/bugMap.php (brown marmorated stink bug) html?IDC=5632 (selection of IAS) LIFE SAMFIX: www.lifesamfix.eu/it/progetto/ (black coffee borer, Xylosandrus compactus) DEMNA OFFH: observatoire.biodiversite.wallonie.be/encodage/ (all species) Fitodetective App Regione Lombardia: play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=net. studiocm.android.ersafAlieni&hl=it&rdid=net.studiocm.android.ersafAlieni (selected alien CZECH REPUBLIC plant pests) Biolib.cz: www.biolib.cz/en/speciesmappings (all species) Plant Medicine Portal: eagri.cz/public/app/srs_pub/fytoportal/public/?k=0#rlp|met:domu| LUXEMBURG kap1:start|kap:start (Monitoring of Pests including invasive species) Musée national d'histoire naturelle Luxembourg: data.mnhn.lu/en/enter-single-record (election of IAS) ESTONIA iNaturalist - neobiota project: www.inaturalist.org/projects/neobiota-luxembourg Nature observations database (Loodusvaatluste andmebaas, LVA): (selection of IAS) lva.keskkonnainfo.ee (all species) NETHERLANDS FINLAND Waarneming.nl: waarneming.nl (reporting portal, all species) Finnish Biodiversity Information Facility: laji.fi/en (all species) Telmee.nl: www.telmee.nl (reporting portal, all species)

6 7 FLORON: www.floron.nl/meedoen/nova (plants, fungi and lichens) How to use this guide snApp de exoot: snappdeexoot.nl (selection of invasive species) In this guide, we describe selected similar alien and/or native species. Several NORWAY Norwegian Biodiversity Information Centre: artsdatabanken.no (all species) alien plants, fungi, insects, birds and symbols are used throughout the guide Artsobservasjoner: www.artsobservasjoner.no (all species) mammals. Plant species are subdivided ,which are explained below and on the Artsjakten: www.sabima.no/kartleggingsapp (selection of common species) into trees, shrubs, climbing plants and following pages. herbaceous plants. Within these broad POLAND categories, species follow the taxonomic  Chapter labels: Ornitho.pl: www.ornitho.pl (birds) order of plant families. Fungi are divided Birdwatching.pl: www.birdwatching.pl (birds) to subgroups on basis of the damage Barszcz.edu.pl: barszcz.edu.pl (Sosnowsky's hogweed) which they cause: the diseases of roots and trunk, diseases of bark, cankers, wilt, Introduction Fungi PORTUGAL diseases of shoots and branches, and Plantas Invasoras: invasoras.pt (invasive plants) diseases of leaves and needles. Insects, Trees Insects SLOVENIA birds and mammals are arranged in the Invazivke: www.invazivke.si (selected IAS) taxonomic order of families. Birds and Bioportal: www.bioportal.si/moj_bp.php (all species) Shrubs mammals Each species is presented on a page with SPAIN AND CATALONIA one to three photographs, which show Natusfera: natusfera.gbif.es (all species) their most distinguishing characters. For Climbing plants Index Observado: spain.observation.org/index_map.php some species, drawings on the facing IASTracker: play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.ic5team.iastracker&gl=ES (selection pages depict characters which aid in Herbaceous plants of IAS) distinguishing them from the most Vespapp: vespapp.uib.es (Asian hornet) Alerta Forestal: www.alertaforestal.com (selected IAS) Exoticas Murcia: play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=es.carm.medioambiente. exoticasmurcia&hl=en (selected IAS) Ornitho.cat: www.ornitho.cat (birds)    SWEDEN Naturforskaren: dina-web.net/naturalist (all species) Artportalen: www.artportalen.se (all species) Skosskada: www.slu.se/centrumbildningar-och-projekt/skogsskada (insects and fungi)

SWITZERLAND Centre Suisse de Cartographie de la Faune (CSCF): www.cscf.ch (all animal species) Info Flora: www.infoflora.ch/fr/neophytes.html (alien plants) 

UNITED KINGDOM iRecord: www.brc.ac.uk/irecord (all species)  iSpot: www.ispotnature.org (all species) Recording Invasive Species Counts (RISC): www.nonnativespecies.org/recording (selected  IAS) Asian Hornet Watch: play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=uk.ac.ceh.hornets&hl=en_GB  (Asian hornet) That’s Invasive!: www.rinse-europe.eu/smartphone-apps (selected IAS) Plant Tracker: planttracker.naturelocator.org (plants)  iRecord Ladybirds: www.ladybird-survey.org/recording.aspx (harlequin ladybird) AshTag: livingashproject.org.uk (ash dieback tolerant trees)  Tree Alert: www.forestresearch.gov.uk/tools-and-resources/tree-alert (selected pests)  Report squirrels: www.northernredsquirrels.org.uk/report-sightings (squirrels) Plant Alert: plantalert.org (invasive plants in gardens)

8 9  English name and scientific name  Arrows on the drawings: the most of the species and the authorship of the important identification characters are Alien species in this guide scientific name. marked with arrows. Full-lined arrows point to characters which are Identification throughout the year: This guide has primarily been developed same time commonly found in forests or depicted on the drawings, while arrows In the most intensely-coloured months as a tool within a system of early warning along forest edges. In the guide's English with dotted line point to characters the species is easily detectable (e.g. due and rapid response (EWRR) for Slovenian edition, additional species are included, which are only visible on the underside. to flowering of plants or flying of insects). forests. Most species which we present which are beginning to spread within Drawings are approximately in ratio Months are coloured more pale when the have been included in the alert list of European temperate forests. However, between the species on the same page, species is less obvious, but still detect- potentially invasive alien species in many widespread invasive alien species but vary between pages. able. In uncoloured months, the species Slovenian forest 1. The guide also includes are not included, because we did not cannot be detected.  Description: a brief description of the some alien species which in Slovenia want to lose focus on the species from are invasive and widespread and at the the Alert List.  Species listed in the EU legislation species with key identification characters and by the EPPO: Some of the species in is provided. In descriptions of insects the guide are included in legal or advisory and fungi also characteristic damage Table 1: Overview of alien plants described in the guide. See page 10 for an explanation documents of the European Plant Pro- they cause is described. There is a short of the used symbols. tection Organisation (EPPO). Symbols description of habitat or host plants. The used at the species descriptions and in status of the species provides a brief tables 1–4 have the following meaning: summary of the status of the species in English name Scientific name EU law EPPO Pages temperate European forests. Under the in the guide invasive alien species of Union title similar species we describe the Trees concern, listed on the European most similar native or alien species with Commission's implementing regulations. which the alien species in question could Northern red oak Quercus rubra 24–25 Rules of the EU Regulation 1143/2014 be confused. apply. Hackberry Celtis occidentalis 26-27  Brief facts: down the side of the species covered by the EU Plant species descriptions, we provide the Broussonetia Paper mulberry 28–29 Health legislation. taxonomic group to which the species papyrifera belongs, its native range and the main EPPO List of pests recommended pathways of introduction. Black cherry Prunus serotina 30–31 for regulation as quarantine pests (A1 pests are absent from the EPPO region,  Maps of currently known distribution Staghorn sumac Rhus typhina 32–33 A2 pests are locally present in the EPPO of species are provided in each species region). account. The countries where the species has already been recorded are coloured Tree-of-heaven Ailanthus altissima 34–35 EPPO Alert List. dark grey. Maps were compiled on the basis of several European databases: Boxelder Acer negundo 36–37 EPPO List of invasive alien plants. EASIN, CABI, DAISIE, EPPO, Invazivke. Koelreuteria si, iNaturalist, Observation.org. In some Golden rain tree 38–39 EPPO Observation List of invasive cases the Flora Croatica Database, paniculata alien plants. Artdatabanken.se and the Online Atlas of the British and Irish flora were checked. White ash Fraxinus americana 40–41  Size: the height of entire plants is In these databases it is not possible marked with the symbol on the left to distinguish between planted plants Royal paulownia Paulownia tomentosa 42–43 pages. The leaf size is indicated after the now established, or self-sustaining symbol on the right pages.↥ populations. Some data may refer to plants in gardens and parks and not always On the right pages, after the names to escaped populations. This distinction ↔ AS of species, there is a symbol for the is not relevant for invertebrates. In the 1 de Groot, M., L. Kutnar, D. Jurc, N. Ogris, A. Kavčič, A. Marinšek, J. Kus Veenvliet, A. Verlič. 2017. species which are alien to Europe and case of mammals, only records in the Opozorilni seznam potencialno invazivnih tujerodnih vrst v slovenskih gozdovih in možne poti vnosa symbol ES for the species which are wild are considered and maps show only teh vrst. [The alert list of potentially invasive alien species in Slovenian forests and possible pathways of native to Europe. Species which are the countries where the species has not their introduction]. Novice iz varstva gozdov št. 10: 8–15. marked with both symbols are native in yet been eradicated. parts of Europe but alien in others. 10 11 English name Scientific name EU law EPPO Pages English name Scientific name EU law EPPO Pages in the guide in the guide Bushes Russian vine Fallopia baldschuanica 92–93 Japanese barberry Berberis thunbergii 46–47 Japanese hop Humulus scandens 94–95 Oregon grape Berberis aquifolium 48–49 Pueraria montana var. Kudzu 96–97 Golden currant Ribes aureum 50–51 lobata

Chinese wisteria Wisteria sinensis 98–99 Cherry laurel Prunus laurocerasus 52–53

Frost vine Vitis vulpina 100–101 Wine raspberry Rubus phoenicolasius 54–55

Japanese spiraea Spiraea japonica 56–57 Bur cucumber Sicyos angulatus 102–103

Physocarpus Japanese Common ninebark 58–59 Lonicera japonica 104–105 opulifolius honeysuckle

Multiflora rose Rosa multiflora 60–61 Cape ivy Delairea odorata 106–107

Juneberry Amelanchier lamarckii 62–63 Cruel plant Araujia sericifera 108

Purple chokeberry Aronia x prunifolia 64–65 Herbaceous plants

Cotoneaster Wall cotoneaster 66–67 Asiatic dayflower Commelina communis 110–111 horizontalis American skunk Lysichiton americanus 112–113 False indigo Amorpha fruticosa 68–69 cabbage

Thorny olive Elaeagnus angustifolia 70–71 American pokeweed Phytolacca americana 114–115 Himalayan Persicaria wallichii 116–117 Red osier dogwood Cornus sericea 72–73 knotweed

Fuzzy deutzia Deutzia scabra 74–75 Giant knotweed Fallopia sachalinensis 118–119

Amur honeysuckle Lonicera maackii 76–77 Garden lupine Lupinus polyphyllus 120–121

Symphoriocarpos Snowberry 78–79 albus Himalayan balsam Impatiens glandulifera 122–123

Chinese privet Ligustrum lucidum 80–81 Small balsam Impatiens parviflora 124–125

Lycium barbarum North American Wolfberry, goji beery 82–83 Symphyotrichum spp. 126–127 asters

Butterfly bush Buddleja davidii 84–85 Annual fleabane Erigeron annuus 128–129

Running bamboos Phylostachys spp. 86–87 Candelabra thistle Cirsium candelabrum 130–131

Climbing plants Heracleum Giant hogweed 132–134 mantegazzianum Five-leaf akebia Akebia quinata 90–91

12 13 Table 2: Overview of alien fungi and bacteria described in the guide Table 3: Overview of alien insects described in the guide

English name Scientific name EU law EPPO Pages English name Scientific name EU law EPPO Pages in the guide in the guide Asian ambrosia Xylosandrus Phytophthoras Phytophthora spp. 136 162 beetle crassiusculus

Heterobasidion root Heterobasidion Anoplophora 137 Asian longhorn beetle 163 disease irregulare glabripennis

Cryphonectria Citrus longhorn Chestnut blight 138 Anoplophora chinensis 164–165 parasitica beetle Charcoal disease of Biscogniauxia 139 oak mediterranea Red-necked longicorn Aromia bungii 166–167

Thousand cankers Japanese cedar Geosmithia morbida 140 Callidiellum rufipenne 168 disease longhorn beetle Sooty bark disease Cryptostroma Two-lined chestnut 141 Agrilus bilineatus 169 corticale borer Eutypella canker of Eutypella parasitica 142–143 maple Emerald ash borer Agrilus planipennis 170–171

Pitch canker of pine Fusarium circinatum 144 Japanese beetle Popillia japonica 172–173

Western conifer Leptoglossus Atropellis canker Atropellis pinicola 145 174–175 seedbug occidentalis White pine blister rust Brown marmorated Cronartium ribicola 146 Halyomorpha halys 176–177 stinkbug Dutch elm disease Ophiostoma novo- Citrus flatid 147 Metcalfa pruinosa 178 ulmi leafhopper Canker stain of plane Silver fir woolly Dreyfusia Ceratocystis platani 148–149 179 adelgid nordmannianae Hymenoscyphus Ash dieback 150–151 Sycamore lace bug Corythucha ciliata 180 fraxineus Neonectria Canker of balsam fir 152 Oak lace bug Corythucha arcuata 181 neomacrospora Sirococcus shoot Oriental chestnut gall Sirococcus tsugae 153 Dryocosmus kuriphilus 182 blight wasp Plane-tree powdery Erysiphe platani 154 Zigzag elm sawfly Aproceros leucopoda 183 mildew Dothistroma Dothiostoma blight 155 Asian hornet Vespa velutina 184–185 septosporum

Brown-spot needle Horse-chestnut Lecanosticta acicola 156 Cameraria ohridella 186 blight leafminer Melampsoridium Lime leafminer Phyllonorycter issikii 187 Alder rust 157 hiratsukanum Japanese silkmoth Antheraea yamamai 188–189 Blueberry leaf rust Thekopsora minima 158 Box tree moth Cydalima perspectalis 190 Pierce's disease of Xylella fastidiosa 159 grapevines

14 15 Table 4: Overview of alien birds and mammals described in the guide Terminology used in the guide

English name Scientific name EU law EPPO Pages in the guide 1. Botanical terms Birds

Red-billed leiothrix Leiothrix lutea 192–193 In the descriptions of plants, some compound when leaflets radiate from botanical terms are used which need the top of the petiole with no apparent Vinous-throated Sinosuthora webbiana 194–195 to be understood in order to properly rachis. Leaves are pinnately compound interpret identification characters. leaflets are attached laterally along a Mammals Identification is most often carried rachis (figure 4). Pinnately compound out on the basis of leaves (complexity, leaves which end in a single top-leaflet Siberian chipmunk Eutamias sibiricus 196–197 shape, arrangement), flowers, clusters of are called odd-pinnate; when they end flowers and fruits. without a top-leaf or with a tendril, they Grey squirrel Sciurus carolinensis 198 are called paripinnate.

American red 1.1 Basic leaf terminology Tamiosciurus hudsonicus 199 squirrel

Pallas's squirrel Callosciurus erythraeus 200 leaf apex simple leaf leaf margin Ring-tailed coati Nasua nasua 201 sinus

Raccoon Procyon lotor 202 veins palmately lobed leaf Raccoon dog Nyctereutes procyonoides 203

lamina or Reeves's muntjac Muntiacus reevesi 204–205 leaf blade

lobe pinnately leaf lobed leaf base

petiole palmately Figure 3. Leaf terminology compound leaf

1.2 Leaf complexity

Leaves may be simple or compound. Simple leaves have one leaf blade which pinnately can be entire or it can be divided into compound leaf lobes. Such a single leaf blade is shed as an entire unit in autumn. Compound Figure 4. Various types of leaves leaves consist of leaflets, which can sometimes be shed separately according to leaf complexity in autumn. Leaves are palmately

16 17 1.3 Leaf shapes 1.6 Basic flower terminology

Leaves (or leaflets in compound leaves) entire leaf The main flower parts are the pedicel and can have various leaf-blade shapes. receptacle, perianth, made of petals and Some of the main types which appear in sepals, stamens and carpels, which, in this guide are shown in figure 5. Leaves angiosperms, is modified into a pistil. The may have intermediate shapes, for ex- serrulate leaf most noticeable part of the flower is the ample then may be lanceolate-ovate. perianth. This consists of sepals, which Leaves on the same plant may vary are often green, but can also have other in shape and therefore several leaves alternate spiralling colours. Their size, shape and placement should be checked when making an iden- (spreading or appressed) is often an tification. serrated leaf important identification character. Petals stand out even more as they are often brightly coloured and, compared to the other parts of the flower, rather large. crenate leaf Sepals or petals can be separate from lanceolate leaf each other or fused to form differently shaped flowers (figure 8).

opposite opposite-decussate 1.7 Flower arrangement elliptic leaf spinose leaf Plants can have several flowers along a stem. When these are placed on the same floral axis, we call then an inflorescence (figure 9). wavy leaf ovate leaf

Figure 6. Types of leaves according whorled to the leaf-margin shape Figure 7. The arrangement of leaves spatulate leaf on a stem or branch 1.5 Leaf arrangement

Leaves are arranged in a particular order along a stem. Leaves are said to pistil stamen cordate leaf be "alternate" when there is a single leaf raceme spike capitulum spadix at each node and the leaves are placed alternating on the left and right side of Figure 5. Types of leaves according a branch. "Spiralling" leaves are placed to the leaf-blade shape as if they follow an invisible helix around the branch. Leaves are "opposite" when pairs of leaves are attached at each node, opposite to each other. When a petals 1.4 Leaf-margin shapes pair of leaves is perpendicular to the perianth pair before and after, the arrangement sepals corymb flat umbel compound Leaves can have various margin-shapes. is called "opposite-decussate". The leaf pedicel umbel In this guide leaves and leaflets are de- arrangement is "whorled" when there scribed as having entire, serrulate, ser- are more than two leaves attached at Figure 9. Types of inflorescence rated, crenate, spinose or wavy margins, each node (figure 7). arrangement see figure 6. Figure 8. Flower terminology

18 19 1.8 Glossary of the most relevant botanical terms 2. Glossary of fungi terminology

Achene: dry, one-seeded fruit developing Pappus: a modified calyx, composed of Apothecium: a fruiting body of sac Macrosporangium: mushroom, a large from the inferior ovary, which does not scales, bristles, or feather-like hairs. fungi (Ascomycota) which is cup or disc reproductive organ of fungi, larger than open to release the seed. Typical for the shaped, typically with a stalk in which 2 mm. This term is used for macromycetes. aster family. Rhizome: a modified stem which grows asci and ascospores are formed. The structure carrying macrosporangium underground. is often made of stipe and pileus. Capitulum: type of inflorescence made Canker: a dead part of bark which is bent of disc florets, ray florets and involucral Rosette: vegetative part of shoot with or cracked; dying of parts of the cambium Microsporangium: a small reproductive bracts (modified leaves which cover the short internodes, giving the appearance or rhytidome; chronic disease caused by organ of fungi, up to 2 mm in size. This outer side of the inflorescense). that leaves are arranged in whorls. It dome fungi or bacteria. The tree attempts term is used for microscopic fungi, for e.g. can be placed at the ground (e.g. in the to heal the wound by forming a callus, pycnidium, perithecium, apothecium). Capsule: a dry fruit which develops daisy (Bellis perennis)) or higher on a thus creating a typical thickening of the from a compound ovary, splitting open stem (e.g. in the wood spurge (Euphorbia bark. A canker may eventually close, but Necrosis: death of cells or living tissue. in sutures or seeds fall out through amygdaloides)). more often a canker wound stays partly openings. Parasite: an organism which develops Ruderal site: a secondary habitat, created open with a sunken centre and a larger and feeds on another living organism. Corymb: type of inflorescence with the by human activity, e.g. waste places, or smaller margin of thickened callus. flowers growing in such a fashion that the roadsides, rail-road embankments, Perithecium: a spherical or flask- Disease: any type of metabolic shaped sexual fruiting body of sac fungi outermost are borne on longer pedicels abandoned fields. disturbance and of anatomical or than the inner, bringing all flowers up to a (Ascomycetes) with a thicker layered wall Runner (or stolon); horizontal stem histological structure, which appears due and an with an apical pore (ostiole). common level. At the first glance corymb to harmful biotic or abiotic factors and may resemble an umbel, however in this which grows on at the soil surface (example: strawberry). weakens the plant, when the disturbance Saprobe or saprotroph: and organism type of inflorescence all pedicels spread is negatively affecting the ideal or which feeds on organic matter of dead from a common point. Variety: an imprecisely defined taxo- economic value (use) of the plant. plants or animals. Cup (or cupule): a cup-shaped capsule, nomical category ranking below the sub- species but above the form. Its is used Endophyte: fungi that live within a plant Spore: a reproductive cell of a fungus. covered with scale leaves or spines, which without causing apparent disease. In is formed from the enlarged receptacle to denote a group of individuals within Virulence: the ability of a parasite to sympatric populations of the same certain conditions they can become and is partially or entirely enclosing one pathogens and damage the plant's cause an infection. ore more fruits. species which are differing in certain characteristics from other individuals. tissue. Wood decay: the process of degrading Habitus: characteristic form in which a Hypertrophy: excessive cell growth of and decaying wood which is caused by given species of plant grows. Stipule: differently shaped, usually wood-decay fungi. paired appendage of the petiole at the or enlargement and thickening of cells of Infructescence: an organ of some base of the leaf. It may be present only in tissues. Wound: rubbed, removed or thorn outer angiosperms developing after fertilisation the young leaves or permanently, rarely Hypha (pl. hyphae): a filamentous chain tissue, so that the inner live tissue is of flowers which are borne in clusters similar to a small leaf or modified into a of cells, fusing into a mycelium exposed. and the axis is fused with the fruits into spine. one unit which are at maturity dispersed Hypovirulence: a reduced ability of a as a whole. Tendril: a simple or branched thread-like pathogen to cause infection. organ, modified from a leaf or a stem, Leaf rachis: the main axis or stem of a used by climbing plants for support and Infection: the process which lasts from compound leaf. attachment. the germination of a disease-causing spore and entry into host plant until the Lenticel: a porous tissue on the bark establishment of a parasitic relationship where air is entering into the plant. with the host. This is the moment when Nutlet: fruit with one seed, similar to a fungi cease to use their reserves and nut. It is formed from a superior ovary start absorbing nutrients from the host and does not open at maturity. plant.

Ovary: the lower part of the pistil that Mycelial fan: flattened, fanlike array of encloses the ovules. fungal hyphae. Mycelium: a vegetative part of a fungus consisting of hyphae.

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